KNOWL

EDGEANDWI
SDOM
NOT
ES

1. Noc
orr
ela
tiv
einc
rea
sei
nwi
sdoma
sinoura
ge

2. S
eve
ral
fac
tor
sforwi
sdom

3. As
ens
eofpr
opor
ti
on

4. Pur
sui
tofk
nowl
edg
ewi
thwi
sdom

5. Wi
sdomnotne
ces
sar
il
ypr
ese
nti
nspe
cia
li
st
s

6. E
sse
nceofwi
sdom:
Ema
nci
pat
ionf
romt
hes
ens
e

7. Gr
adua
linc
rea
seofwi
sdom

8. Nopos
sibi
l
ityofc
ompl
etei
mpa
rti
al
it
y

9. Cont
inua
lappr
oac
htowa
rdsi
mpa
rti
al
it
y:Gr
owt
hinwi
sdom

10.T
eac
hingofwi
sdomwi
thmor
ali
nst
ruc
ti
ons

11.Nog
oodr
esul
tsofha
tre
dandna
rrowmi
nde
dne
ssi
nthec
our
seofg
ivi
ngk
nowl
edg
e

12.Bi
grol
eofmor
alsi
nknowl
edg
ewi
thwi
sdom

13.Be
stt
echni
ci
ansv
s.g
oodc
it
iz
ens

Not
e:Don’
twr
it
eful
lse
nte
nce
,i.
e.S
+Ve
rb+
Oinnot
ema
king

1.
Wha
tdoy
oume
anbyas
ens
eofpr
opor
ti
on?

Asenseofpropor
ti
onmeansthecapa
cit
ytoconside
rall
theimport
antf
act
orsequal
l
yinaprobl
ema nd
t
og i
vedueimportanc
etoeac
h.Forexampl
e, s
upposesome onei
senga
gedinr
e s
earc
hins
cient
if
ic
medic
ine,buthehasnot
imetoconsi
deri
tsouts
ideeff
ect.

Asar es
ultofther es
earch,hesucc
eedsinlowe ri
ngtheinfa
ntde at
hratee verywhereintheworld.But
i
tsindi
recteffecti
sthatitl
owe r
sthestandardoflif
einthemos tpopuiouspa rtoft
hewor l
d.Another
exampleisthatsome onestudi
esthecompos i
tionoftheatoma ndinci
de ntal
lyplac
esitinthehandsof
theins
ane .
T hesetwoe xample
sc l
ear
lyshowt hatknowledgeisharmfuluntilandunlessi
tiscombined
withwisdom. Andtoincreasewis
domones houldbefull
ypreparedtot r
e a
ta l
l t
hefac
torsofan
occurr
enceinav e
rybalancedway.Onlythenhei ssai
dtoha v
eas enseofpr oporti
on.
S
UMMARY

L
ITE
RARYS
ECT
ION

1.
OFS
TUDI
ES
F
ranc
isBa
con

“OfSt
udies”i
sthefir
ste ss
ayofthefir
stcol
lect
ionoftene s
saysbyBa con,publ
ishedin1597.I
nthi
s
ess
ayBa c
onhasf or
cefull
yma decomme ntsonv a
lueandus ef
ulne
ssofr eadi
nga ndlear
ning.Whi
le
exami
ningthebenefi
tsa ndeffe
ctsofst
udiesBacontel
lsthatst
udyinga l
oneisinsuf
fi
cie
nt ,
lea
rni
ng
mustbeba l
anc
e dbyex peri
ences.Di
vers
es t
udyma yhelpcounter
ac tpers
ona l
impe r
fect
ion.

Baconproposest
ha ts
tudyma ybedonef ort
hreepropos
e s
:-Fi
rs
tly,
itma ybedonef orourown
e
nterta
inme ntorj
usttogetpleas
ure,suc
ha sre
adingbooksonfa
vouriteauthor
,country,s
ceneet
c.
S
e c
ondly,
itma ybedonejustforornament,i
tme a
nsjustt
oimpressotherorbri
nga t
tenti
oninhopeof
g
aini
ngourf ri
end’
sadmirat
ion.Last
lyi
tma ybedonet oga
incompetencyandprofic
iency.

Studyhassever
albenef
it
sa ndeff
ect
s.Itprovide
susva l
ua bl
eknowledge,r
eadingandl
earning
experi
ences,
logi
cali
deasandcreat
iveskil
l
s.Itdevel
opsourdi s
cours
e ,
intel
l
ige
ntcapac
it
y. Re a
ding
ma kesusf
ull
,confe
rencema ke
susre a
dyma n,andwrit
ingma kesusexact
.Theref
orer
eading ,wri
ti
ng
andlearni
ngmus tg
otogether.Uni
versi
tyschola
rsreada ndlea
rnvari
etie
sofbookswhichpr ovi
dethem
multi
plecare
e r
s.

-
rea
dinghi
st
oryma
kesuswi
se.

-
rea
dingpoe
tryma
kesuswi
tt
y/i
nte
ll
ig
enc
e.

-
rea
dingma
the
mat
ic
sma
kesuss
ubt
lea
ndc
rea
tiv
e.

-
rea
dingmor
alma
kesuss
obe
randpr
ofound.

-r
eadi
ngna
tur
alphi
l
osophyma
kesusde
ep,
wis
eandpr
ofound.

-
rea
dingl
ogi
cma
kesusa
rgume
nta
tiv
e.

Baconsuggest
sbasi
cal
lythreekindsofbook
s,st
udieddi
ffer
entl
y.Ther
ea r
es omebookswhi c
ha ret
obe
tas
ted(rea
dnotwhollybutinpa rt
s).T
hereares
omebook swhicharetobeswa l
lowed(booksreadto
behurri
edly
).Ther
earesomebook swhichar
etobec hewed(book
sreadwithg r
e a
tcar
ea nda t
tent
ion)
.
Thusreadi
ngalonei
snots uff
ic
ientenough,
Itmustbefoll
owedbylear
ningjustastwosidesofacoi
nt o
pla
cethevalueofper
fectstudy.
Que
sti
ons
:

1. “
Studi
ess
erv
eforde
li
ght
,foror
name
nta
ndf
ora
bil
i
ty”.
Expl
ai
nit
.

2. Wha
tar
ethr
eepur
pos
es,
studyma
ybedonef
or?Di
scus
swi
tha
ppr
opr
iat
eex
ampl
es.

3. “S
omebooksar
etobetas
ted,
othe
rst
obes
wal
l
owe
d,a
nds
omef
ewt
obec
hewe
dand
di
ges
ted”Howandwhy
?

4. Wha
tar
ethebe
nef
it
swea
chi
evef
rompr
ope
rst
udy
?

5. Whati
sst
udy
?Wha tarei
tsbenef
it
sandcrea
tiv
eef
fec
ts?Doy
oua
gre
ewi
thba
con?Wr
it
eyour
ownvi
ewonstudywi
thspeci
fi
cconcl
usi
on.

2.
HOW MUCHL
ANDDOE
SAMANNE
ED
L
EOT
OLS
TOY

Thest
ory,HowMuc hLandDoesAMa nNe ed?Consist
sofnineunit
scont a
inss e
pa r
a t
eideaswithful
lof
moralt
eaching.I
thasexplai
nedauthor’srel
i
giousexperi
ence.I
tdeal
swi thmor alproble
msi nthe
count
ryli
febe c
auseofspi
rit
ualcr
is
isc r
e a
tedbyhuma ng r
ee dandtemptation.I
tsug ges
tsusthat
humande si
rehasnolimit
ati
on.Me nde si
retotakeposses
sionofmoret hant heyneedinbe nef
it
sof
themsel
ves.Thusgree
dha snospecif
icbounda r
iesthatul
ti
ma t
e l
yle
a dsli
fetode ath.

T
hepr otagonistofthes toryisape as
a ntname dPa hom, whoatt hebe g
inni
ngc a nbehe ard
compl ai
ningt hathedoe snotowne noughl andtos at
isf
yhim. Hestatestha t“I
fI hadpl entyofl and, I
shouldn’tfeartheDe vilhi
ms e l
f!”
. Unbeknowns ttohim, Satanispr
e sentsitti
ngbe hindt hes toveand
l
istening,Ashor tamountoft imela t
er,alandladyinthev i
ll
agede c
ide stos el
lhe re3state ,
a ndthe
pe asant
soft hev i
ll
agebuya smuc hoft hatlanda stheyc a
n.Pahomhi ms elfpurchasess omel and,a nd
bywor k
ingof ftheextralandi sabletorepa yhisde bt
sa ndli
veamor ecomf ortablelif
e. Howe ve
r,
Pa homt henbe come sve r
ypos sessiveofhislanda ndthiscausesar
g ume ntswi t
hhi sne i
g hbour s
.Threats
toPa homhi sbui l
di
ngbe g
a ntout tered.
”La t
e r
,hemov estoalargerareaofl anda ta nothe rCommune .
He rewec ang rowe venmor ec r
opsa ndama ssas mallfor
tune,butheha stog r
owt hec ropsonr e nted
l
a nd,whi c
hirr i
tat
eshim.

Fi
nall
y,heisintr
oducedtot heBa shki
rs,andistol
dt hattheyares i
mplemi ndedpe opl
ewhoowna
l
argeamountofl and.Pahomg oestothe mtot a
kea smuc hofthe i
rlandforaslowapr i
cea shecan
negoti
ate.Thei
rofferi
sv e
r yunusua l
:forasumofonet housandr ubl
e s
,Pahomc anwa l
ka round
avera
gea smuc hashewa nt s
.Sta
rti
nga tdaybreak,ma rk
inghisroutewi t
has padea l
ongthewa y.I
fhe
re
acheshiss t
art
ingpointbys unsetthatday,theentireareaoflandhisrouteencloseswill
behis,buti
f
hedoe snotreachtostar
tingpointhewi lll
osehismone ya ndrece i
venoland.Hei sdel
ight
e dashe
beli
e vesthathec anc overag r
e atdis
ta ncea ndhe ascha ncedupontheba rga i
nofali
feti
me .That
ni
g ht,Pahome x per
iencesas ur
re aldreami nwhi chhes eeshimsel
flyingdea dbythefeetofade vi
l,who
i
sla ughing.Hes t
aysouta slat
ea spos sible,ma r
kingoutl anduntil
justbeforethesunse t
s. T
owa r
dt he
end, her ea
li
z esheisfarfromt hes ta
rtingpoi ntandr unsba ckasfas
ta shec antothewa i
tingBashki
rs.
Hef inal
lyarriv
e satthestarti
ngpoi ntjusta sthesuns e t
s.TheBa s
hkirscheerhisgoodfortune,but
exha ust
e dfromt herun,Pa homdr opsde ad.Hisse r
vantbur i
e shi
mi nanor dinar
ygrav
eonl ysixfee
t
l
ong , t
husironical
lyanswe ri
ngt heque stionpos edint hetit
le

Ana
lys
isofhowMuc
hLa
ndDoe
saMa
nNe
edbyL
eoT
ols
toy
I
nt heshorts
tory“HowMuc hLa ndDoesAma nNe e d”byLeoT ol
stoy,Pahomi sape as
antli
vi
ngona
sma l
lpl
otofland.Whe nhiswifebragst
ha tape asant’sl
if
eissafe
rt hanhav i
ngmone y,beca
usewith
mone ycomeste mptat
ion,Pahoma gree
s,a ddingtha thewouldnotbea fraidoft hedevil
himsel
f’i
fhe
onlyhadmor elandheg et
s,hewa ntsmore .Hebe come sgre
edierandg reedierunt i
lhecancontr
olof
hi
sl i
feand,i
nthee nd,l
osese v
e ry
thi
ng.Thisstoryshowsust hateve ni
fweha vee noughtogetbythe
prospec
tofbe comingwe a
lthi
erissoall
uri
ngi tcanc auseustoris
ka llt
heg oodt hingswea l
rea
dyhave.

Att hes t
art
,Pa homisac ontent,hardwor ki
ngme n.Unf or
tunately, hema kesthemi st
a keoft hinking
tha tmor el
andwoul dma k ehisli
febe t
ter.Pahoms aystohims el
f“ ouronl ytr
oubleistha tweha ve n’
t
l
a nde nough.IfIhadplentyofl and,hejumpsa tt hecha nce,convinc edthatmor ewoul dma kehi m
ha ppy.Hepa i
dof fhi
sde btsandha dple nt
yoff erti
lelandtog rowhi scropsandr ai
sehisc attle,buthe
wa sonlys at
is
fiedforashor twhile.
“ Pahomwa swe ll
-contenteda nde ver
ythi
ngwoul dha v ebe enr ig
htif
thene i
ghbouri
ngpe asa
nt swoul donlynotha vet res
pa sse
dona sc ornfiel
dsandme a
dow’ , soe venwhe n
heha dtheextralandhewa nt
e d.Hisli
fewa sfarfrompe r
fect.Disput eswithhisneig
hbour sa ndc ourt
ba ttl
escausepa homtobedi s
likedbytheCommunue ,soe venthoug hheha dmor eland, hispos i
tionin
thet ownwa swor sethane ver.Pahom’ sli
fema yha vebe enimpr ov edbyowni ngmor el and, buthuma n
na tureprompte dhimtoc onti
nuet obeg r
eedy, wantinge venmor et ha nhea l
readyha d.

