TAOISM

HISTORY

Taoism, also known as Daoism, is an indigenous Chinese religion often associated

with the Daode jing (Tao Te Ching), a philosophical and political text purportedly
written by Laozi (Lao Tzu) sometime in the 3rd or 4th centuries B.C.E. The Daode jing
focuses on dao as a "way" or "path" — that is, the appropriate way to behave and to
lead others — but the Daode jing also refers to Tao as something that existed "before
Heaven and Earth," a primal and chaotic matrix from which all forms emerged. Taoism
did not exist as an organized religion until the Way of the Celestial Masters sect was
founded in 142 C.E. by Zhang Daoling, who based the sect on spiritual
communications from the deified Laozi. The Way of the Celestial Masters and other
later sects of Taoism engaged in complex ritual practices, including devotion to a wide
range of celestial divinities and immortals, and thousands of Taoist religious texts
were produced over the centuries. Taoists also engaged with Chinese politics in a
variety of ways throughout Chinese history. At one time, scholars in both China and
the West distinguished philosophical from religious Taoism, but more recently a
continuity of belief and practice between these has been recognized. In both, a
harmonious relationship between nature, humanity, and the divine is emphasized,
and both are concerned with appropriate behavior and ways of leading and governing
others. The term "Tao" has a number of meanings. Taoist religious sects were
persecuted in China during the 19th and 20th centuries, but are currently undergoing
a revival. Western interest in Taoism has, for the most part, been confined to the
Daode jing, but in both the West and in the East, there is considerable interest in
practices which, while not "Taoist" per se, are often associated with Taoism, ranging
from fengshui to taiji quan to acupuncture and herbal medicine.

Early Developments

The Han dynasty (206 B.C.E. - 220 C.E.) saw an increasing interest in the Taode
jing, Zhuangzi, and other related texts on the part of the Chinese literati — educated
members of the upper classes who pursued philosophy, literature, painting, and other
arts. A flourishing center for this type of learning was established by Liu An, also
known as Huainanzi (c. 180-122 B.C.E.), who was ruler of the state of Huainan and a
grandson of the founder of the Han dynasty. Liu An was a brilliant scholar who was
more interested in learning than politics, although he did engage twice with rebellious
movements and eventually committed suicide to avoid punishment for his role in an
unsuccessful coup. Legend has it that he did not actually die, but became an
immortal.

Liu An's favorite text was the Zhuangzi, and the discourse at his court favored the
Taoist school of thought over Confucianism. He invited philosophers, poets, and
masters of esoteric practices to his court. Only one text remains from this period, a
compilation of the writing of eight scholars that is now known as
the Huainanzi. The Huainanzi synthesized the philosophies of the Taode
jing and Zhuangzi, describes a number of self-cultivation techniques, and integrates
both the texts and the techniques with the proto-scientific theories of yin/yang and
the Five Agents.

Liu An's school was similar to a larger school of thought called Huanglao
Tao. Followers of Huanglao Tao revered the teachings of Laozi and also the mythical
Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), to whom several texts on methods of seeking immortality
were attributed. They advocated local autonomy and the pursuit of simplicity and
self-sufficiency. Several officials who were followers of this school attempted to lead by
the laissez-faire methods recommended in the Taode jing.

A different take on literati Taoism was represented by the legendary group of figures
called the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, who were believed to have lived in the
3rdcentury C.E. but became popular from the 4th century onward. The Seven Sages,
all admirers of Laozi and Zhuangzi, were said to have gathered together to write
poems, criticize the government, and prepare manuals of alchemical
practices. Eventually retreating to the countryside to avoid political intrigue, they
were portrayed as having lived simple, rustic lives, drinking and writing poetry. Later,
members of the nobility sometimes sought to imitate the Seven Sages; this often took
the form of gathering with one's friends and drinking too much. The Seven Sages also
became a favorite theme of paintings, and they remain popular figures in Chinese
culture today.

Throughout Chinese history, immortals have also been popular subjects of painting,
literature, and folktales. In the 1st and 2nd centuries C.E., there was a surge in the
popularity of stories about the lives of individuals who had become immortal, and in
practices that were believed to lead to longevity, perhaps even to immortality. While
some of these immortals were said to be individuals who had practiced the arts of
longevity, others were simply "taken away" and transformed. Early texts mention
shrines, festivals, groups of worshippers, and teachers affiliated with some of the
immortals, but none of these early organizations has survived.

