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To cite this article: Anit Mukherjee (2016): Fighting Separately: Jointness and Civil-Military
Relations in India, Journal of Strategic Studies, DOI: 10.1080/01402390.2016.1196357
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THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2016.1196357
ABSTRACT
How do countries transition from single service to joint operations? This article
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Introduction
Jointness, succinctly defined as the ability of the Army, Air Force and the
Navy, to plan and operate in a mutually reinforcing manner, has been a
matter of debate in all militaries. This should not be surprising as getting the
services to work together is, at best, controversial and, at worse, proble-
matic. While most attribute problems to one of turf battle, at a more
fundamental level it stems from differing visions of war. Each of the services,
shaped by its own capabilities, doctrine, institutional prisms and threat
perceptions, is strongly attached to its preferred strategy for war-fighting.
Usually air forces consider counter-air missions including air defence to be
of primary importance and assign counter-surface operations a secondary
priority. In addition, some air power proponents tout strategic bombing as
1
Strategic bombing is in reference to strategic war, i.e. the view that wars can be won by attacking
critical targets, including cities, industries, infrastructure and military installations of the opponent, as
opposed to tactical bombing, i.e. attacking ground forces in direct combat. I thank a reviewer for
suggesting this clarification; also see Robert A. Pape, Bombing to Win: Air Power and Coercion in War
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996) and Karl P. Mueller, ‘Air Power,’ in Robert A Denemark
(ed.), The International Studies Encyclopedia, I (April 2010), 47–65.
© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 A. MUKHERJEE
the preferred way to ‘win’ the war.1 The army typically wishes to concentrate
air assets to deal with tactical forces opposing them, including enemy air
forces and prefers air power to be used for close air support. For the army,
holding and capturing territory and destroying the enemy’s land forces is the
best way to win a war. The navy is concerned about fleet protection from a
variety of threats including submarines, surface ships, air threats and missiles.
At the heart of the divide is the question of control and ownership over assets
in the theatre of operations. Thus, there is a variance in how different services
imagine war and the role that it envisages for itself and the other services.
How do countries resolve these differing visions and transition from
single service to joint operations? This article engages with this question
by examining the experience of the Indian military, the world’s third largest.
Grounding my analysis on recently available archival material in the UK and
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India combined with more than 30 interviews with key officials, I make two
central arguments. First, left to themselves the services tend to settle upon
the coordination model of jointness which adversely shapes military effec-
tiveness and is fiscally wasteful. The coordination model envisages an
independent role for the three services wherein they are free to plan,
train, equip and prepare for their respective missions and agree to ‘coordi-
nate’ their operations when required. This is the natural state when the
single services are dominant. Second, as civilian intervention is crucial to
overcome entrenched service interests, civil-military relations are the most
important, but not the only, driver for jointness.
This topic is important for a number of reasons. First, by treating civil-
military relations as the primary explanatory variable for jointness, I high-
light an underexplored area of research. This is surprising as most militaries
have moved towards greater jointness primarily due to pressure exerted by
civilians.2 Second, jointness is contemporarily relevant as it is not only being
debated in the Indian military but is also of current concern to Chinese,
Russian and German military leaders, among others. In China, for instance,
the Third Plenary Session of the 18th CPC Central Committee in 2013
proposed military reforms ‘[for] implementing and advancing joint opera-
tions capability’.3 In Russia too jointness is a matter of current concern with,
among other measures, the creation of joint strategic commands in 2010.4
2
For the role played by civilians in enacting the Goldwater-Nichols Act in the US see James R. Locher III
and Sam Nunn, Victory on the Potomac: The Goldwater-Nichols Act Unifies the Pentagon (College
Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2002). A similar role was played by civilians in UK and in
Australia, see Bill Jackson and Dwin Bramall, The Chiefs: The Story of the United Kingdom Chiefs of Staff
(London: Brassey’s, 1992) and Arthur Tange, Australian Defence: Report on the Reorganisation of the
Defence Group of Departments (Department of Defence, Canberra, 1973).
3
Kevin McCauley, ‘PLA Joint Operations Developments and Military Reform,’ China Brief, 17(7),
9 April 2014.
4
Katarzyna Zysk, ‘Managing military change in Russia,’ in Jo Inge Bekkevold, Ian Bowers and
Michael Raska (eds.), Security, Strategy and Military Change in the 21st Century: Cross Regional
Perspectives (London: Routledge, 2015), 164.
THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES 3
5
Martin Zapfe, ‘Strategic Culture Shaping Allied Integration: The Bundeswehr and Joint Operational
Doctrine,’ The Journal of Strategic Studies, 39(2) (2016), 246–60.
6
Walter C. Ladwig, ‘A Cold Start for Hot Wars? The Indian Army’s New Limited War Doctrine,’
International Security, 32(3) (2007), 177.