Oneda y,Pa homhe ar

swor dofapl acewhe ref
reelandwa sg i
ventoa nyma nwhoj oi
nsthec ommunue .
I
mme dia
te lythema nyacresofla ndt hathedoesowns eemunbe ara
bl ea ndbarre
nc ompa redtot he
promiseofbe tt
erland.Hea s
k shims elf,“
Whys houldI s
uff
erinthi
sna rrowhol e,I
fonec anlivesowe ll
els
ewhe re” ?so,alt
houghheha spl entyofgoodlanda ndag oodli
fe.Pahoms el
lseveryt
hingheownst o
pursuewha thethinkswil
lcompl e tehisideaofaha ppyli
fe.Withthene wl and,Pahomwa scontent,but
soonheg re wa ccust
ome dtoita ndbe gantowantmor eonc eagai
n.Af terrenti
nge xt
raland,Pahom
deci
de ditwoul dbea ne v
enbe t
te rideaifheactual
lyowne da l
lhi
slandf orhebe l
ievedhe“ shouldbe
i
nde pende nt,andtherewoul dnotbea nyunpl
ea s
antness”
.Hepl a
nne dt obuymor eland, butalongcan
anoppor tunitythathewoul dnotl etpa ssby.

At r
adesmanpass
ingthroughtoldPahomofl ushland,sol
df ornear
lynomoney ,
soPa homde c i
dedthat
l
a ndwouldbeabe t
terde a
l.“
IfItakeitoutt
he r
e,Icang etmorethantenti
me sasmuc hforthemone y
”
hefigur
ed,soheabandone deveryt
hingheha dwor kedsoha r
dforandwhentoc heckoutthel and.Jus
t
asthetrade
smanha dpromised,thelandwaslusha ndferti
l
ea ndfar
me r
spromisedtog i
vePa homa ll
thelandhecoul
dwa lkaroundinada yforaveryche a
ppr i
ce.Pahomwa l
kedthee nt
ir
eda y,butg re
ed
over
tookhima ndhebitoffmorethanhec oul
dchew. E
xhauste
d, het
rie
dtoma k
eitba c
ktothe
desi
gnat
edme e t
ingpla
cebe f
orethedaywa sove
r,buthisbodywa st
ootir
ed.Def
eat
e d,hemadeone
l
asteff
ort
,“thereisaplent
yofland,butwil
lGodletmeliveonit”hewondere
d.Thi
sjourneywast
ono
av
a i
l
-hehadt a
k entoomuch,anddiedintheprocess
.

T
hroughthestor
ywea res
hownt hathumannat
urepushesustowantmoreandmore.Wea r
enot
c
ontentwit
hourliv
es,nomatt
erhowwe l
lof
fwema ybe,and,
whil
etryi
ngtobet
terouts
tandar
dof
l
i
ving
, weputours
elve
sindangerofendi
ngupwithnothi
ng

3.
THEL
ADYWI
THT
HEPE
TDOG
ANT
ONCHE
KHOV

Alt
houg hthes toryha stri
edt os ay“ L ovea ssuchi snotboundbyma rr
iageorma ri
talrel
ati
on”a sthe
t
he me, itwoul dbemi sleadi
ngt os a yt hatthema int hemeof“ TheL adywitht hepe tDog ”i
soneof
moralc orrupt i
onors i
n.Infa c
t, i
tist hrought hisa dulterousaffai
rthatGur ovdiscovershishuma nityand
evenhismor a lc
e nter.Gurovha sa l
wa ystakenwome nforgrantedandha st reat
edt hemwi thout
compa ssionorr e spect.Duringt hec our seofhi saffairwithAnna ,howe ver,hebe come smorea ndmor e
concerne da boutt hec onseque nce sofhi sac t
ions. Che k
hov ’
streatme ntofmor al
ityiscomple x
;hei snot
convent i
ona ll
ymor ali
sti
c,yethi sstor ysugg estsas trongpe rs
ona lmor a
li
ty.Gurova ndAnnat r
ulylove
eachot he r
,a ndthe i
rbadma r
ria g
e sa reunf ortunat easpec t
softhe i
rliv
es.Litt
lesympa thyor
consi
de rati
oni sof feredtother e spec tiv
espous esoft hea dult
erouscouple .ButChe khoventersinto
i
ndivi
dua lcha r
acte randjudg esinmor algr
ound.

Dmit
riDmitr
it
chGurovhasbeenonv a
cati
onatYa
lta,
thesea
sidevac
ati
ontown,f
orafort
nig
htwhenhe
hear
sofanewa r
ri
val.T
hey oung
,fai
r-
hair
edwome nofmedi
umhe ig
htwearsabere
tandhasawhite
Pomerani
andogwit
hhe r.
Sheisoft
ena l
one,
andtheothe
rvacati
oner
sref
ertoheras“
theladywi
ththe
dog.
”

Gurovrat
ional
iz
esthatifsheisherealone,withoutherhusband,thenheshoul
dmak eheracquai
ntance.
Dmitri
Gurovisunderfort
y ,buthealr
e a
dyha sthreechi
ldr
e n:twel
vey e
ar–ol
ddaughterandtwoschool
ageboys.Heals
oha sawifewhomhede spi
ses,descr
ibi
nghe ras’
’unint
ell
i
gent
,nar
row, i
nel
e g
ant,wa s
af
raidofheranddidnotli
k etobea thome .Heisofte
nunfa it
hful
ltoherandal
mostalwaysspeak
sillof
wome ningenera
l,ref
erri
ngt othema s“thelowerrace.
”

Howe ver
,whileGurovdoe snote njoyhi
swife’
scompa ny.Aweekha spasse
ds inceGur ovandthelady
wit
ht hepetdogha vebecomea cquaint
ed.Oneev e
ning,t
heygot othegroynet ogether,t
heha r
bor,t
o
watchthee ve
ningsteamerc omei n.Theywatchthenewa rr
iva
lsdis
e mbark,a
nda sthec r
owe dbegi
ns
todis
pe r
se,heputshisarmsa roundhe randki
ssesherpassi
onatel
y.Theydiseng a
g e
, bre
athl
ess,and
walkquickl
ytowardhe rhotel.
Whe ntheyrea
chhe rhote
lroom, Gur
ovlooksa the randbe gi
nsto
r
eme
mbe rt
hewomenheha
shadint
hepa s
t.T
he r
ea r
esomethatar
egood-na
tur
eda
ndc
hee
rful
lov
ers
,
a
ndsomeli
kehi
swi
fewhoa
rehys
ter
ica
landwithoutpas
sioni
nthe
irl
ove.

Annai sdif
fere ntfromt he s
ewome n.Sheisst
ill
extremelyyounga ndinex per
ienced.Asare s
ult
,she
agonizesoverhe rfallf
romhe rrolea sduti
ful
,fai
thful
wifeto“thewome nwhowa sas i
nner.
”He rf
ir
st
wor dsafte
rt he yha ve.GurovreturnstoMos cowa ndagainembra ceshise l
i
teMos cowa nda ga
in
embr aceshise li
teMos cowe x
istence.Heiscert
ainthattheimageofAnnaS er
g ey
e v
nawi l
lbegone
withinamont h, relegatedtoalittl
e-usedpartofhisme morywithhi sotherladyfri
ends.Surpr
isi
ngl
y,
Anna ’
stouchi ngs mileha sonl
yg r
ownmor evivi
dinhismi ndseyea f
teramont h.Sheiswit
hhi m
everywhe r
e, andhe rima gebecome sclear
erandmor elovelyt
ha nithadbe ent hedaya f
tertheyhad
sepa r
ated.

Gurovist
ormentedwiththeneedtoc onf
idet hes
enewf eel
i
ng si
ns omeone.Oneeveni
ng,aft
ers
upper
atthedoct
ors’
clubwithafri
end,here ma
r kssuddenl
y,“I
fonlyyouk newwhatafas
cinat
ingwomanI
madethea c
quaint
anceofinYalt
a!”Thefrie
nds aysnothi
ng.Heg e
tsintohi
ssle
dgeandisdri
vi
ngaway
,Annacomplai
nt.Herhusbandbeli
evesher.Itdoesnotmattermucht oAnna.

OnedayGurovtak
eshisdaughtert
os c
hoolonhiswaytose eAnna.I
toccurstohi
mt hatheha st
wo
l
iv
es.Oneisopen,
seenandk nown,andtheothe
rissec
re t
e. Herea
li
zest
ha thedoeseveryt
hing
dec
eit
ful
l
yinhisunconce
aled“tr
ue”lif
etoconceal
thetruththathi
ssecr
e tl
if
eisthere
a lhi
m.

Gurovrea
chesAnna’
shotel,andwhenshele
t shiminshei
sc r
ying.Hesit
sdowninanarmchai
rto
wait
noutheremoti
onaloutburst
.Heti
ngsf
ort eaasshecr
iesbitt
erl
yfrom“themis
erabl
e
consc
ious
nesst
hatthei
rli
fewa ssoha
rdforthem.”Hebe g
she rtostop,r
eal
izi
ngper
hapsfort
he.

QUE
STI
ONS
:

1.
Wha
timpor
tantt
hing
sdowel
ear
naboutl
ovei
nthes
tor
y‘T
heL
adywi
thT
hePe
tDog
’?

2.
Wri
tet
hec
har
act
erofDmi
tr
iDmi
tr
it
chGur
ovi
nabout150wor
ds.

3.Wri
tei
ntwopa
rag
raphshowdi
dMrGur
ovme
ett
hel
adya
ndwha
tdi
dtheba
sicdi
ff
ere
nce
she
not
ic
einher
?

4.
Des
cri
beMrGur
ov’
sat
ti
tudet
o“ma
rri
age
”.
 4.F
REE
DOM
GE
ORGEBE
RNADS
HAW

G.B.S ha w’ sfr eedoma ctua l

lybe l
ong stooneoft hes e ri
esofr adiot alk
sde l
ivere dbyhi mi n1935ont he
BBC. Asi twa si nte nde df ort hel argerc ircle sint he i
rc apa ci
t ya slisteners,thel ectures eemst obef ree
fromt he ore tica ljargons .ButS ha wc anbev e rymuc hde cept i
vei nwha thes a ys.Forbe hindhi shumour
l
ie sthes atireoft hec ont empor a r
ys oc i
a lc ondi tion. Notonl ytha t,hissimpl et a
lkwa sa ctuya l
lya
de nunc iationoft hec onv e ntionala ndc a pita l
istv iewoff ree dom. Polit
icall
yS hawc onfor me dt o
de moc ratics oc ial
is m, av ar i
a ntofMa rxism, accor dingt owhi cht hes oci
e tyshoul dt rytor ea chthe
soc i
a l
istpol itica lcondi tiong radua l
lybyt hede moc raticme a ns. Thec onc eptoff ree dom, whi chS haw
satirizes,wa st hef unda me nt alpri
nc i
pl eofE nlightnme nt, andhedoe ssobe caus einac a pital
istsoci
ety,
acc ordingt ot heMa rxianv iew, canbec alle dc ompl etelyfre eins uc hac ondi ti
on, inwhi chhewi l
lbeable
to“ dowha thel i
k e s,whe nhel i
kes ,andwhe rehel ikes ,ordonot hinga talli
fhepr e fe
rsit ”
. Hef i
rmly
de niest hepos sibilit
yoft hee xistenceofs uc hape r
s ona shuma nbe i
ngsa rea llsl
a vestona ture:“…we
mus ta l
ls l
e epf oronet hirdofourl i
fetime -wa sha nddr essa ndundr e s
s-wemus tspe ndac oupl eofhours
ea ti
nga nddr i
nk ing -wemus ts pendne a rl
ya smuc hi ng etti
nga boutf romonepl a cetopl ace. ”F r
omt his
funnyy e tine x ora blec ondi tionofhuma nl ife,S ha wv eryclea r
lymov esont ot hef acttha tsomeoft he
“na tura ljobs ”c anbepl a ce donot hers ’shoul de rs:“Wha ty oudot oahor seorabe e ,youc a ndot oa
ma norwoma norc hild…. sort ”
.Wi tht hisS ha w, howe ve r,come stot hei mme di
a tes oci
a landpol iti
cal
condi tionoft het ime ,inwhi cht hec onc e ptoff re edomde rivedf romt heg r
a ndide a l
is
ticpr ojectofthe
Enlight enme nt, andna t
iona listi
cbi aspr oduc e dbyt heF i
rstWor ldWa rwa sbe i
ngg lorif
ieda ndus edby
theuppe rc las sa same anst oa chievingt he i
rs e l
f-int erests.Ac cordingt oS ha wt hef arceoft he
de moc ratics ys temi nac apita l
ist
ics t
a telie si nt hef actt hat“ mos ta ctualgov ernme nts…e nforcey our
slave rya ndc a l
l i
tf reedom” .Butt hec itize nsoft hes tatecont inuet obedupe dbyt hes yst e
mi nsteadof
risi
ngt opr ot e st.S hawt ermst hisune qua lr elations hip‘” t
heunna turalslaveryofma ntoma n.

Sha w poi ntsouta nimportantdifferencebe twe e

nt he“na tura ls
laveryofma nt oNa tureandthe
unna tural s
laveryofma ntoma n’’.Accordingtohim, t
hef irst,thoughuna voidable,providespleasure
afteritsfulfil
l
me nt;fori
nstance,ifna t
ur eforcesustodrink .Shema kesdri
nk ingpleasant.Thes ameis
trueofe ati
ng ,ddri
nking,s
leepinga ndot herac t
ivi
ti
es.Shawi ntroducesthi
sdi ff
erenc eands i
tes
exa mple smor eimpor ta
ntlytoe xplai
nt hee vi
lsoftheforme rinmor ea cc
ur a
tet er
ms .Herefer
st ofew
thinkerslikek arlMa r
xandT homa sMoor e, whode nounce dt hissl
a v
eryandt riedtoa boli
shit.Atthis
pointhi se xpl
ana t
ionofthec apit
a l
istme chanism,thatis,theme ansbywhi c
ht hesy stemtrie
st odupe
pe opl
ea nde stabl
ish,l
egit
imizea ndpe rpetuateits
e l
fapproa c hestheideologicalt
he orie
sofAlthus s
er
and Gr ams ci.“i
deologyrepresents”,Althussertel
lsus,“thei ma ginar
yr el
ati
ons hi
pofi ndivi
dua l
sto
the i
rrea lconditi
onofe xi
stence.”

Hepoint
soutthatther
ea r
efoundanumberofi
deologies_namely,
rel
ig
iousideol
ogy,et
hic
alideology,
l
egal
ideol
ogy,poli
ti
cali
deol
ogy_al
lofwhi
choper
ateinvisi
blyint
hesuperst
ruct
ure.Shawstri
kesa tthe
ve
ryrootwhenhes ays
,“Natur
all
ythemast
ercl
ass
,t
hr oughitspa
rli
amentsandschoolsandnews papers
,
ma kesthemos tdesperatee ffortst opre ventusf romr eal
izi
ngours la v
e r
y .
”Hee xpl
a i
nshist
orical
lyhow
theBr i
tis
hc api
ta l
i
stsystemha se s
ta bli
shedi tsel
fbypr opagati
ngt hes o– call
edg l
oriouseventsa sthe
Ma gnac arta,
thede featoft heS panishAr ma ndasa ndNapolean.The nhee xplai
nshow“ i
deolog i
cal
appa ra
tuse s
”,toquot eAlthus se r,
ma ni
pula tethec ommonma sstoc astvotesinf avoroftheca pi
t a
li
st
l
e aders.Wha tismor ea l
armi ng l
ye ffecti
ve,a ccordingtohim, i
sthee ducati
ona lsyst
e m,whichope r
ates
i
nt hes uperstr
uc t
urea nde ndsi nde l
udingt hema stercl
assmuc hmor ec ompl et
e l
y”.ThusShawe xpla
ins
thedi f
ferencebe t
we ent wok i
ndsofs laverya ndc onclus
ivel
yte l
lsthel i
sterners/rea
de rs
:“Wipeout
fromy ourdr eamsoff reedomt hehopeofbe inga bletodoa syoupl e a
sea llthetime .
”For,accordingto
him, peoplehav etorema inoc c upieddoi ngt hena turalsl
averyfora tleasttwe l
vehour sada y,whi l
e
theirunnaturalslaver
yi scont rolleda ndreg ulatedbyt helegalanda dmi nistr
a t
ivesystemofthec ountr
y.

QUE
STI
ONS
:

1.
Whoa
ccor
dingt
oSha
w,i
sPe
rfe
ctl
yFr
eePe
rson?

2.
Doa
lls
oci
ala
ndg
ove
rnme
nta
lre
gul
ati
onsa
ima
tre
gul
ati
ngma
n’ss
lav
ery?

3.
Wha
tar
etheba
sicdi
ff
ere
nce
sbe
twe
enna
tur
als
lav
erya
ndunna
tur
als
lav
erya
ccor
dingt
oSha
w?

4.
Wha
tme
ansdoe
sthema
ste
rcl
assus
etoma
int
aint
heuppe
rha
ndoft
hes
lav
ecl
ass
?

5.
Whydomos
twor
ker
sorwome
nvot
efort
hei
rsoc
ial
supe
rior
s?

6.
Howdoe
sac
ivi
l
ize
dsoc
iet
ypr
ote
cti
tsc
it
iz
ens
?

7.
Wha
tar
eSha
w’sv
iewsonwor
kinghour
sandr
eti
reme
nt?

5.
CIVI
LPE
ACE
CHI
NUAACHE
BE

‘
CivilPea ce”takesplaceint hey ea raftertheNi ger
ianc i
vi
lwa rha sende d.Ni geria
nss ucha sJona than
fee
l fortunatesimplyt ostil
lbea l
ive,ase vide ncedbyt he“currentfas hion”ofg ree ti
ngpe oplewi ththe
words“ Ha ppySur v
ival!”.Nowt he yfacethemonume ntalta
skofr ebui ldingbot hthe i
rc ountr yandt hei
r
l
ives.The i
rdiffi
cult
iesa rede scri
be dthroug houtt hes t
or y
,botht hroug ht hepl ightofJ onathan’sfa mil
y
andt hatofhisne ig
hbour sanda cquaintance s.Awe althyneighbour ’
shomeha sbe enr educ edt oa
mount ainoft hi
ss t
oryi sabouta nopt i
mi stma ncall
edha ppys ur
v i
val. Hea ndhi swi fea ndhist hree
chi
ldrenoutoff oursurv i
vedf romt hewa r. Hisbicycl
ea ndhishous eswe res a
v edt oo. Hef oundswa yto
earnmone ya ndpa s
shi slif
e. Hisfa mil
ya l
s of oundjobl i
kesell
ingma ng oe sorma kingbr eakf
a sttoe ar
n
mone y
. Bythebi c
yclehewe nttov ill
agesa ndboug htwinea ndmi xedi twi t
hwa tera nds oldi tto
mil
litarysoldi
e r
s.Byt hisjobheope nedaba randsoldwi neinsteadofg oingt omi ne r
. Attha ttimemos t
nei
g hbour swe r
es opoora ndha dnot hi
ngt oe atornowhe retos leep. Oneda yhee arne d20poundsa s
ane gg-rasher.Theothe rpe rsonwhoha dt ha tmuc hmone ywe r
ek il
ledbyt hi
e ves. Hewa ssos caredand
fel
tins
e cureti
l
l wenthome.Atnight’
shewa sawakenedbynoi
seoftheknocki
ngint
hedoor.Heandhis
famil
ya ft
ersomet i
meunde rst
oodthe yweret
hievesa
ndtheycal
ledpol
icebutnoonecametohelp
thema ndthethieveswerethene i
ghbours
.Theywantedhi
smone yandf
a mil
yweresosc
a r
ed.Atl
ast
aft
eral ongarguehea c
ceptedtogivethem20poundsinst
eadof100poundstheywantandhewas
happya gai
nbe causehecoul
dlivesafewit
houttha
tmone y.

Civi
lpe ac
epr esentst hec onditioni mme diat
e l
yaft
e rCiv i
lwa r.Iti
sa ni
nterest
inga ndtouc hingc omme nt
onqui ckande asyr ec overyfromha rdshi
p. Mostpe oplea reda ma gedbythea ft
ere f
fectsoft hewa rbut
JonathanIwe gbut hink shims el
fv eryl uckytoha v
es urv i
veda lthoughheha slosthisyoung e s
ts on.He
hadc omeoutoft hewa rwithfiv eine sti
me abl
ebles s
inghi she ad,hiswif
eMa r
ia’
she ada ndt hehe adsof
threeoutoff ourc hildrena sane xtrabonusheha shi sbicyclewhi chhedigsupa l
mos ta sg ooda snew
afterthefi
g hti
ngha ss t
oppe d.T hisbi cyc
lewa sal
mos tseizedbyt hemi l
itar
yoffic
e rbutheg otitby
spendingtwopounds .Thenhef i
ndshi sli
ttl
ehousei nE nug uiss t
il
lsta
nding,despitethea bs enceof
minorde tail
sli
kedoor swindowsa ndar oof. F
orsome onewhos eeseveryt
hinginapos i
ti
v et er
ms ,t
his
i
sa nothermi racl
e. Andnowt hef ami lystart
sitsj
our ne ybackt onor mali
tyandpr osperit
y. Thec hi
ldr
en
sell
ma s
ngoe sandhi swi fes el
lsa ka raballsandhes ell
shi spa l
mwi ne .F
oronepoi ntofv iewi tisa
me agerthingma te ri
a lwit
hwhi cht os tartane wli
febutt oyhev er
yopt i
misti
cJona t
ha nnitis,afte
rthe
horrorsofwa r,blessinguponbl e ssing.Thef i
nalwindf alli
st hee x-
grati
apa y
me nther e cei
v es.It
confir
mshi sbe l
iefinag enerousg od. ‘Nothi
ngPuz zlesGod”i shiscatc
hphrase.

T
hats amenightt
hereoccursaf
urt
he rre
turntonormal
it
ywhe nthie
vespaythelongsuf
fer
ingJ
onatha
n
v
isi
t.Butthi
stoohaschangedit
snaturebecaus
eofthewar.Fi
rstofal
l,
thethie
vesknockonthedoor
a
ndpol i
tel
yannouncesthemsel
ves
.‘Not i
efmanandhispeople
’,whenthefa
milyscr
eamsforhel
pthe
t
hiev
e sof
ferthei
rass
ist
anceknowi
ngnoonewi l
lcometohelpandthatthesol
dier
saremoretobe
f
earedthanthemsel
ves.

Oncet hathasbeensettl
e dt he yarepre par
edt obere asonable.Theys a
yt hattheyar
enotba dthi
e v
e s
totroublethepeopl
et hatwa ra swe l
lastroublehasf i
nished,andt hati
tisthet i
meofci
vilpeace.After
theune asynegot
iat
ionJona t hanc ome stoacceptthene wc onditi
onsofc ivi
lpeaceandhandsov e
rhi s
egg-rasher
.Alt
houghtheg r
e a tma ssprotest
,theleadera sag odties’promisesafai
rbusi
nes s
.“Wej ust
takeours mall
mone yandg o”whe nhisne i
ghboursa ppe ari
nt heea r
lymor ni
ngtoe x
pres
st hei
r
sympa thy,t
hefamil
yisa twor ka gai
n.AndJ onatha
nha swr i
tt
e noffhisegg-ras
her:Di
dIdepe ndonit
l
a s
twe e k
?Orisitgr
e a
t e
rt ha not herthingsthatwentt hewa r?..
..

Nothi
ngpuzzl
esGod!Onc ea g
ainhi
sopt i
misti
cfatal
isme na bl
e shi
mt oris
ea bovethedi
ff
ic
ult
y.
Eve
r y
thi
ngthatl
if
eprovidesisabonus.Inthi
sfinestoryAc hebec aref
ull
yma intai
nst
hebal
ance
bet
we enre
ali
sti
crepor
tag eandthefir
ms hapeofthef ables othattheresul
tt e
ll
susmoreaboutt
he
warandit
sa f
ter
-ef
fect
st hananyaccountofdetail
eddoc ume ntat
ion.

QUE
STI
ONS
:

1.
Wha
tist
hes
igni
fi
canc
eoft
het
erm“
Civ
ilPe
ace
”?Wha
tdoe
siti
mpl
y?

2.
Wha
tisme
antby“
HappyS
urv
iva
l”i
nthes
tor
y?
3.
Howdoest
heleaderoft
het
hie
vesdi
st
ing
uis
hgoodt
hie
vesf
romba
dthi
eve
s?Whydoy
out
hinkhe
make
sthi
sdi
sti
nct
ion?

4.
Wha tisMr.
Jonat
hanIwegbu’sphi
l
osophyofl
i
fe?Howdoe
shea
ppr
oac
handde
alwi
thg
ood
si
tua
tionsandbadsi
tua
tions?