7
Shashank Joshi, Indian Power Projection: Ambition, Arms and Influence, RUSI Whitehall Paper No. 85
(London: Routledge, 2015), 27–29.
8
David Scott, ‘India’s Aspirations and Strategy for the Indian Ocean–Securing the Waves?’ The Journal of
Strategic Studies, 36(4) (2013), 508, 493–94.
9
As quoted in Robert D. Kaplan, Monsoon: The Indian Ocean and the Future of American Power
(New York: Random House, 2010), 125–26.
4 A. MUKHERJEE
Peacekeeping Forces (IPKF) in Sri Lanka from 1987–1990 and the 1999 Kargil
war. This highlights the main characteristics of the coordination model –
single service approach to planning, training and operation and lack of
interoperability. It also highlights the norm of civilian non-intervention on
matters pertaining to jointness. Next it analyses an instance of peacetime
innovation – the post-Kargil defence reforms.10 This focuses attention on
civilian reluctance to appoint a Chief of Defence Staff and how this under-
mined military reformers and perpetuates the single service approach. The
penultimate section discusses contemporary debates on jointness and
explains civilian motivation for non-intervention. The conclusion identifies
areas for future research.
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Conceptualizing Jointness
Despite being a widely used term, there is no commonly accepted definition
for jointness. Highlighting this aspect, Don Snider notes that ‘all [definitions]
tend to focus on the efficient integration of service capabilities at the level
of joint force commander (JFC).’11 According to the US military doctrine,
jointness ‘implies cross-Service combination wherein the capability of the
joint force is understood to be synergistic, with the sum greater than its
parts (the capability of individual components).’12 For the purpose of this
article, jointness is defined as the ability of the three services to plan, train
and operate in a ‘synergistic’ manner.13
Jointness can be envisioned in two main ways: coordination and integra-
tion. As defined earlier, the coordination approach allows maximum auton-
omy to the services and does not require resolution of potentially
contentious issues over turf, roles and, most importantly, command and
control. Jointness is left to the discretion of the service commanders. On the
other hand, the integrated model of jointness is one in which there is ‘unity
of effort’ wherein the three services operate under a single commander.14
10
This paper examines conventional military effectiveness and excludes the nuclear issue altogether.
This is due to two factors. First, there is considerable secrecy and therefore unverified speculation
surrounding the Strategic Forces Command (SFC), a tri-services organization handling India’s nuclear
weapons. Second, there has been no discernible change in jointness among the services due to
India’s possession of nuclear weapons.
11
Don M. Snider, ‘The US Military in Transition to Jointness: Surmounting Old Notions of Interservice
Rivalry,’ Airpower Journal (Fall 1996), 19.
12
JP1: Doctrine for the Armed Forces of the United States, March 2013, ix.
13
For more on synergy between the services see William A. Owens, ‘Living Jointness,’ Joint Forces
Quarterly (Winter 1993-94), 7–14.
14
The term unity of effort has been defined by John M. Collins as a principle that involves ‘solidarity of
purpose, effort, and command. It directs all energies, assets, and activities, physical and mental,
towards desired ends,’ see John M. Collins, Grand Strategy: Principles and Practices (Naval Institute
Press: Annapolis, 1973), 28.
THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES 5
15
James A. Winnefeld and Dana J. Johnson, Joint Air Operations: Pursuit of Unity in Command and
Control, 1942-1991 (Naval Institute Press, MD: Rand, 1993), 4.
16
David Johnson, Learning Large Lessons The Evolving Roles of Ground Power and Air Power in the
Post–Cold War Era (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 2007), 137–200.
17
Eugene Gholz and Harvey M. Sapolsky, ‘Restructuring the U.S. Defense Industry,’ International
Security, 24(3) (Winter 1999/2000), 50–51.
18
Adam Grissom, ‘The Future of Military Innovation Studies,’ The Journal of Strategic Studies, 29(5)
(October 2006), 911–13.
19
Peter D. Feaver, Armed Servants: Agency, Oversight and Civil-military relations (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 2003), 297; also see Harvey M. Sapolsky, Eugene Gholz and Caitlin
Talmadge, US Defense Politics: The Origins of Security Policy (Routledge, 2008), 37–47.
20
I thank Stephen Rosen for this insight.
6 A. MUKHERJEE
different ‘theories of victory’ (or war).21 Forcing the three services to plan for
a single theory of victory – on the grounds of promoting jointness, may lead
to a disaster if the ‘theory’ (or assumptions therein) turns out to be inade-
quate or incorrect. On the other hand, giving autonomy to the three services
to implement their respective theories of war may lead to different capabil-
ities that may still prove advantageous. This judgement of the correct
degree of autonomy to be given to the services and the capability devel-
opment therein is therefore context dependent and requires close analysis
of individual case studies.