5.
Wri
tet
hec
har
act
erofJ
ona
tha
nIwe
gbui
nabouts
ixt
ywor
ds.

6.
Themot
herofat
rai
tor
Ma
ximGor
ky

"Themot he rofat raitor "byMa x imGor kyisas hor ts t

or ywhi chde al
swi t hdua ll
ov e:lovef ort he
count rya ndl ov ef ort hes on. MonnaMa ri
nna 'ss onha sbe comee ne mi calt owa rdshi sownc ount ry .He
does n'tha vea nyr e a
l g rudg e( Compl a i
nt )ag ainstt hec ount ry.Howe ver, hewa nt s
' tode stroyt hewhol e
cit
ya ndt husbe c omepopul ara mountt hec iti
z ens. Hewa ntstha te achc itizena nde acha nde ve ryobj ect
ofthec ount rys houl dk nowhi sna mea ndg e ta f
r aidofhi m. Hei snowt hehe adoft het r
oopswhoha ve
surrounde dt hec it
yf roma llsi
de sa nda rere adyt os etfirei ntoit. Therei sr estlessnesse v e
r ywhe rein
thec ity.Noonei sha ppy .Allthepe oplea r
ec ryi
ngbi tterlyoutofpa i
n. Thee ne miesa reg ivingut mos t
tort
ur e st othec i
t i
zens . The yha v ebe ende pr i
v edofa llkindsoff acili
ties.T hee ne mi esha vebr ownde ad
bodie sint oa llthes tre amst ha ts uppl ywa tert ot hec i
ty.T hec iti
ze nsha vel os ta l
lkindofhopeofl ife.
Every things pok et ot he mofde at h,a ndnotas t
a rwa sthe r einthes kyt og ivet hemc ons ol
a tion. The y
we r
ea lsoa f
ra i
dt ol i
ghtt hel amps ont hehous e
sa tnight . MonnaMa ri
nnahe rselfisnotha ppywi th
wha the rs onha sbe come .Shet hink sofhe rs ona ndhe rc ount rya samot he randc i
tizenr espe ctive l
y.
Sheha dt houg htpr evious l
yt ha the rsonwoul dbe comeag reatleade roft hec ount ryandwoul ddo
some thingf ort hena tion. But ,tohe rgre atdi sma y ,sheha sf oundhe rs ona sdifferenta ndhe artless
cit
izent oa llthepe ople . Heha sbe traye dhi sownc ount rya nda lsohi sownmot he r.Ma rinnaha se qual
l
ov ef orhe rsona ndf orhe rna ti
v ec ity.But , asamot he rhe rhe artiswe e pinga she rsonha sg ive n
suff
e ringt oa llthec i
tize ns. Eve r
yc iti
zenc allshe r" Themot he roft het raitor "whi chg i
v esunbe a rable
paint ohe rhe a r
t. So, shede cide st ol ea vet hec itya ndg oe stohe rson. Shef indshe rs onc ra zedwi ththe
thi
rstf ormor eg lory.S het ri
est oc onv i
nc ehe rsonbyt ellinghi mt ha tahe roi shewhoc r eate slifeby
conque ringde ath. Buthea ns we rsv erya rrog antlyt hatt hede stroy erisa sg lori
ousa sthebui lde roft he
cit
y. Heha sbe comes obl indf ort heg lor ytha ther e mainst otall
yuna ff
e ctedbyhe rpe rsua sion. Finally
,
Ma rinnama ke she rs ot a ker esti nhe rla pa ndi mme diatelyc ov ershimwi t
hhe rbla ckc l
oa ka ndt he nkil
ls
himbypus hingak nifei nt ohi she art.Thusbyk i
lli
nghe rs on, shef ulfil
lshe rdut yasac it
izen. Buts hei s
als
oamot he ra ndamot he rc annotl ivehe rl if
ec omf orta blybyk il
li
nghe rowns on. So, shea ls
ok i
lls
herse l
fwi ththes amek nifea ndf ulfil
lsthedut yoft hemot her.

Que
sti
ons:
 1. Wr
it
ethet
hemeoft
hes
tor
y“t
hemot
heroft
rai
torbyMa
ximGor
ky”

2. Wha
tle
ssondoy
oul
ear
nfr
omt
hiss
tor
y?

3. Wha
twa
sthec
onf
li
cti
nthemot
her
smi
nda
ndhowdi
dsher
esol
vei
t?

4. As
sumey
our
sel
fast
het
rai
tora
nde
xpr
essy
ourf
eel
i
ngst
owa
rdsy
ourmot
her
.

S
cie
nti
fi
cse
cti
on

7.
KNOWL
EDGEANDWI
SDOM
Be
rtr
andRus
sel
l

KnowledgeandWi sdomi swrit

t e
nbypopul arphi
losopherBert
randRussell
.Inthiste
xtheha s
tri
e dt
oma keessenti
a ldist
inct
ionbe t
we enknowledgeandwi s
dom. TheLa t
inwor d“sci
ent
ium”
fromwhichweg ettheE ngl
ishwor d“sci
ence”me ansknowledgeinthesenseofk nowingabout
things
(ca
ll
edfacts
)a ndt hec a
us esoft
hings.Int
hissenseknowledgeiss
ome t
hingwea c
quir
e
througheff
ort
.Soak nowl e
dg abl
epe r
sonk nowsnotonlyforexample:t
ha tfi
reishotbutalso
whya ndhowf i
reishot .

Butwi sdomi sdiffer

ent. Iti
sapa rtofinne rmindt ha ti
sinaccessi
bletousift hehi ghests t
ateof
consciousnesswea reint heseconds t
ateofc onsciousness.Wisdomonl ya ppearswhe nwea r
e
i
nt het hi
rdsta t
e. Awisepe rsonwi l
lemployt hatk nowledgenotonl yforhisownbe nefitbut
als
ofort hebe ne fi
tofot hers.
Pe rhapshe ’
llinventamor eeffi
cie
ntf urna
ce. Perha pshe’llhel
p
developac leane rburningmor ef ueleffi
ci
e ntautomobi le.Afooli
shpe rs
on, byc ont r
ast,whois
theex actoppos i
teofawi seper s
on, knowse x
ac t
lythes amet hi
ng( fi
rei
shi tandwhy ),butwill
notus ethatk nowledg ewi s
e l
y.Fore xampl ehema ybur nhishouse“ down”a ndhi mself“up”
becaus ehefe l
las l
eepinbe dwhi les mok i
ngas lowbur ningc i
garateorcigare.Rus sel
lma ke
sthe
samepoi ntinhi sessaywhe ntalkingaboutS CIENT IS
T S
,learni
nga bout“atomi ce nergy”a nd
obtai
ni ngtheKNOWL EDGEofhowt o“spl
itthea tom” .Butthoses amescientist
swe reUNWI S
E
becaus etheyt empor ari
ly“forgot”(ordidn’tthinka bout)whowoul dusetha tknowl edg eto
ma
kea
tomi
cbombsa
nddoha
rm.

Russel
lt hinkstha twis doms houldbet heai
mofe ducat
ion, whe nhesaysthees s
enc eof
wisdomi se ma ncipati
ona sf
a raspos s
ibl
e,f
romt hetyrannyoft heher
ea ndnow( knowl edgei
s
l
a r
gelyoft hehe rea ndnow”oft hings).Wecannothe l
pt hee goismofoursense s
.S i
ghts ound
toucha nde mot i
onsa r eboundupwi thourownbodi esa ndc annotbema deimpe rsona l
.An
i
nfantf eel
shung erordi scomforta ndisuna
ffec
tede xceptbyhi sownphy si
calcondition.But
graduall
ya shist hought sandf eeli
ngsbecomelesspe r
sona landhea chi
evesgrowingwi s
dom.
Noonec anv i
e wwor l
dwi thc omple t
eimparti
al
ity.Buti
ti spossiblet
oma keac ontinual
approac htowa rdsi mpa rt
ial
it
y ,
whi chconst
it
utesg r
owthi nwi sdom.Canwisdomi nt hissense
het a
ug ht?Andi fi tcan.Shouldthet eachi
ngofitbeoneoft hea i
msofeducat
ion?I s
houl d
answe rbotht hes eque sti
onsint hea f
fi
rmati
ve.

Russellsay sthe“ end”ofa l

lhuma ne nde a v
orss houldbewi sdom, sincethec apa ci
tyforwi sdom
defi
ne shuma nbe i
ng sanddi sti
nguishe st hemf roma l
lot herformsofa nima llif
e .ButRus sel
thi
nk s
, withe veryincreaseofk nowl edg ea nds kil
l,wisdombe come smor ene c essary
, forevery
suchinc reasea ug ment sourca pacityofr e al
iz
ingourpur pos es,andt hereforea ug me ntsour
capacityfore vi
l
, i
fourpur pos esareunwi se.Thewor l
dsne e dswi s
doma si tha sne verne ededit
before,a ndi fknowl edgec ontinuest oinc reaset hewor ldwi l
lne edwi sdomi nt hef utur eeven
mor etha ni tdoe snow. T
ha tRus s
e l
li
a nde s
cri
pt i
onof“ i
nc r
ea s
ingk nowl edg e”a nd“ i
nc rea
s i
ng
capacitytodoe vil
”Ifourpur pos esa r
e“ unwise”i ndicat
e sthatg ai
ningwi sdomi sa“ pr ocess”
,
j
usta sg ainingk nowle dgeisapr oce ss. ButRus se l
lals
oi ndicatestha tthepr oc essinvolves
becomi ngl essce nteredonour sel
v esa ndt he“ he arandnow”a ndmor e“impa rti
aland
i
ntellectua l
lybroa dmi nded”.Sotha twema ybe comewi sec iti
zensoft hewor ld,rathe rthan
me rel
yg oodc it
izens( patr
iots)ofthisort hatsma l
lercountryorf action.

Russe
llsays“ I
tisnotonl
yinpublicwaysbutinpriv
a t
eli
fee quall
y,thatwisdomi sne e
de d.I
tis
neededint hec hoi
ceofendstobepur s
eda ndi
ne ma nci
pationfrompe rsonalprejudi
ce.So,
oncea g
aina ccordi
ngtoRussel
l,t
hereisnotonl
ypubl i
crespons i
bil
it
yforleadersa nd
gover
nme nt stoma kewis
ede c
isi
ons(becausef
oolishdeci
sionsma yha vedisast
rous
consequence suponpubli
cli
fe)
.Butal
sowi s
domi s“needed”i npri
vateli
fea swell.Inshort,
Russe
l seemst othinkt
hatourown“ choi
ceofends ”(whatwea r
eRE SPONS I
BLEf ordesir
ingand
att
empt i
ngt oobt a
in)r
equir
eswisdom, f
orwhichwea r
epe rsonall
yresponsibl
e.

QUE
STI
ONS
:

1.
Wri
tet
hedi
ff
ere
nce
sbe
twe
enk
nowl
edg
eandwi
sdom?

2.
Expl
ai
n‘t
hee
goi
smofours
ens
es’
.Wha
tisi
mpa
rti
al
it
y?

3.
Canwi
sdombet
aug
ht?Ca
nthet
eac
hingofi
tbeoneoft
hea
imofe
duc
ati
on?

4.
Rus
sel
lsa
ys‘
wit
hthei
ncr
eas
eofk
nowl
edg
eands
kil
l
,wi
sdombe
come
smor
ene
ces
sar
y’.
Do
y
oua
gre
ewi
thhi
m?Gi
vey
ourowna
rgume
nt.

8.
THES
CIE
NTI
FI
CAT
TIT
UDE

Inthispa ss
a geauthorhasde l
ightf
ull
ye xamine dthei ss
ue saboutthena t
ureofs ci
entif
ic
att
it
ude ,twoma j
orr ol
esofs c
iencede vel
opings oci
e tyands ci
entis
t’
sme thodsofthinkinga nd
acti
ngwhi chc analsobea ppli
edbyhi ghertoc ommonpe opleforthei
rbetterprospectives.
Physi
cs,biology,c
he mist
ry,goology,
eng i
nee r
ing,medicinee tcaredif
fer
ent.Sciencestaughta t
di
ffer
e ntinstit
utes
. Thenatureofs c
ienceisba sedupont hek eenobserv
ation,creati
vi
tya nd
experi
me ntf orfi
ndingthefacts.Sothena tureofs c
ientifi
ca tt
it
udeischaracteri
zedby
objec
tivi
ty ,
ope nmi ndedness,
skepti
cisma ndwi ll
ingnesst osuspendjudgeme ntift
he r
eis
i
nsuffi
ciente vi
dence .T
hrought heprocessofc reati
vity,observati
onande xperi
me ntscienti
sts
devel
opk nowledgewhi chwea pplyforthebe t
terme ntofs oci
ety.

Withouta nyhesi
tati
onwec ansayt hatsci
enceplaysimpor tantrolei nthes ocia
l developme nt.
Therea retwowa ysinwhichsci
e nceof t
enhe l
pstode velopours ociety.Thef i
rs
ti sthe
applic
a t
ionofmode rnma chi
nes,produc t
sands ys
temsofa ppli
edk nowledg ethatmode rn
technologie
sdevelop.Mode rntechnologyhasi mprovedt hestruc t
ure sofs oci
eti
e s.I
tha sma de
ourlif
ec omfort
able, e
xtendedlifespana ndlongevit
y. T
hes econdwa yisitsapplicati
onbya ll
me mbe rsofsoci
etyinaspe c
ialme thodsofthoughta nda cti
ont hats ci
entistsusei ntheirwork:
Bys hapingourvi
ewsonl if
e ,
me na nds oci
ety,nat
urea ndr eal
itya ndpr ovidingtheme aningof
oure xi
stence,s
cie
nc edir
ectsourt houghtanda ct
iona nds et
sthenor msa ndmode sofour
conduc t
.

Asuccessf
ulsc
ientis
tisoft
enwithf ul
lofcuriosi
ty.Throug htheproces
sofcreat
ivi
tyandk e
en
observ
ati
onhei sabletocastasi
tua t
ion,chall
engea ndpr obleminanewl i
ghtandthe r
e by
opensuppossibil
it
ies.
Heof t
enthinksoutofboxa ndt hrowsli
ghtinnewprobabil
it
y .Hewa nts
toknownotonl yabouttheuniver
s ebuta l
sowa ntstof i
ndhowa ndwhytheuniversewor ks.
He
oft
endirect
shisa t
tenti
ontowardpr oble
ms .Hiscuri
os it
yleadshimtolookunderl
ying
rel
ati
onshi
pe venifthedataavai
l
a bleseemt obeunc onnected.Heappli
esl
ogic
a l
thoug htwhile
makingobserv
a t
ionsandutil
iz
esfac t
sheobs ervestot hefull
estext
ent.

Thesucces
sfuls
cie
ntistort
e c
hnologi
stthi
nksanda c
tsinsuchwa y
swhichcharact
erizedhi
mor
herasgoodobserver
,accur
ate,
skepti
cal
,obj
ecti
ve,c
rit
ic
alaswellasimagi
nati
ve.Heors he
appl
iesf
a c
tstoobser
v ethi
ngs,doesnotacceptst
atementswhicharenotbasedont hemost
complet
ee vi
dence,t
hinkseveryt
hingcr
iti
cal
l
ya ndbecome si
ma gi
nati
vewhil
elooking
rel
ati
onshi
psindatathatarecomplexandincomplete.F
urther
mor eheorsheisnotonlycri
ti
cal
ofhowpr
oce
sse
swor
kandhowe
vent
sta
kepl
ace
.

QUE
STI
ONS
:

1.
Wha
tar
etwowa
ysi
nwhi
chs
cie
ncec
anhe
lps
oci
etyt
ode
vel
op?

2.
Giv
esomee
xampl
esoft
hewa
ysi
nwhi
chs
cie
ncei
nfl
uenc
ese
ver
yda
yli
fe.

3.
Wha
tel
eme
ntsofs
cie
ncec
ant
heor
dina
ryc
it
iz
enus
einor
dert
ohe
lphi
ssoc
iet
ytode
vel
op/

4.
Howc
any
oude
scr
ibeape
rsonwhowa
ntst
ofi
ndouthowa
ndwhyuni
ver
sewor
ks?

5.
Wha
tist
her
oleofc
uri
osi
tyi
nthewor
kofas
cie
nti
st
?

6.
Wha
tar
ethequa
li
ti
esofg
oods
erv
er?Howt
heyut
il
iz
ethef
act
s?

7.
Howdos
kept
ic
alpe
rsonsa
ct?

8.
Forwha
tot
herpur
pos
esdoe
sas
cie
nti
stnoodi
mag
ina
tion?

9.
STRAI
GHTANDCROOKE
DTHI
NKI
NG
R.
HANDC.
RTHUL
LS

Theshortpass
ageista
k e
nfromt hebook‘Stra
ightandCrook edThi
nking’wr i
tt
enbyR.HT hull
s
andC.RThull
s.Thi
sbookisfundamental
l
ya boutthewa ysthatpeopl
eof t
e nde c
e i
veother
sa nd
t
hems el
vesaswe l
lbythei
ruseoflangua
g e
. Bystra
ightt
hinkingweme a
nus i
nglangua
g et
o
manipul
atepeopledi
shonestl
yortoobservethetrueme aningofone’swor ds.Thatmayresult
f
romc onfus
ionabouthowonei susi
nglanguagewi t
houtprope rr
easoni
ng .

Peopleoft
enfal
li
ntoav
oidabl
ee r
rorsbeca
useofafa
il
uretoreas
oncorr
ectl
y.Ther
earemany
re
a s
onsofdoingsuc
hmista
k e
s.Butauthor
shaveobs
ervedsomefewreas
onsofsucherr
ors
whichareser
ious
lyt
obetaken.Theyhavesummedupthere a
sonsoft
heseerr
orsasf
oll
ows:

Pe
opl
eof
tenf
all
int
osuc
her
rorbe
caus
eoft
hei
rus
eofwor
ds.
Itf
reque
ntl
yha
ppe
nst
hatwha
t
onepe rsonme answhe nheus esac ertainwor disdiffer
e ntfromwha tother sme a n.I
ns uch
sit
uati
ont heproperlyusedwor dsca nnotide nti
fythepr ope rse ns
eforot herst hatcreates
dif
fi
cul
tie sbecausepe opledonotdi fferenti
a tecl
earlyenoug hbe tweenc l
earlye noughbe tween
sever
alv ariet
iesofthes amethings.F orexampl es:thewor ds’intel
li
gence’,ox ygen’,‘
accurat
e’
and‘ave r
a ge’
.Useoft heword‘ i
ntel
ligenc e
’ some t
ime scre atesproblembe ca useitha smor e
thanoneme ani
ng .I
ns uchsi
tuati
onav e r
yc omplicated.Bot hre sear
chche mi standa ree v
enless
understoodbyl a y
ma n. I
n‘ox
y gen’thepr oblemi seve nmor ecompl i
cated.Bot hre se
ar c
h
chemista ndche micalma nuf
actureride nti
fythewor dthe oreti
c al
l
ywi t
ht hee leme nt‘O’,butin
pract
ic
et heyha vediff
e r
entconceptsa bouti t.

I
nc ourseofdeve
lopi
nghypot
he s
issometi
messc
ient
is
tsusethewordswithfac
tscre
a t
e
confusi
onwhichcanbeunderst
ooda sc
ommone rr
or.Tha
tisbecaus
etheydevelopthe
hypothesi
sonthebasi
sofass
umpt i
onandg i
vet
henameofpa rt
ic
ulart
hingswhichcanbel
eas
t
beunde rs
toodbycommonpe opl
e .

Apa r tfromt heus eofwor dtheer r

orf a
ll
sont helogi
cst hatisknowna sl ogi
calerror.Sucherr
or
oc cur sinl
og icinthepr oces
softhoug htforrea c
hingtot hec onclusionfromc e rt
ainpr emis
esor
give ns tat
eme nts.Thelogi
cisascienceofv ali
dinferenceorr easoning .Itcana ls
os tudythe
argume nt
.Al og i
cisbasical
l
yma deupoft hreepa rt
s,1.pr e
mi s
e( oneormor es tateme ntst
o
thinkupon) ,2.inference(t
heproces softhinki
ngupont hepr emise), 3.
conc l
usion( r
e s
ultder
ive
d
fromt hepr oce ssofreasoni
ngorinfe r
ence ).
Fore xampleay oungs oc i
ol
og is
tinves t
igati
ng
l
iter aryinac e rtai
nc ommunitydiscoveredf r
omof fi
cialre c
ordstha tov er50%oft hepopulati
on
we ref e
ma l
e s.Hea lsoobservedthat70%oft hepopul a
t ionwe reli
te rat
e .Aft
erobt aini
ngdata
hes umme ditupa nddr ewconcl
usiona s:

Mos
toft
hepopul
ati
ona
ref
ema
les
;

Mos
toft
hepopul
ati
ona
rel
i
ter
ate
;

T
her
efor
e,mos
tfe
mal
esa
rel
i
ter
ate
.

I
nthislogi
ctheproc
essofthi
nki
nguponpr
emisewhic
hisre
a s
oni
ngori
nfe
renc
eis
unrea
sonableorunacc
epta
blewhic
hhehimse
lfrea
li
zedassoona
shere-
exami
nedhi
scha
inof
rea
soningveryca
ref
ull
y.

Thea voidableerroroft
enoc cur
sinunv er
if
iedorinsuff
ici
entexperi
me nt at
ion.Thisma yeas
il
y
occura tthebe gi
nningwhe nthereisnoprope r
lycontr
oll
edinvest
iga t
ion.Suchmi sta
kec a
n
confusec auseande ff
ect.F
ore xampletheinhabit
antofac ert
aincommuni tyhadnot edover
thea g
e stha twheneveronebe camei l
lwit
haf ever,t
hebodypa rasi
tesl ef
thimt hentheyma de
thecorre l
a t
ionthatpara
sit
e skeptthemhe al
thy.Late
ronpr operl
yc ontrol
leds c i
ent
ifi
c
i
nve st
igationshowe dparasi
testransmit
tedseveralki
ndsoffever,andt henleftthesi
ckpe r
sons
whe nthel ater’
sbodiesbecamet oohottoliveon.

T
her
ear
esomeot
herf
act
orswhi
chi
nfl
uenc
ether
eas
oni
nga
ref
als
eana
log
y,mi
ssi
ngc
ont
rol
g
roup, andt heroleofauthori
tyasaba rtothere-consi
de r
ati
onofaprobl
e m.The seareknown
a
sfa l
l
acie sinargumentthatthea ut
horcons i
der
sunr el
iabl
ethought
s.Sci
entist
’sprocessof
a
na l
yzi
ngt heproblembya nal
og i
ngfroma nothe
rise xt
reme l
yval
uabl
ebuti tma ylea
dt othe
a
da pt
ionofat otal
lyfal
sehypothesi
s.Thuslik
escienti
fi
cinvest
iga
tor
sordinarype opl
ema yfal
l
i
ntoerrorswi thoutcare
fulobservat
ionont heproblems.Wea l
ldomistak
e sbutwene e dthe
m
t
oc orr
ec ta saperfec
tcit
izen.

QUE
STI
ONS
:

1.
Whydope
opl
ema
kea
voi
dabl
eer
ror
s,a
ndwha
tsor
tofpe
opl
ema
ket
hem?

2.
Wha
tist
hef
ir
stdi
ff
ic
ult
yconne
cte
dwi
tht
heus
eofwor
ds?Gi
veonee
xampl
e.

3.
Wha
tisl
ogi
c?Howdoe
ser
roroc
curi
nlog
ic?De
scr
ibei
twi
thonee
xampl
e.

4.
Whatevi
denc
edi
dtheyoungs
oci
olog
istfi
ndtosupportt
hea s
sumpti
on?Wha
tconc
lus
ions
di
dhecometoass
oonashehadre
-examinedhi
schainofrea
soning
?

5.
Howdoe
ser
rorof
tenc
onf
usec
aus
eande
ffe
ct?

6.
Wha
tar
eot
herf
act
orst
hati
nfl
uenc
ether
eas
oni
ng?E
xpl
ai
nwi
the
xampl
es.

7.
nameaf
avour
abl
eandunf
avour
abl
eex
ampl
eoft
hev
alueofa
nal
ogyi
nsc
ient
if
icr
ese
arc
h?

10.
WAT
ERS
UPPL
IES
-AGROWI
NGPROBL
EM
Ba
tis
se.
M.UNE
SCO.
j
uly
-Aug
ust1964

Theextrac
tisanex ampleofag rowingtypeofli
ter
aturewithwhic
hscie
nt i
st sal
loverthewor l
d
havetodealwit
h. I
tiscommonl yconsi
deredasashortresear
chonthec onte mpor
a r
ybi gis
sue
abouttheprobl
emofwa tersuppli
e swhichisr
eall
ychall
engi
ngforHydroE ng i
neer
inga tfut
ure.
I
nape rsuasi
vewa ythetextha sexplor
edc e
rtai
nfact
orsaff
e c
ti
ngthegrowi ngneedsforwa ter
probl
emsofwa terresourc
e sthatma yhavelongter
me ffec
tsnotonl
yforusbuta l
sofor
creat
uresandpla
nt sone a
rth.
Needf
orwat
eriscons
tant
lyi
ncr
eas
ingphe
nomenast
il
ltoda
ysc
ient
is
tsobs
erv
edc
ert
ainf
act
ors
oft
hes
econs
tantl
yinc
reas
ingde
mandforwat
erasf
oll
ows:

_
Iti
sha
ppe
ningbe
caus
eof

-
theg
rowt
hofpopul
ati
oni
nthewor
ld.

-
theov
era
lli
mpr
ove
mentofl
i
vings
tanda
rdsoft
hepe
opl
e.

-t
hefi
ghtaga
ins
tthehung
ert
hroug
hthei
rr
iga
tionofmor
ela
ndf
org
rowi
ngf
oodf
ori
ncr
eas
ing
popul
ati
on.

-
thec
rea
tiona
nde
xpa
nsi
onofne
windus
tri
es.

-
growt
hofur
bani
zat
ione
tc.

St
atist
ica
ll
y,therei
sdiff
icul
ttoc al
cul
atehowmuchwa terweneedbutitisest
imat
e dthati
n
t
we ntyyearsti
met hedema ndforwaterwil
lbedouble
.Faci
ngwit
hs uc
hs it
uati
oni
ti scl
eart
hat
wes houl
dse ar
chaswidelya sposs
ibl
ea ndwi
theveryavai
l
ablemeansforsourc
esforfre
sh
waterattheleastc
ost.Butwhe redothesourc
eofwa t
erexis
t?

Asus
tai
nedandco-ordi
nat
eprogrammeofsc
ient
ifi
cobse
rva
tionandr
ese
arc
hinhy
drol
ogya
re
t
ryi
ngtosol
vetheprobl
emt hi
nki
ngita
sthe
irmajorre
spons
ibil
i
ty.

Thetwowa terr es
ources,
surfa
cewa tersour
c esandunde r
groundwa tersourcesa r
ebe i
ngused.
Theundergroundwa terreservesarela r
gerthanthoseont hes urf
acebutthe yar eunseenand
unesti
mated.Itisesse
nt i
alt
ous et heunde r
groundr es
ervest osol
vetheg rowingpr oble
mf or
wa t
erbutnotha phazardl
ybe causeitisneede dtodoimme nseresear
cha boutt he
phenomena .
Fore xample:wheredoe sthewa tercomefrom?howdoe sitmov e?Howi sit
renewed?Wha teff
ectwilli
thav eont hedis
c harg
ea ndthef utur
elevelofwa tertable?Arethe
thedif
fer
entque sti
onss t
il
ltobef ull
ya nswered.

Chemi s
tha veclearl
ydefi
ne dpurewa t
erma deupofhy drogena ndoxyge ntha tcannotbefound
i
nna ture.Thewa terli
ke,ri
ve rwat
erandr a
inwa t
eralwa yscontai
nothe rdissolv
edor
suspendede lements.Eventhe yar
einsma l
lquanti
ti
esbutv eryimportantsour cesofwa ter
.In
thecaseofir r
iga
tionandfar mingeve
rydropofwa terbringswithitali
ttl
es al
t .I
nt heproces
ses
ofevaporationsaltremai
nsa ndg r
adual
lypois
onssoilandpl ant
s.Wec anr emov et heprobl
em
ofitwiththehe l
pofl eac
hinga nddrai
nagebutconcerningthee ff
ectofirri
gationa nddrai
nage
onqua l
ityofg r
oundwa ter.Someque st
ionsarest
il
lunans wered.Thereforeitisne ededtodo
sci
entif
icresearchthatdealswithqual
it
yofwa ter
.