While these trade-offs matter, it is widely recognized that jointness tends
to enhance military effectiveness. As noted by Millet, Murray and Watman,
an ‘operationally effective military organization is one that derives maximum
benefit from its components and assets by linking them together for mutual
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services function in the field.25 However, rarely has jointness been studied as
an instance of military innovation. One possible explanation has been
suggested by Grissom – as most military innovation studies focus on ‘histor-
ical cases’ and jointness is a relatively recent phenomenon, it might not have
fetched adequate scholarly attention.
Despite this neglect, debates informing the study of military innovation
apply to our understanding of the transition to jointness. The most pertinent
one is between Barry Posen and Stephen Rosen. Posen examined interwar
doctrinal developments in the UK, France and Germany to conclude that
civilian intervention was crucial to innovation. While his study does not
examine jointness per se, however, he anticipates inter-services rivalry and
argues that as ‘each service – army, navy, air force – fights for its own
interests … only civilian intervention can shake loose these inter-service
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25
For an argument that jointness qualifies as an instance of major innovation see Tai Ming Cheung,
Thomas G. Mahnken and Andrew L. Ross, ‘Frameworks for Analyzing Chinese Defense and Military
Innovation,’ in Tai Ming Cheung (ed.), Forging China’s Military Might: A New Framework for Assessing
Innovation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014), 18.
26
Barry R. Posen, The Sources of Military Doctrine: France, Britain, and Germany Between the World Wars
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP 1984), 226
27
Stephen P. Rosen, Winning the Next War: Innovation and the Modern Military (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP
1991), 19–22.
28
For more on the differences between the civil-military relations and intra-service models of military
innovation see Grissom, ‘The Future of Military Innovation Studies,’ 908–10 and 913–16.
8 A. MUKHERJEE
the other, as our case studies will show, is insufficient to overcome bureau-
cratic inertia and resistance.
make them less likely to fail in battle. Posen argues that balance of power
theory, more specifically an external threat, makes it more likely that a state
will innovate. The logic of enhancing military effectiveness animated the
defence reforms process culminating in the Goldwater-Nichols Act in the
United States.30 A similar logic – of improving operational effectiveness,
drove defence reforms in Britain especially after the experience of the
1982 Falklands War. Significantly, however, ‘in the absence of a push from
civilians, the British military were slow to redress this problem.’31 Some
European countries, notably France, Italy and Germany among others,
have also moved towards jointness to address shortcomings observed dur-
ing coalition power-projection operations, mainly in the Balkans.32
The second factor motivating civilian leaders is financial efficiency. The
single service approach to weapons acquisition, training and logistics often
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30
Locher III and Nunn, Victory on the Potomac, 4 and Roman and Tarr, ‘The Joint Chiefs of Staff,’ 98.
31
Theo Farrell, Sten Rynning and Terry Terriff, Transforming Military Power since the Cold War: Britain,
France, and the United States, 1991-2012 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 123.
32
Gordon Adams and Guy Ben-Ari, Transforming European Militaries: Coalition Operations and the
Technology Gap (Oxford: Routledge, 2006), 9–18, Piero Ignazi, Giampiero Giacomello and Fabrizio
Coticchia, Italian Military Operations Abroad: Just Don’t Call it War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,
2012), 108 and Sten Rynning, ‘From Bottom-Up to Top-Down Transformation: Military Change in
France’, Terry Terriff, Frans Osinga and Theo Farrell (eds), A Transformation Gap? American Innovations
and European Military Change (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), 71–72.
33
Farrell, Rynning and Terriff, Transforming Military Power since the Cold War, 123; also see Theo Farrell,
Weapons without a Cause: The Politics of Weapons Acquisition in the United States (Basingstoke:
Macmillan, 1997), 143–44.
34
Garden, ‘Last Post for the Chiefs?’ 47.
35
Alice Pannier and Olivier Schmitt, ‘Institutionalised cooperation and policy convergence in European
defence: lessons from the relations between France, Germany and the UK,’ European Security, 23(3)
(2014), 277.
10 A. MUKHERJEE
The arguments made in this article are twofold. First, that jointness
requires civilian intervention as in its absence militaries will continue with
the single service approach that maximizes their power and autonomy. In
this endeavour civilians need to support, and need the support of, those
within the military who are willing to break from parochial service loyalties
to push their institutions towards greater jointness. Second, the coordina-
tion model of jointness that stems from the single service approach
adversely shapes military effectiveness. This is because it is an inherently
divisive model in which the services battle over roles and missions.
Moreover the coordination model is not suitable for joint planning and
operations or for interoperability between the services.
To support this argument I examine jointness and civil-military relations
in India. Civilians in India have, by and large, refrained from enforcing
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36
Alexander M. Golts and Tonya L. Putnam ‘State Militarism and its Legacies: Why Military Reform Has
Failed in Russia,’ International Security, 29(2) (Fall 2004), 123.
37
Michael S. Chase, et al, China’s Incomplete Military Transformation: Assessing the Weaknesses of the
People’s Liberation Army (PLA) (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2015), 46.