Themoistur
einthela y
e rofsoi
lisess
enti
alfortheli
feofplants
. Evapora
tionfromthes oi
land
under
g r
oundwa te
rislimiti
ngtheg r
ound-wa t
erwhichfall
sont heland.Dot hetr
eesr e
place
suchenormouslossofre s
ource
s ?Answer
soft heseprobl
e mswi l
lonlybefounda f
terag r
eat
sci
ent
ifi
cresea
rch. Thatisbecausesc
ient
ist
sa ndsci
entif
icdis
coverieshavec r
eat
edt he
pr
obl
emswhi
chc
ana
lsobes
olv
edbyt
hem.

QUE
STI
ONS
:

1.
Wha
tar
ethedi
ff
ere
ntr
eas
onsofc
ons
tant
lyi
ncr
eas
ingne
edsf
orwa
ter
?

2.
Wha
tar
ethet
woma
jors
our
cesofwa
ter
?Howt
heyc
onf
err
ede
achot
her
/

3.
Wha
tispur
ewa
ter
/Whyr
ive
rwa
terorr
ainwa
teri
snotdr
ink
abl
e?

4.
Howwa
teri
sex
tre
mel
yes
sent
ial
fora
lll
i
vingt
hing
s?

5.
Whywa
ters
uppl
yise
verg
rowi
ngpr
obl
em?Howc
anwes
olv
ethepr
obl
emofi
t?

11.
WHATE
INS
TEI
NDI
D

Thete
xtistak
enf rom‘TheHis
tor
yofknowledge’agenerals
urveyoftwenti
ethcent
ury .
Scie
nce
andtec
hnology.Astheti
tl
esugges
tsusthetex
tgivesthegenera
ls ur
veyonthegreatdeedsof
popul
arsci
enti
st,‘
Alber
tEins
tei
n’.
Furt
he r
moreitte
llsashorthi
storyofEi
nst
einpre
s enti
nghim
asbot
hs c
ient
istandpeacemaker
.

AlbertEi
nstei
nwa sborni nthecathedralc
ityofUlm, Germany,i
n1879. F r
omhi se
arl
i
eragehe
wa ssocreat
ivethatma dehimt hegreates
ts c
ienti
stoftheworld.Unfortunat
elyhedi
dn’
tdoit
andl ef
ttheschool.
Howe ve
ra nywayhema nagedhisstudyaga
ina ndgotde g
reein
ma themati
csfromt heunivers
ityin1900.Thenher eturnedbac
ktowha theha dal
rea
dybeen
i
nt ere
stedtosolvetheriddl
eoft heworld.Hepr oposedfourpape
r spublis
hedin1905whi
chare
i
nt err
elat
ed.

I
nt hefir
stpaperEinsteinexpl
a i
ned‘BrownianMot ion’ whichwa sprevi
ous l
ye xi
st
e d
phenome non.In1827t hebiologi
st‘Rober
tBr own’ noticedthatifyoulookeda tpoll
eng r
a i
nsin
wa t
erthroughami croscopethepollenji
ggle
sa bout .Hec al
ledhisji
ggli
ngBr ownianmot i
on’,but
Brownc oul
dn’twor koutwha twa scausi
ngit.Everythingaroundusi sma deupof fatomsa nd
molecules;t
hec ha
iry ou’r
esit
tingon,thefoody oue at,thea i
ryou’rebreathing.Theideaof
atomsha sbeena r
ounds i
ncethetimeofthea ncientGr eeks,andac enturybe f
oreEinst
ein,the
greatchemistJ
ohnDa lt
onha dsuggestedthatallc
he mi cal
swe rema deoft i
nyinvisi
ble
mole
cul
es,whi
chintur
nweremadeofe v
enti
nierat
oms.T
hepr
obl
emwastha
tthe
rewa
sno
pr
oofoft
heire
xis
tence
,unt
ilE
ins
tei
nlookedi
ntothepr
obl
emofBr
owni
anmoti
on.

Eins
tei
ne xpla
ine dthes ma ll
particl
ess uspe nde dinliquid.Her eali
zedtha tthegiggl
ingoft he
poll
engrainsse eninBrowni anmot i
onwa sduet omol eculesofwa t
erhi tti
ngthet i
nypol l
en
grai
ns,l
ik
epl aye r
sk i
cki
ngt heba lli
nag ameoff ootba l
l
.T hepoll
e ngrainswe rev i
si
blebutt he
wa t
ermole c
ule swe r
en’t,soitlooke dl i
ket heg rai
nswe rebounc i
nga roundont hei
rown.
Eins
tei
na l
sos howe dtha titwaspos si
bletowor kouthowma nymol ecul eswerehittingasingl
e
poll
engrainandhowf as
tt hewa termol eculeswe remov ingandbyl ook ingatthepol lengrai
ns.
I
mpor t
antly,Einstei
n’spa peral
s oma depr edicti
onsa boutthepr opert
ie sa t
omst hatc oul
dbe
tast
ed.I
nt hes econdpa pe rEi
nste i
nr esolvedt het hreec enturi
esolddi sputeaboutt he
composit
ionofl ight
.Hepr oposedt ha tl
ightisc ompos edofphot onstha tsome t
ime se xhi
bit
wa v
eli
kecha r
a cteri
st
icsa ndothe rtime sac tl
ikepa rticl
es.

Thetheori
e sofrel
ativ
itya r
ethemos tdi
s ti
nguishedc ontri
buti
onpr oposedbyE i
nsteininthi
rd
andforthpa pe
rs.Ei
nsteinstat
e dtha tt
het heor yofrelati
vit
ybelongstot hecl
assof“ pr
inci
ple-
theori
es”.Assuchitempl oysana nalyt
ic
a lme thod.Thi smeansthatthee le
me ntswhich
compr i
sethist
heorya renotba sedonhy pothe sisbutone mpiri
caldiscovery.
Thee mpiric
al
dis
coveryleadstounde rsta
ndingt hegene r
alCha r
act
e ris
ti
csofnaturalprocess
esinto
theoret
ica
l-mathema t
icaldescript
ions.Thereforebya nal
yti
calme a
nst hene c
essaryconditi
ons
thathavetobes at
isfi
eda rededuc ed.Separatee ventsmus tsat
isf
yt hesecondit
ions.Experi
ence
shouldthenma tc
ht hec oncl
usions.Thes peci
al theor
yofr elat
ivi
tyandt hegeneraltheoryof
rel
ati
vityareconnected.

Histhir
dpa perwhi chhec al
led‘Special
r el
ati
vitytheory’wasmor erevolutionarybe c
a useitwas
appli
edindi ff
erentf i
el
ds .Specialr
e l
ati
vit
yisat he or
yofthes tr
uctureofs pa c
eti
me .Itwa s
i
ntroducedinE i
nstein’
s1905pa per“ont heE l
ectrodynamicsofMov i
ngBodi es”.I
tisba sedon
theprinci
plere l
ativi
tyifwec a
na ssumet hatthes peedoflig
htisalwa ysthes amea ndt helaws
ofnaturea r
ec ons t
antthe nbot hti
mea ndmot iona rere
lati
vetoobs erver.Fore x
a mple;
passengersont wos pee dingtrai
nsa r
enota wa reoft hei
roverall
spe edasoneg oi
ngj ustalit
tl
e
fast
erthant heot her.Thel awsofphy si
csa r
et hes ameforallobserver
sr ega r
dles
soft heir
rel
ativetoonea not her.Thes peedoflightinav a c
uumi sthesamef ora l
lobs erv
ersre gardl
ess
oftheirrel
ativemot ionoroft hemot i
onoft hes ourceoftheli
ght.Ithasma nysurpri
sing
consequence s
. Someoft heseare;

Rela
tivi
tyofsimul
tane
ity:
Twoevents
,si
mult
aneousf
oroneobs
erv
er,
maynotbes
imul
tane
ous
foranotherobser
veri
ftheobs
erv
e r
sarei
nrel
ati
vemoti
on.

Ti
medil
ati
on:
Movingcl
ocksa
remeasur
edtot
ickmoreslowlyt
hananobs
erv
e r
’s“s
tat
iona
ry”
cl
ock
.Le
ngthc
ontr
a c
ti
on:Obj
ect
sar
eme as
ure
dt obeshorte
nedint
hedir
ect
ionthatt
heyare
movi
ngwit
hres
pecttot
heobser
ver
.

Amongthe
sepa
pe r
spr
oposedbyEi
nst
einThenfour
thpape
rwhi
chheca
lle
dGe ner
alr
ela
tiv
ity
the
ory
’ist
hemosti
mport
antbeca
usei
ta s
kedtheques
ti
onwhet
hert
heinert
iaoft
hebody
de pendsoni tse ne r
g yc ontent.Hec oncl
ude dwi thpos it
ivea nswe rthat‘inert
iaha dbe e nhe ldto
bede pe ndedont hema ssalone . Suche quivalenc eise xpressedint hefor mul
aE =mc 2whi chi s
cons i
de redt hemos ti mpor tantpi eceofk nowl edgeofa dvanc edphy si
cs.Hes ays‘E’ t
hee ne rgy
ofqua ntit
yofma tterwi thma s s‘m’ isequa ltot hepr oduc tofma ssandt hesqua reoft he
(cons t
a nt)ve l
ocityofl ight‘c’.Thev el
ocitywhi c
hi sa l
sot hes peedofpr opa gat
ionof
elec t
rody nami cwa veins pacei sv e r
yg r
e at:300, 000k il
ome trespe rseconds quare dthenumbe r
i
se normous .The reforei nat i
nyuni tofma t
t erahug ea mountofe nergyi sembe dde d.Itisa
the oryofg ra vi
tationde vel
ope dbyE i
nsteinI nthey e ars1907- 1915. T
hede vel
opme ntofg e neral
relati
v i
tybe g anwi tht hee quiv alencepr i
nc i
ple ,
unde rwhi chthes tatesofa cc
eleratedmot ion
andbe inga tre s
ti nag ravi
tationa lfi
eld(f ore xampl ewhe ns tandi
ngont hesurfaceoft hee arth)
arephy sica
llyide nti
c al.Theups hotoft hisist hatfreef alli
sine rt
ialmotion; anobj ectinfre efall
i
sf a l
l
ingbe c auset ha tishowobj ectsmov ewhe nt he reisnof or c
ebe inge xer
tedont he m,
i
ns teadoft hisbe i
ngduet othef orceofg rav i
tya sisthec asei nc l
assi
calme chanics.T hisi
s
i
nc ompa ti
blewi thc lassicalme chanicsands pe c
ia l
relativi
tybe causeint hosetheor i
e sinerti
a l
ly
mov i
ngobj e ctsca nnota cc
elera tewi threspe cttoe ac hothe rbutobj ect
si nfr
e efalldos o. Some
oft hec onse quenc esofg enera lrelati
vit
ya r
e :

Glocksr unmor eslowlyindee pergravit

ationa lwe l
l
s.Thisi
scall
edg r
a v
ita
tional
timedilat
ion.
Orbitspr oces
sinawa yunexpe ct
edinNe wt on’stheoryofgravi
ty.(
Thishasbeenobs er
vedi n
theor bitofMe rc
ur yandinbina r
ypuls a
rs).Ra ysofli
ghtbendi nthepresenceofag r
avita
tional
fi
eld.T heUniverseisexpanding,andt hefa rpa r
tsofitaremov i
nga wayfromusf as
terthant he
spee dofl i
ght.
Thes pe
c i
alr
e l
ativi
tyfi
tswi t
ha ndsolvesforele
me ntaryparti
cal
sandthe wir
i
nte racti
onwhe rea sgeneralrel
ativ
itysolve sforthecosmologica
l a
nda str
o-physi
calr
e al
m.
Spec i
al r
e l
ati
vi
tywa swidelyac c
eptedbyphy si
cscommuni tyin1920.Thats owhyheg otNobe l
pri
c eforphy si
csin1921.

The rei snodoubta lbertE i

ns te i
nwa sa l
rea dybe ingt heg reate stsci
e ntistoft hewor ld.Buthe
wa spa ci
fistag oodpe ace ma k er.Heus edt oha tethewa ra fter1918, fearedt ha twa rwoul d
soone rupta gai
nbe forer enounc edGe r
ma npe oplea ndwe ntUni tedS ta t
es .The r
ehec onti
nued
wor k i
ngont heg ene ra
l theor ys earc
hi ngt hewa ystoma k et oma k ebe li
e veds cienc eas
be ne f
icialrathert hanha rmf ul.Butin1939, whe nADOL FHI TLE Rtookov erGe rma nyi n1933
Einsteinr enounc e dGe r ma npe oplea ndwe ntUni t
e dS tates.The r
ehec ontinue dwor kingont he
gene r
a ltheor ysea r
chingt hewa ystoma k ebe l
i
e veds ciencea sbe ne fi
cialra t
he rtha nha r
mf ul
.
Buti n1939, whe nthewor l
dr eachedhi mt ha ttwoGe r
ma nphy si
c i
stsha ds plitura nium, atom,
wit has l
i
g htlossoft ota lma ssthatwa sconv ert
e dintoe ne rgyher ealizedt hatwa rinitselfwas
nott heonl yda nge r
ousbutt hel unaticswhous edi t.Hedi scus sedwi thhi sf r
iendsa ndwr otea
l
e ttert oPr esidentF ranklinD. Roos velttot a kesomea cti
ont os topf orthc omi ngda ng erofwa r
butheg ots oftrepli
e s.Hes pe ndsal otmone yfort hes ak eofpe a
c ebuthi sque stf orcomi ng
da ng erofwa rbutheg otsof tr epl
ies.Hes pe ndsal otmone yfort hes akeofpe acebuthi squest
forpe a cewa scompl etel
ye nde dwhe nJ apa na tt
a c
k edov erPe arlHa rbour. Henot i
c edt hewor l
d
wa sa lreadyi ntothewa r.Onet heonha ndhewa sha ppybe c auses ciencewa sthous andsof
stee psa he adbuthewa sbr ok enhearte dbe causeofde vastatingre sultsofi t.Hisla sthopewa s
Unit
edNa ti
onsfort
hepeace.Whe nhedi
edin1955hewast
heonlymanintheworl
dwho
bel
ieve
dt hathewasri
ghtabouttheuni
ver
se,hewhoha
dlea
dma nki
ndtounder
sta
ndmoreof
tha
tstruc
turethananysc
ient
ists
inceNewton.

QUE
STI
ONS
:

1.
Wri
teabr
iefhi
st
ori
cal
sur
veyonAl
ber
tEi
nst
ein.

2.
Wri
tes
umma
ryi
nonepa
rag
rapha
boutE
ins
tei
n’sde
eds
.

3.
Wha
tisE
ins
tei
n’sBr
owni
anMot
ion?Wha
tar
eit
scons
eque
nce
s?

4.
Expl
ai
nEi
nst
ein’
sspe
cia
lthe
oryofr
ela
tiv
itywi
thonee
xampl
e.

5.Whati
sEi
nest
ein’
sge
ner
alt
heor
yofr
ela
tiv
ity
?Whyi
tisauni
quepi
eceofk
nowl
edg
efor
advanc
edphys
ics
?

6.
Sta
tei
ntwopa
rag
raphsE
ins
tei
nasas
cie
nti
sta
ndape
ace
mak
er.

12.
MIRACL
ESOFT
HEGRAS
S
J
ose
phWoodKr
utc
h

J
osephWoodKr utc
hpresentssci
encei
na ni
ndir
ectst
ylemix
ingthema
gicofNat
urewi
ththe
mar
v e
lofsc
ienti
fi
cinv
es t
iga
t i
onski
l
lf
ull
yint
erweavi
ngthepoetr
yofWaltWhi
tmanwit
hthe
f
act
softhetheoryofevol
ution.

TheGe r
manwri
ter‘Goethe
’def
inest
hegra
ssa
sli
vi
nggar
me ntofGod”.
Beingnat
ural
i
sthe
mixesupre
li
gi
ousideaswit
hromanti
cfe
eli
ngt
othepr
esentgr
assini
tsrea
lsta
te.Gr
ass
poss
e s
sest
heomniprese
ntqual
ity
.

I
tiswidelyspreadallovermountain,
rock
,val
ley,
fi
el
de t
casgreenobje
ctofnatureaboutwhich
Goethethinksgreenca r
pet,s
ofttofeet
,rest
full
totheeye,
plea
surabl
etooursoulandg i
ftf
or
ourli
fe.I
tisfl
ouris
hinga ndwithe
ringaccor
dingtothesymphonyofNatur
e.Itisf
oll
owingthe
sys
temofNa t
ureasot herli
vi
ngthingswhic
hi smir
acl
eforGoethebecaus
eitisnotsuper
na t
ural
rat
herthanfa c
tinNa ture.

Li
keGoethes c
ient
istpresentg r
assinanobjec
tiverea
li
ty.Botani
stsdef
ine‘gras
sisoneamong
numerousgeneraands pecieswhichcomposet hatt
hefami l
yofmonoc ot
yledonousfl
oweri
ng
pl
antsl
ongk nowna sGrami neae’.
Ac c
ordi
ngtot hemallt
hev ari
eti
esofgras
sbe l
ongtothe
sameclas
s.Concerningit
sre vol
uti
onaryhi
storyitwasconfusedsi
ncethefossil
recor
dwa snot
f
ound.Buti
tshi
st
oryisnotbe
foret
heai
rbrea
thinga
nima
lsc
rawel
oneart
h.Butnowgras
s
c
onfer
redupondif
fer
entspec
iesl
ik
ewheatpaddyet
cwhi
char
etr
emendousbl
essi
ngoutoft
he
e
volut
ion.

Ame ric
a npoe t
,Wa l
tWhi tmanwr otepoe m‘ le avesofg ra s
s’wi tht hef ac
toft het heoryof
evoluti
onwhi chiscons i
dereda sma sterpiec e. Wha tisg ra
ss?a nswe ri
ngt heque s
ti
onpoe tsays
grassreprese ntstheunityofna tiona lminda ndc haracterwhi chisthet rues piri
tofhisna ti
on,
ma nif
es t
ingc hangesa ndprog re
s sfromt hepa r
tofGod’ sde sign.Itisulti
ma t
e l
yas centedgift
forus.Butt oda ypeoplea retotallyignor anta boutthet reme ndousg i
ftofit.Whi chwec al
led
breadt houg h.Wea rede speratelybus yse ekingr ecreation,e nte r
tainme nta ndr ec
rea t
ionli
ke
plasti
cforc hina,neonl i
ghtforda wna nds uns etorma sspr oduc e
dbr e a
doft hetextureof
cottoninc ont r
asttohome ma debr ead. Pe opl ea rebus ysee kinge xpe r
iences uchjoy
substit
utingt hesethings.Ofcour se‘ j
oybewi thus’.Buts uchwa ysofg etti
ngj oysarefunny
thi
ng sforthos ewhowa ntstoha veinf i
nitej oyofor iginali
ty. He nryDa vidThor eauonc e
explai
ne dtha thedidnotdr i
nkwi nebe c
a usehewa sa frai
di tmi ghts poilhistasteforwa ter
.
Nowada yspe oplearemov i
ngov erthing sv eryf ast
lybutnowa sne verbe forene arl
ye very
body
canha ver athertoomuc hofma nyt hingsnotwor t
hha vi
ng. De pri
va t
ionc ank il
lj
oye special
ly
forthosewhoa lwayswa ntmor e .Mor et oy sac hi
ldca nplaywi tha rebur dennotabl essi
ng.

Fr
anci
sBa c
onwr ot e“
T heha ppinessoftheg r
eat”whichc onsi
stsonlyinthinki
nghowha ppy
ot
hersmustsuppos ethe mtobe .
Inhi st
imethet er
m“ s
tatus”wa spopularwhichiswi
dely
acc
eptedbysoci
ol ogi
ststoda ywhichha dnotbe eninventedbyt hem.T hede s
ir
eforst
atusi
sthe
sa
mede si
retobee nvi
e dforLouisx i
vbecauseshesa ysnoonee l
seinthewor ldcanhav
ea s
manytuli
psasIca nandt heywi l
lenv yme.ForJosephWoodt he yareov e
rde pri
vedwhi
chhas
ki
ll
edhisj
oybeca usethewhol eeightyseventhousandsoft ul
ipslookdullforhi
m.

Economis
tsli
kePuri
tanT hor
stei
nVe bl
esai
dg ra
s si
sa“st
atussymbol”
.Theytookthegra
ss
underthe
irpri
nci
pleoflostandprofi
twhic
ha uthorsa
yswrongjudgement.Gras
sisnotmer
ely
alawnorstat
ussymbol.Be y
ondofitbeautyofitmustbetake
ni nt
oconsi
derati
on.I
nthats
ense
theyar
efail
uretoproducemor eple
a s
uref
orthea ddi
ti
onalef
fort.

Authorsug
ge s
tsustoli
vedownuponl awntos eewha tha ppensifwedoubta nexper
iment
mightbewor t
hwhil
e.Theli
ttl
emirac
lesri
sesitsfl
owe rtowa r
dthes un.Gras
sli
edownont he
sur
faceofeart
hrefres
hingf
a i
rbeaut
yofspring’st
r uefa
c ebri
ng i
ngt hefr
eshnes
sforal
l
cre
a t
uresacc
ompa nyi
ngwiththem.Furt
he r
mor eifweg ot hr
ought heexperi
mentofbiol
ogi
st
s
miracl
esri
sesthr
oughitsev
oluti
onar
yhistory.

Thepopularstate
me nt“allf
les
hisgrass”iswidel
yaccepte
dbys ci
enti
stsandr el
igi
ouspe opl
e
l
ikeSt.
Petertoo.ForSt.Peteral
lf
leshisgrassbeca
usema ntoo“witheret
ha ndt heflower
t
he r
eoffal
let
ha wa y”.
Forbot a
nis
ts“allf
leshisgr
ass”i
smor ethanthatofs t
.pet
e r
.Noc reat
ure
coul
de x
isti
fitwe renotforthefac
tg r
e enplant
sme di
atebetweenthema ndinanima t
e
ma t
eri
al
softhee arth.Theyonlyhavethepowe rofris
ingbyonestepther elat
ivesimpli
cit
yof
t
hemi neralt
ot hecompl ex
it
yofthepr otei
nbe c
ome sprot
oplasmmy s
te r
iouslywhichisthe
 e
ssenc eofcr
eatur
es’l
if
e.I
nt i
me,amanpassesa
wa y,
heals
owit
hersa
ndt hef
lowe rt
hereof
f
all
sa wa y
,pr
otopl
asmdescendst
hesca
leag
a i
ntome r
elymi
ner
alandgr
asspic
ksitupa g
ainto
r
epea tthecy
cle.I
nsuchre
voluti
ona
rywaytheproc
essbega
nsomebil
l
ionsofyearsagomust
c
ontinuea sl
ongasli
fel
ast
s.

Thelit
eralands ci
enti
fi
ctrut
hsa boutthemiracl
e softhegrassa r
ee qua l
lyveri
fi
edjusta soneis
oldanda notherisnewone .Buthereisabigissuerai
sesbyt heque sti
on, whic
hoft het wo:
mor a
ltruthofthea posta
lorthetruthofthebiologi
sts,i
sthemos tprofounda ndthemos t
i
mpor tant?Authertell
susthatwema ybewr ongwhe nweg i
ves tr
esst othepa r
ti
cularone
becausethereisaf i
nechemistr
yinbe tweenthe m.Butiti
sk nownt ha tma nycivi
l
izx
ationswe r
e
creat
eda ndt hendestr
oyedbyme nwhowe r
ei nnoce
ntoft hischemistry.Itmightbepos si
ble
thatci
vil
izat
ionwi l
lfai
lbeca
usewedok nowoneonek i
ndoft ruthandf orgettheotherinour
pri
de.

QUE
STI
ONS
:

1.
Whyg
ras
sismi
rac
lei
nNa
tur
ebutnotami
rac
uloust
hing
?

2.
Howdos
cie
nti
st
sde
fineg
ras
s?

3.
Wri
tet
hea
tti
tude
sofpur
it
ansa
ndna
tur
ali
st
slook
inga
ttheg
ras
s?

4.
Howa
reF
ranc
isBa
cona
ndL
oui
sxi
vsi
mil
ari
nte
rmof“
sta
tus
”?

5.
Whye
conomi
st
sar
efa
il
uret
opr
oduc
emor
epl
eas
uref
ort
hea
ddi
ti
ona
lef
for
t?

6.
Howdoe sWa
ltWhi
tema
n’sv
iewong
ras
sise
vol
uti
ona
ry?Doe
sits
imi
l
art
othev
iewof
bi
olog
ist
s?

T
ECHNI
CALS
ECT
ION

1.S
TEAMBOI
LERS
 S
tea
mboi l
erisanappar
atusdesig
nedtocovertali
qui
dtovapor
.Moder
nBoi l
ersaredevel
ope
d
i
nresponsetode mandf
orlargequant
iti
esofste
ama thi
ghpres
sur
eandtempe ra
tures.
Aboil
er
c
onsi
s tofafurna
ceinwhichfueli
sburnsurf
acestotr
ans
mitheatf
ormthecombus t
ionand
s
pacewhe resteamcancoll
ect.

Mode rnboilersemploysoli
dfuels.Me chanicals
tokerse nsureanadequa tequant
it
yoffueli
nto
thefurnacea ttheproperspeed.The reisdeeperre
lations hi
pbetwe e
na i
randfuel
.Suf
fi
ci
ent
amountofa i
rne ededforcompletec ombus t
ionofthef ue l
.Theproduce dhotgas
esare
cir
cula
tedr oundt hebanksofwa t
e rtube s
.Thewa t
e rinsidethetubea bsorbedala
rge
proporti
onoft hehe atst
eamc ir
cuitsa r
ede s
ignedtoa ttainthegreat
es tposs
ibl
efl
uidvel
oci
ty.

Thelossofheatf
romcombusti
oncanber educ
edbyt heuseoffi
rebr
ick
sroundthewall
softhe
chambe r
.Sol
idwall
sar
eline
dwithwa t
e rt
ubestopreventi
tfr
ombe i
ngdama g
edbyexcess
ive
heat.Water-
tube
sareusedtowit
hs t
andhighpress
uresandtempera
tures
.Astopval
veiss
etto
all
owe sc
apeofsteamatpres
sur
ea bovenormaloperat
ingpr
essur
e.