38
Zysk, ‘Managing military change in Russia,’ 157, 164 and McCauley, ‘PLA Joint Operations
Developments and Military Reform.’
THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES 11
litical’ for civilian control to consolidate.40 During the early years after
independence the Ministry of Defence, staffed exclusively by civil servants,
slowly came into being and started asserting itself. Inevitably this created
tensions with the military. Lord Mountbatten played an important role in
counselling India’s politicians, civilian bureaucrats and military officers dur-
ing this time. More importantly, from the perspective of jointness, he
lobbied time and again for creation of a joint staff under a Chief of
Defence Staff (CDS). This episode reveals much about India’s political class
and its fear of the military.
India’s higher defence organization was set up on the advice of British
officers, mainly Lord Mountbatten and General Ismay. While doing so they
had discussed the creation of a permanent chairman of the chiefs of staff
committee – a precursor to a joint staff. However Mountbatten thought that
this post should be deferred by around 12 years as ‘the Indian Army was one
generation ahead of the other two in producing experienced senior officers
since the Indian Air Force and Navy were started so much later.’41 Exactly 12
years later, in 1960, Mountbatten approached Nehru and recommended the
creation of a joint staff to be headed by a Chief of Defence Staff.42 However,
for reasons not exactly clear, Nehru demurred from doing so. After the 1962
39
Phillip C. Saunders and Joel Wuthnow, ‘China’s Goldwater-Nichols? Assessing PLA Organizational
Reforms,’ Strategic Forum (April 2016), 2.
40
For more on civilian control see Stephen P. Cohen, ‘Civilian Control of the Military in India’ in Claude
E. Welch, Jr. (ed.), Civilian Control of the Military: Theory and Cases from Developing Countries (Albany,
NY: State University of New York Press, 1976).
41
The following account relies on a note entitled ‘Creation of the Chief of the Defence Staff for India,’
prepared by Mountbatten for Defence Minister YB Chavan on 7 May 1965 that he shared in a Strictly
Personal and Private letter with General JN Chaudhuri in MB1/J235/56, Mountbatten papers,
University of Southampton.
42
Personal and Private letter from Mountbatten to Nehru dated 9 December 1960 in MB1/J302,
Mountbatten papers. It is not a coincidence that during this period Mountbatten was the CDS in
the UK and was intellectually attached to the idea of jointness. Mountbatten had also influenced the
creation of joint officer training at lower and mid-levels at the National Defence Academy (NDA) and
Defence Services Staff College (DSSC) respectively. India was one of the first countries in the world to
establish such joint institutes but it gradually lost out on this advantage.
12 A. MUKHERJEE
war, Mountbatten once again made this suggestion and, as before, Nehru
turned it down arguing that ‘there are all manner of considerations to be
borne in mind.’43 While Nehru never clearly explained what these ‘consid-
erations’ were, however, it can be assumed that Nehru was concerned about
a possible loss of civilian control.44 This assessment – that appointing a CDS
will weaken civilian control, has resonated with the Indian political class –
even to this day. The idea for a CDS has been raised periodically by
generations of Indian military officers, only to be consistently rebuffed.45
As discussed later, the debate on the CDS has contemporary relevance.
Mountbatten’s efforts came to naught primarily because by the 1960s
civilians, both politicians and civil servants were comfortable with the exist-
ing system and apprehensive of disturbing the status quo. Moreover, the
military was divided on this issue – with the Air Force in firm opposition.
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43
Personal and Confidential Letter no. 290-PMH/63 from Nehru to Mountbatten dated 9 February 1963
in MB1/J302, Mountbatten papers.
44
For more on this see Steven Wilkinson, Army and Nation: The Military and Indian Democracy since
Independence (New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2015), 130–31.
45
Almost all Army Chiefs, from the mid-1960 onwards, have petitioned, some publicly and some in
private, for the creation of the post of CDS usually with an expectation that they would assume this
post.
46
Srinath Raghavan, ‘Civil-Military Relations in India: The China Crisis and After,’ The Journal of Strategic
Studies, 32(1) (2009), 167.
47
For more about distinct civil-military domains see Anit Mukherjee, ‘Civil-Military Relations and Military
Effectiveness in India,’ in Rajesh Basrur, Ajaya Das and Manjeet Pardesi (eds.), India’s Military
Modernization: Challenges and Prospects (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2013), 196–229.
THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES 13
General A.S. Kalkat, who was subsequently in charge of the IPKF, noted that
‘though Air Force and Naval assets were given but they were still taking
orders from their headquarters and as they were not dedicated to me this
resulted in delays affecting planning and operations.’53
The second issue on jointness was the lack of interoperability between
the three services. Partly a result of single-service thinking and indicative of
organizational priorities none of the services had prepared for joint opera-
tions. Unsurprisingly therefore the services did not have the capability to
communicate with each other. On the rare occasion when they carried out
joint tactical operations an army radio detachment was deputed to be
located on helicopters or naval crafts.54 Among the few instances when
naval fire support was requested by the army, it engaged targets 2 km away
from where it was needed.55
Civilians had no role in facilitating jointness or even in the operational
conduct of the war. The single service approach was evident from the lack of
joint structures and from problems in interoperability. India’s overall military
effort in Sri Lanka therefore suffered, as commanders were reluctant to plan
for joint operations. Civilian involvement was also lacking to support the
effort by the three chiefs to create a tri-services command. Their vision,
50
For criticism of inter-services operations from the then OFC Commander see Depinder Singh, IPKF in
Sri Lanka (Delhi: Trishul publications, 1991), 59–60, 168–69; also see Kalyan Raman, ‘Major Lessons
from Operation Pawan for Future Stability Operations,’ Journal of Defence Studies, 6(3) (July 2012),
43–44.
51
Interview with Josy Joseph, ‘Till the LTTE get Eelam, they won’t stop,’ Rediff.com, March 2000.
52
Interview with Josy Joseph, ‘Nobody sounded even a last post for our dead in Colombo,’ Rediff.com,
March 2000; also see Jagan Pillarisetti, ‘Descent into Danger: The Jaffna University Helidrop,’ Bharat-
rakshak.com, http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1987IPKF/index.html
53
Interview, New Delhi, 27 October 2009.
54
Yashwant Deva, Sky is the Limit: Signals in Operation Pawan (New Delhi: Pentagon Press, 2007),
231–34, for more on inter-services communications see 322–23.
55
Depinder Singh, IPKF in Sri Lanka, p. 169; for more criticism of the navy’s role during these operations
see S.C. Sardeshpande, Assignment: Jaffna (New Delhi: Lancer Publishers, 1992), 57–59.
THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES 15
perhaps ahead of its time, was overcome from opposition from within their
services. This was indicative of a strong single service culture that emerged
from the coordination model of jointness.
Why did civilians not impose jointness or undertake defence reforms after
the IPKF operations? In fact an attempt at defence reforms was made in the
aftermath of this experience and was spearheaded by Arun Singh, a former
Minister of State for Defence, and was called the Committee on Defence
Expenditure (CDE). This report made wide-ranging recommendations but
these were unacceptable to civilian bureaucrats and military officials and the
report was quietly buried.56 They were successfully able to do this as, during
this time, there were frequent changes in the political dispensation and,
moreover, there was a collective wish to turn the page on the IPKF episode.
In addition, jointness and higher defence management did not capture
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public attention. For these issues to come to the limelight it would take a
much bigger crisis – which duly came around a decade later in the form of
the Kargil war.
this day.60 Apart from tensions between senior officer and inter-services
rivalry, there were two other problem areas pertaining to jointness.
First, execution of joint operations was difficult because of ‘faulty struc-
tures’ which did not facilitate joint planning, training and information shar-
ing. This issue of ‘faulty structure’ began from the very top with the
functioning of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC). The views of the
services could not be more different as General V.P. Malik claimed that the
COSC is the ‘worst organization for joint planning’61 while a senior Air Force
officer who was present at the meetings called it ‘a very effective body.’62
This divergence reflected an institutional divide on the proper model for
jointness as the Air Force prefers to continue the ‘coordination’ model and
the Army argues for a more ‘integrated’ approach preferably under its
control. Regardless, the COSC which functions as a consensus committee
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could not resolve the differences between the services. Apart from problems
at the highest level, there were other issues at the functional level of
planning. There was no Forward Air Controllers (FAC) in the entire theatre
as the Air Force did not feel the need for it. Instead, army aviation helicop-
ters were diverted to be used as airborne FAC’s but this ad-hoc arrange-
ment, which suffered from a lack of training, proved to be rudimentary and
largely unsatisfactory.63
There were problems even in information-sharing between the two
services. Conditioned by a single-service approach the services maintain
separate operations rooms and are traditionally averse to information shar-
ing. As a result, Air Force officers argue that the Army at different levels –
army, command and corps headquarters, did not fully share their opera-
tional plans, future tasking and contingencies.64
The localized theatre of conflict also meant that the ‘Tactical Air Center’
(TAC) system did not work.’65 As a result Air Force operations were almost
incidental to the ground attack plans. Tellingly, General V.P. Malik was even
approached by one of his field commanders to halt the air strikes as it was
interfering with his battle plans, but declined to do so.66 In sum, judging by
training, capabilities and planning it does not appear as if the Air Force had
60
‘Ex-Air Marshal returns army fire,’ Rediff News, 8 June 2004.
61
Interview with General V.P. Malik, Chandimandir, 1 June 2010.
62
Interview with officer who wishes to remain unnamed, Gurgaon, 30 August 2010.
63
Interview with Air Marshal Vinod Patney, 2 September 2010. Air force jets did not have the capability
to communicate directly with army helicopters and instead information about the accuracy of the air-
strikes was conveyed to the fighter pilots once they returned to the operations room.