2.CARBURAT
IONS
YST
EM

Car
bur
atori
sadevi
cewhic
hmixesfuelandairinacorre
ctpropor
ti
on.Componentsof
car
bur
etori
ncl
udej
et,
chokeorventur
ev al
vea ndst
oragechamberf
orli
qui
dfuel.
T hef
unc
ti
on
ofj
eti
stomixaspr
ayofpet
rolwi
tha i
r.Thej
e tisi
nse
rtedi
ntoachokeorvent
ure.

Thesprayofpet
roli
nthepi
st
oncreat
esatmospher
icpr
ess
ureinthefl
oatc
hamber.Thepe
trol
becomesgasinthecompr
ess
orandthei
mme diat
espra
yofa not
herdr
opatomis
esit.T
he
thr
ottl
evalvei
soperat
edbytheac
cel
era
torwhichcont
rol
stheamountofmix
ture.

Atahi
ghrunni
ngspeedthesi
nglej
etcarbur
etorf
ail
stosuppl
ycorrec
tmi xtur
eofaira
ndf uel
.A
sec
ondje
tisprovi
dedt
oc ompensa
tethisdef
ect.
Thiscompensat
ionjetcansuppl
ypetrol
a tt
he
qui
cke
rratet
ha nt
hemainjet
.Ithel
pstoobtai
nane ar
lycons
tantfue
la i
rrati
o.

Anotherprobl
emtobesolve
disthatofst
arti
ng,whenri
chmix
tureisre
quir
ed.Tos
olv
ethi
s
probl
emt herei
saprov
isi
onofanidel
er-j
etthatfl
owsoutt
hefue
l i
ntothei
nta
keai
rasares
ult
ofreducedpres
sur
enearthepar
tial
l
yc l
osedthrot
tl
eval
ve.

3.CHAI
NRE
ACT
ION
 Cha
inrea
cti
onisaser
iesofnuc
lea
rfi
ssi
ons(s
pli
tt
ingofatomicnucl
ear
),i
sini
ti
ate
dbya
nut
ri
ti
onproduce
dinaprecedi
ngfi
ssi
on.
Iti
sasel
f-sust
aini
ngsequenc
e.

Chainreacti
onsing e
ne r
a la
rev eryrapi
dande mit
tedne utront ra
v e
latahi g
hv e
loc
ity
.Howe ve
r,
agreaternumbe roflibe
r a
tedne utronsca
nbec aptureda ndt her
mol i
sedunderthecont
roll
ed
nucl
e ar
.ChainReac t
ion.Thereismode rat
or,t
heobj e
c tofwhi chistocaptureneut
ronandto
minimizeescapeandl eakageforcha i
nreac
ti
on..Amode ratorcanbeal i
quid(heav
ywa t
er),a
sol
id(graphi
te)oflowa tomicwe i
g htandhavelowne utrona bsorpt
ion.Theminimumqua nt
it
y
ofurani
umr equiredtoiniti
atethec hai
nreact
ioniscall
edt hec ri
ti
calmass.

T
her eisacanorcl
addingwithmeta
lsuchasal
uminumormagnes
iumtopreve
nturani
umf uel
e
leme ntsf
romlosi
ngstrengt
handbe c
omewr i
nkl
edthe
seca
nscontai
nthehi
ghlyr
adioac
ti
v e
f
is
sionsproduct
sthatpreve
ntsre
acti
ontak
ingpla
cebet
weenthefue
landthecool
ant.

Chainreac
t i
oniscontrol
ledinas uchwaythatasteadyneutronfl
uxr at
ea ndst
eadyproduc
tion
ofheatene r
gyisma i
ntained.Themoderatorwi
thac ont
rolrodorr odsofcadmiumhaveav ery
hig
hne utr
ona bsorpt
ionc r
os s
-s e
cti
onisusedtocontr
olit
.Itfunct
ionstos t
abi
li
zechai
n
react
ion.Thus,chai
nr ea
c t
ionsself
-sus
tai
ningoftherat
iooft henumbe rofdaught
erneutr
ons
thatcaus
ef i
ssi
ontot henumbe rofpar
entneutr
onsisone.

4.CONDUCT
ORSANDCONDUCT
IVI
TY

E
lect
ri
ccurr
entisaf
lowofe l
ectr
ons .
Ele
ctronsfl
owt hroughar
ecall
edconductors.T
hewa y
c
ouldbeonepointt
oa not
herthroughame di
umv ac
c um. T
hespe
edofe l
ectr
onsde pendson
t
heme di
umt ha
tisconduc
ti
vit
yoft heme di
um. I
ftheme di
umiss
oli
dtheelect
r onsfl
owwill
be
s
lower.

Currentfl
owsa ccor
dingtothede gr
e eofres
ist
anceofconductor
s.Sol
uti
oninli
qui
dsisknown
asgoodc onductors
.Insul
ator
sa r
ek nowna sabadconductorwhichst
opstheelec
trontofl
ow.
Mos tgasesatnormal t
empe r
aturena ndpress
urearegoodinsul
ator
s,butgas
esma i
ntai
nedat
l
owpr es
sureinas e
aledtubeall
owf lowingcurr
ent.
S ol
i
dsg r
eatel
yinresi
st
ancearegood
conductors,
ares oresi
sta
ntareinsulator
s.

Thelengt
ha ndthecrosssec
ti
onoftheconduct
orandit
sresi
st
ivi
tyofmat
e r
ial
andi nc
reas
ein
temperat
ure.There
forethetempera
tur
e si
nsul
atedc
onductor
smus tbek
e ptrea
sonablyl
ow
becauseanyins
ulat
orli
a bl
etolos
ethei
rinsul
ati
ngpr
opert
iesandall
owsthecurrenttopas
s
thr
oug hi
t.

5.PE
TROL
EUM
 Petroli
umma ybede finedasthecompl exmixtureofvari
oussubs t
ances,mostl
yhy dr
ocarbons
theyc ont
a i
nappr opri
a t
eproces
s i
ngme thodmus tbea doptedtoma nufact
urethene ces
sary
quantiti
esofpr oductdoftherequire
dqua li
ti
esf r
omt hecrudeoi l
s.T
hema inma nufact
uri
ng
me thodisusedi noilref
iner
yisfract
ionaldi
sti
llat
ion.
T heme thodisbasedonthedi f
fer
encesin
thephy si
calprope r
ti
esofthehy drocar
bons.Itissepa
ra t
edouti nt
ope t
rol,
avia
tionspir
it,
kerosene,di
esel oi
landlubri
cants.

Thedev el
opme ntorthepi
pe -
sti
llhasr
ev ol
uti
onizedref
iner
yprocesses
. I
tiscapabl
eof
cont
inuousope rati
onande f
fi
cientf
ract
ionati
on.Inordertoobtai
nthemos tef
fect
ive
sepa
rationofthef r
acti
ons
, amode r
ndistil
li
ngunitcons
ist
sofabr ea
klinefurnaceanda
numbe roffr
actioni
ngtowers.Crudeoi
lpa ssest
hroughtubes,i
tisheat
e dande nte
rsint
othe
fr
act
ioningplantwhe r
eitcome sint
othec ontac
twithcondensedvapora ndgetsdis
ti
ll
ed.

I
ntheprocessofcr
ack
ingthehydr
ocarbonsaresubje
ctedtoare
lati
vel
yhightempera
tur
e( 550c
)
ov
erape r
iodofti
mewhi chl
eadst
othebr eakdownoflarg
emolecul
arint
os mal
le
ronea ndli
ght
oi
l
ssuchaspe t
roli
sproduce
d.Cat
aly
ticcrac
kingproces
sisus
edfortheconver
sat
ionofheavy
oi
l
stohigherocta
nepe t
rol
.

6.PI
LESF
ORF
OUNDAT
IONS

I
nmode r
ne nginee r
ingpilesof‘concrete’
or‘st
eel’aredri
ve nintothegroundt osupporta
str
ucture.Uns t
a blesoil
s,pile
sa r
ei ndis
pensi
blebuil
dingsuppor tsandma yal
s obeus edto
sta
bleg roundwhe ne xcepti
ona l
l
yl arg
es t
ruct
urall
yloadisinvolved.Thecarr
yingc a
pacityofthe
pil
ede pendsont hef r
ict
ionalresis
tanceoftheg r
ounda gainstthesit
esofthepi l
es.Pi
lesare
dri
veni ntotheg roundbypi l
edriver.Alt
ernat
iveme thodisuse dincasethesoili
sdiff
icul
tto
excav
a te,inthi
sme thods oili
scuredouta ndthenwhol eisfil
ledwithcompac tedconcrete
.Such
for
ma ttedpilesa reknowna sinsit
upi l
es.

I
Nc a
seofdri
venpi
les,
pil
esaredri
veni
ntothegr
oundbyma chi
nes
.Itcons
ist
sofafra
mewit
h
appl
i
ancesf
orrai
si
nganddroppingapi
lehammer.Thefr
amec a
nbea dj
ust
eda sne
eded.
Hamleti
spl
acedontheheadofpil
etoprot
ecti
tfr
omt hebl
owsofaha mmer.

St
il
lpi
lesar
enowe xt
ensi
vel
yusedforst
ruct
uresasiti
scapa
bleofbeingdriv
e nthroughhar
d
mater
ialwi
thl
essri
skofdamag
e,it
slengthcanbeincr
eas
etothede pth.
Whe re
a s
, t
heconc
ret
e
pi
lesa
redif
fi
cul
ttohandl
e,tot
rans
port,ast
he ya
rev e
ryheavy
,requir
ereinforcementand
l
ia
bletobedamaged.
7.S
USPE
NSI
ONBRI
DGE
S

S
uspensi
onBri
dgeisabri
dgewit
hove r
headcabl
essupport
ingi
tsroa
dwa
y.I
nmodernt
imet
he
s
uspensi
onbri
dgehasprovi
dedaneconomics
olut
iontotheprobl
emofl
ongspa
nswhe
re
r
ela
tiv
elyl
ig
httra
ffi
chastobecar
ri
edov e
r.

T
her
ear
etwo-
dis
ti
nctme
thodofc
ons
truc
ti
ngt
hec
abl
e:

_
Thewi
resma
ybet
wis
tedr
oundc
ent
ral
sta
nd-
str
ande
dwi
rer
ope
s.

_
Thewi
resma
ybes
punpa
ral
l
elt
oea
chot
hera
ndc
lampe
dtog
ethe
rate
ter
nal
.

Pa
ral
l
elwi
reme
thods
pinni
ngt
hec
abl
eha
ssomea
dva
nta
gesov
ert
hes
tra
nde
dwi
reme
thod.

Conti
nuousl
yma dec a
blesar
eanchoredthr
oughthetopsofthetowersa
nddownt hroug
hs i
de
towers
.Saddl
e sa r
efixedonthetowertoprev
entthecabl
e sfr
ombe i
ngrobbeda
gainstt
he
tower.
Thec a
bles tandsarenor
ma l
lyl
oopedroundstra
nds hoes,
whicharei
ntur
nc onnec
tedby
chai
nstoana nchorplateembeddedinthebaseoftheanchorage.

Cast-
stee
lcabl
e-bandsa
reatt
ache
dtot
hecabl
esal
ongthemai
nspanati
nte
rva
ls.
Theseba
nds
suspender
sbeartheenti
rewei
ght
yoft
hede
c k
.Thebr
aced-
cha
insus
pender
sarer
igi
dandhig
h
tensi
l
es t
rengt
h.

8.AE
ROF
OIL
S
Thispas
sagetalk
soft hetec
hnologi
cal
dev el
opmentinthefie
ldofaer
onauti
calengineer
ing.
Aerofoi
l
sareshape dsurf
acessuchast
her udder
,theeleva
torsandai
l
e r
oms.Aerofoil
s
producesal
if
tingforceandfuncti
onst
oc ontr
olai
rcr
aftinfl
ight
.Thej
etortheprope l
l
er
provi
deshori
zontalthrus
t,whil
ethewingproducesali
fti
ngforcei
nordert
os us
tai
nt hea i
rcr
aft
.

Animpor tantconsi
derat
ionint hedesi
gnofanaeropl
aneisitswing
s.Loft
ingpowe rofthewing
s
depe ndroughlyonthewi nga r
ea,it
sprof
il
eandtheangleofinci
dents.Ai
rcr
aftusuall
yemploys
aerofoi
lsthatarethenands treamli
netha
tall
owstheairfl
ows moothlyandwithoutturbur
ance.
I
nc aseofar apidl
ossofli
f t
,theslot
sarefi
tt
edtotheleadingedgeofthewingstog ui
dethe
st
ea dil
yfl
owofa i
r.F
lapsa r
ef i
tte
dtothetrai
l
ingedge
sf orthela
ndingons l
ows peed.

Winghasavert
ica
lcomponentcal
l
edlif
tandthehori
zontalc
ompone nt
scal
leddr
agwhic
hare
s
ettothedir
ecti
onofmotion.
Dragcreat
esres
ist
ancetothemotion.Whil
elami
narfl
owover
t
hewingreducesi
tsre
sist
ance
.Howe ver
,t
heairs
wil
lsaroundthewingti
psandtr
ail
i
ngedge
i
ntoarei
gnoflowpressur
ewhichproducesavor
tex
.