64
Telephone interview with then Air Officer Commanding (Jammu and Kashmir), Air Marshal Narayan
Menon, 27 May 2010; also see his ‘Kargil – 10 years after,’ first published in Indian Defence Review and
reproduced at Bharat-rakshak.com, http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Kargil/1059-Menon.
html
65
Telephone interview with Air Marshal Narayan Menon, 27 May 2010.
66
Interview with the General V.P. Malik, Chandimandir, 1 June 2010, and with Lieutenant General
Mohinder Puri, Gurgaon, 25 May 2010. General Malik argued that he wished to maintain inter-
services unity and continue the diplomatic pressure on Pakistan.
THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES 17
prioritized close air support during the preceding years. The prevalent
notion within the Air Force was that the ‘use of air power in direct support
of ground battle is its most inefficient utilization’67 and that the Army only
wanted it to be used for ‘artillery support.’68 Indicative of this the Air Force
had experimented with ground-based laser designators since 1983, but
when faced with difficulties it justified away their need.69
Another major problem pertaining to jointness was the lack of interoper-
ability. Most evident while examining communications systems, the three
services operated their own systems and did not have the ability to securely
communicate with each other. To resolve this, 15 Corps allotted a signals
detachment to be co-located with relevant Air Force units.70 However,
lacking ground to air communications, troops in contact could not guide
aircrafts onto desired targets.71 There were other issues too, for instance,
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‘maps used by Army and the Air Force were completely different and this
led to a lot of problems.’72 These problems however should not have been
too surprising as the concept of interoperability was never emphasized.
As before, civilians did not concern themselves with the issue of jointness
during this war. While aware of the differences between the services how-
ever, they remained loyal to the principle of non-interference in ‘operational
affairs’. Jointness was a matter that was left to the services to deliberate
upon and resolve. The Kargil war revealed major weaknesses in the cap-
ability of the Indian military to undertake joint operations and the problems
inherent to the coordination model of jointness. The casualties suffered by
the Indian military during this war and the resultant public outcry put
pressure on political leaders. This also created an opportunity for civilians
to intervene in what was considered the operational matters of the military
and to push for greater jointness. However, as described in the next section,
this was an incomplete transition and the single service approach still
largely dominates.
national security. Its Task Force on Defence was led, ironically, by Arun
Singh, and comprised 10 other officials, including serving and retired mili-
tary officers and civil servants. The main thrust of the Task Force was on
achieving jointness.74 It aimed to do this by two principal recommenda-
tions – simultaneously creating the post of Chief of Defence Staff and a joint,
tri-services command called Andaman and Nicobar Command (ANC). These
initiatives however failed in degree – a CDS was never appointed and the
ANC was subverted in practice by the services.
As previously discussed, the post of a CDS has been a matter of con-
siderable historical debate.75 Members of the Arun Singh led Task Force on
defence made the creation of a CDS a principal idea allowing for a number
of follow on recommendations such as establishing an Integrated Defence
Staff (IDS) and other joint agencies. While the government accepted the
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follow-on recommendations however, it did not create the post of CDS. This,
according to a member of the Task Force, ‘ripped the heart out of the GOM
recommendations.’76 There was opposition to the CDS post from the Indian
Air Force and from some civil servants, however the government was willing
to overrule their objection and was poised to create such a post, when the
Congress Party firmly expressed its opposition.77 The government then
backed down and since then the official position of the Ministry of
Defence is that the CDS post is awaiting the ‘consensus of all political
parties.’78
Even without a CDS, the government went ahead with the proposal to
create the joint ANC. A brainchild of Arun Singh, there was an expectation
that this experiment would lead to geographically located Joint Commands
in the future.79 However, the services were resistant to the idea of joint
commands and viewed them as a threat to their autonomy and institutional
interests. They therefore worked against this command. This was done
primarily by starving the command of assets.80 In addition, they retained
74
There were 15 references to ‘joint’ in the 21 page redacted report of the Task Force on Defence, see
Reforming the National Security System: Report of the Group of Ministers on National Security (New
Delhi: Government of India, 2001), 97–117.
75
Apart from Mountbatten’s efforts in the 1960s, the argument about creating a CDS has been
periodically debated, see Jerrold F. Elkin and W. Andrew Ritezel, ‘The Debate on Restructuring
India’s Higher Defence Organization,’ Asian Survey, 24(10), (Oct. 1984), 1069–85.
76
Arun Prakash, ‘India’s Higher Defence Organisation: Implications for National Security and Jointness,’
Journal of Defence Studies, 1(1) (August 2007), 24.
77
Inder Malhotra, ‘Security Misstep,’ Indian Express, 15 May 2014.
78
This was the official position of the government under then Prime Ministers A.B. Vajpayee and
Manmohan Singh and the current position of the Narendra Modi government, see Standing
Committee on Defence, Thirty Sixth Report: Status of Implementation of Unified Command for Armed
Forces (New Delhi: Lok Sabha Secretariat, February 2009), 5, and reply to unstarred question no. 846
on ‘Chief of Defence Staff,’ Lok Sabha Questions, 24 July 2015.
79
Interview with Vice Admiral P.S. Das, who was a member of the Task Force on Defence, New Delhi,
24 June 2009.
80
Patrick Bratton, ‘The Creation of Indian Integrated Commands: Organisational Learning and the
Andaman and Nicobar Command,’ Strategic Analysis, 36(3) (May-June 2012), 447.
THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES 19
81
Interview, Gurgaon, November 5, 2013; also see Bratton, ‘The Creation of Indian Integrated
Commands,’ 447-48.
82
Vivek Raghuvanshi, ‘India Gives Navy Control of Andaman and Nicobar Command,’ Defense News,
29 November 2013.
83
Email to author, 3 September 2015.
84
Arun Prakash, ‘A Vision for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,’ in From the Crow’s Nest: A Compendium
of Speeches and Writings on Maritime and Other Issues (New Delhi: Lancer Publications, 2007), 147.
85
Gaurav Sawant, ‘Interview with Admiral Sushil Kumar,’ The Indian Express, 6 January 2002.
20 A. MUKHERJEE
Logistics Command.’86 The experience with the ANC highlights the critical
role that civilians need to play in supporting reformist officers especially on
matters pertaining to jointness. Admiral Sushil Kumar and Admiral Arun
Prakash – both of whom functioned as Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff
Committee could not impose their will in favour of jointness on the other
services.87 Tellingly, Admiral Sushil Kumar is now criticised by current gen-
eration of naval officers for giving up a command in the service of an ideal.
The post Kargil defence reforms provided an opportunity for civilians to
enforce jointness. This effort was led by Arun Singh who was brought into
the Defence Ministry at the behest of Jaswant Singh, who in turn was
‘temporarily’ in charge of the Ministry for seven months.88 Their efforts
improved jointness to an extent, particularly with the creation of the
Integrated Defence Staff, Andaman and Nicobar Joint Command and
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86
Email to author, 18 April 2014, emphasis in the original.
87
This also revealed the weakness inherent to the existing Chiefs of Staff Committee system. As this
committee functions on the basis of consensus it is unable to deliberate upon substantive issues, see
Arun Prakash, ‘Three Invisible Men,’ Force, 9(4), (Dec 2011), 10.
88
Jaswant Singh was ‘temporarily’ in charge as George Fernandes, who held the post previously, was
under investigation in a corruption scandal. After being cleared, Fernandes resumed his duties.
89
John Cherian, ‘In Defence of Changes,’ Frontline, 18(19) (September 2001), http://www.frontline.in/
static/html/fl1819/18190250.htm
90
For an assessment of defence reforms under the Congress government see Anit Mukherjee, ‘Cleaning
the Augean Stables,’ Seminar (658) (June 2014).
91
This finding is supported by other studies examining jointness in the US, see the Project entitled
‘Beyond Goldwater-Nichols,’ Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), http://csis.org/pro
gram/beyond-goldwater-nichols
THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES 21
92
A.K. Tiwary and A.S. Gill, ‘Jointmanship- An Air Warriors Overview,’ Purple Pages, 1(1)
(November 2006), 39, emphasis added.
93
Arun Prakash, ‘Keynote Address,’ Proceedings of USI Seminar on Higher Defence Organisation (New
Delhi: United Service Institution of India, 2007), 9.
94
For more on the advantages of a proposed integrated approach over the current coordinated one,
see Vijai Singh Rana, ‘Enhancing Jointness in Indian Armed Forces: Case for Unified Commands,’
Journal of Defence Studies, 9(1), (January-March 2015), 33–62 and Deepak Kapoor, ‘Need for
Integrated Theatre Commands,’ CLAWS Journal, Summer (2013), 52–60.
95
For other sources of opposition to the CDS see S.K. Sinha ‘The Chief of Defence Staff,’ Journal of
Defence Studies, 1(1) (August 2007), 135–36.
96
Interview with former Defence Secretary Shekhar Dutt, New Delhi, 22 September 2015.
22 A. MUKHERJEE
97
Anit Mukherjee, ‘The Absent Dialogue,’ Seminar, (599) (July 2009), 24–28.
98
Ashley Tellis, India’s Emerging Nuclear Posture: Between Recessed Deterrent and Ready Arsenal (Santa
Monica, RAND, 2001), 285.
99
I thank an anonymous review for pointing this out.
100
‘Manohar Parrikar for integration of three Services, creation of CDS,’ Zee News, 13 March 2015.
101
Dinakar Peri and Amit Baruah, ‘I am the Defence Minister, and my concern is India’s defence,’ The
Hindu, 26 May 2015.
102
Press Information Bureau, ‘PM chairs Combined Commanders Conference on board INS Vikramaditya
at Sea,’ Government of India, Prime Minister’s Office, 15 December 2015, http://pib.nic.in/newsite/
PrintRelease.aspx?relid=133265
THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES 23
Conclusion
India’s weakness on jointness calls into question its ability to formulate a
coherent tri-services response to the ‘two-front threat’ posed by ongoing
territorial disputes with Pakistan and China.105 Problems in joint operations
in the event of a possible conventional war with Pakistan have already been
highlighted.106 But the lack of jointness could be even more consequential
along the China border where both the Army and the Air Force are ramping
up their capabilities. It is not assured whether these assets are mutually
supportive or are hindered by inter-services rivalry. India’s power projection
capability from the strategically located Andaman and Nicobar Islands has
been seriously hindered by inter-services rivalry.107 The lack of jointness is
problematic not just from the perspective of military effectiveness but also
on grounds of fiscal efficiency. The services are engaged in a bureaucratic
battle over the defence budget and are pushing their vision of war – the
103
Arguably the lack of political impetus on this issue is indicative of the minimal electoral pressure on
matters pertaining to national security in India, see Vipin Narang and Paul Staniland ‘Institutions and
Worldviews in Indian Foreign Security Policy,’ India Review, 11(2) (2012), 76–94.
104
Sureesh Mehta, ‘India’s National Security Challenges,’ Outlook India, 12 August 2009, http://www.
outlookindia.com/article/indias-national-security-challenges/261738
105
Stephen P. Cohen and Sunil Dasgupta, Arming without Aiming: India’s Military Modernization
(Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2010), 151–55.
106
Shashank Joshi, ‘India’s Military Instrument: A Doctrine Stillborn,’ The Journal of Strategic Studies, 36
(4) (2013), 525–28.
107
Anit Mukherjee, ‘The Unsinkable Aircraft Carrier: The Andaman and Nicobar Command,’ in Anit
Mukherjee and C. Raja Mohan (eds.), India’s Naval Strategy and Asian Security (Routledge, 2015),
86–105.
24 A. MUKHERJEE
Army wants more manpower, the Air Force is lobbying mainly for air super-
iority fighters and the Navy wants platforms to project power in the Indian
Ocean. In all this there is unnecessary duplication of training and operating
assets. An effective political-military strategy requires India’s political and
military leadership to resolve these differing visions, prioritize acquisitions
and strengthen inter-services cooperation to ensure that they are mutually
supportive. It is not assured if the leadership has been able to do so.
By focusing on jointness and civil-military relations this article highlights
some areas for future research. First, is jointness only possible when
enforced by civilians or are there other drivers? Intuitively it appears that
jointness requires assertive civilian intervention but there could be other
drivers. For instance, in Japan jointness was seemingly driven by its alliance
with the United States.108 There might also be a strong case for emulation
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108
Fumio Ota, ‘Jointness in the Japanese Defense Forces,’ Joint Forces Quarterly (Winter 2000-01),
58–60.
109
Dale R. Herspring, Civil-Military Relations and Shared Responsibility (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 2013), 145.
110
Theo Farrell and Terry Terriff (eds.), The Sources of Military Change: Culture, Politics, Technology
(London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002).
111
See Grissom, ‘The Future of Military Innovation Studies,’ 911–12 and Sopolsky, Gholz and Talmadge,
US Defense Politics, 96.
THE JOURNAL OF STRATEGIC STUDIES 25
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the following: Rajesh Basrur, Rudra Chaudhuri, Eliot
Cohen, Sumit Ganguly, Eugene Gholz, Devesh Kapur, Walter Ladwig, Bernard Loo,
Stephen Rosen, Ashley Tellis and Pascal Vennesson. In addition, the paper benefited
from feedback at the following venues: Military Affairs Centre at Institute for Defence
Studies and Analyses (IDSA), New Delhi, Center for the Advanced Study of India
(CASI), University of Pennsylvania and the Luncheon Seminar Series at S. Rajaratnam
School of International Studies (RSIS).
Notes on contributor
Anit Mukherjee is an Assistant Professor in the South Asia Programme at the S.
Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS), Nanyang Technological University,
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Singapore. He was a post-doctoral fellow at the Centre for the Advanced Study of
India (CASI), University of Pennsylvania and has a PhD from the Paul H. Nitze School
of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), Johns Hopkins University. From 2010–2012,
he was a Research Fellow at the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA),
New Delhi. While in the doctoral programme, he also worked at the Brookings
Institution and was a Summer Associate at RAND Corporation. He has published in
RUSI Journal, India Review, The Caravan, The New York Times, and Indian Express,
among others. His most recent publication is a co-edited volume (with C. Raja
Mohan) titled India’s Naval Strategy and Asian Security (Routledge, 2015). Formerly,
he was a Major in the Indian Army and is an alumnus of India’s National Defence
Academy (NDA), Khadakwasla.
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