Some individuals looked to alchemical techniques in hopes of attaining

immortality. One comprehensive source about these practices, which date back into
antiquity, was Ge Hong (283-343 C.E.), who was nicknamed "The Master Who
Embraces Simplicity." According to his autobiography, Ge Hong's father died when he
was 13, so he worked as a laborer cultivating his family's land. He described himself
as shallow, poorly educated but widely read, stupid, forgetful, lazy, untalented,
unsophisticated, sickly, and unattractive . . . and a prolific writer, though not a
particularly good one.

Among Ge Hong's few surviving writings is his Nei pien, or Inner Chapters, which he
described as belonging to the "Taoist school." Ge Hong's Nei pien recounted what he
had learned about "things out of the ordinary," especially practices for extending
life. While the Nei pien provides a number of detailed formulas for attaining
immortality, Ge Hong stated that he was too poor to obtain all of the necessary
ingredients, so he had never actually tried any of them and could not guarantee their
effectiveness.

In addition to literati Taoists, and to legends and practices surrounding immortality,

one other element of early Chinese culture would influence the emergence of Taoist
religious organizations toward the end of the Han dynasty — the fangshi. The origin
of the fangshi is uncertain; the word has been translated as "magicians," "recipe
masters," or "specialists in occult prescriptions." They may have been a later form of
the wu, a type of shaman who was involved in certain rituals at court during the Zhou
and possibly the Shang dynasty.
 ORIGINS
Beginnings

The Taoist religion emerged in China only after a long process of religious change
lasting from the end of the Shang dynasty (1700-1027 B.C.E.) until more than a
hundred years into the Common Era. The religion of the Shang had been centered on
a relationship between an earthly ruler and his ancestors, and particularly his
counterpart in the divine bureaucracy, the celestial emperor Shangdi. This
relationship was maintained through divination and blood sacrifice. It lost its hold
when that dynasty was overthrown, and the subsequent Zhou dynasty equivalent was
never as dominating.

The latter half of the Zhou dynasty, known as the Eastern Zhou (770-221 B.C.E.),
brought economic and social changes as well. The region became more urban;
agriculture expanded and forests were destroyed to create more fields for cultivation;
the population increased markedly as well. Merchant and artisan classes began to
rival the old feudal aristocracies. Literacy increased among the upper classes, as did
the number of people who received some type of education, and by the end of the Zhou
a sizeable body of literature had developed.

Religion and politics continued to be intertwined, as they had been in the Shang. The
Shang had believed that the ruler's position was ordained by a divine bureaucracy of
ancestors, headed by one supreme ancestor. As the counterpart of that divine ruler,
the earthly ruler's supreme charismatic potency, or de, enabled him to control the
affairs of state, assisted by male relatives.

As the social and political situation changed, and family relationships ceased to be the
only means of determining who leaders would be, advanced schooling developed as a
means of preparing the sons of the upper classes for positions in government. This
type of education was both intellectual and moral. The term "Tao" in Chinese means,
among other things, "way" or "path," and refers to a way to live and behave, and,
particularly in this period, it also refers to a way to rule over or lead others.

During the latter centuries of the Eastern Zhou there was an intensive cultural debate
about "the way" or Tao. This debate was sometimes called baijia zhengming, or "the
hundred schools contend," because so many different schools of thought engaged in
it. The most prominent discourses of the "hundred schools" had a profound impact
on subsequent Chinese political, social, and religious thought. Among these
discourses were the teachings of Confucius (Kongzi) (551-479 B.C.E.), Mozi (c. 480-
390 B.C.E.), Mencius (Mengzi) (4th century B.C.E.), Zhuang Zhou or Zhuangzi
(4th century B.C.E.), Xunzi (3rd century B.C.E.), and Han Feizi (c. 280-233
B.C.E.). Some of these teachers recorded their own ideas in writing, while others'
teachings were recorded posthumously by students.
Sometime around the 3rd or 4th centuries B.C.E., some writings of unknown origin
were collected to form what is now known as the Taode jing (Tao Te Ching), a book
about Tao (the way) and de (virtue, or charisma). The Taode jing is a compilation of
several hundred years of writing, and also includes some aphorisms that may have
been much older.

Around the late 3rd century B.C.E., some began to attribute the authorship of
the Taode jing to an individual called Laozi. Unlike the other participants in the
"hundred schools" debates, there is no evidence that Laozi was a historical figure. The
name Laozi means, literally Old Child, or Old Teacher. Some scholars surmise that
the association of the name Laozi with the text was intended to indicate that it was an
expression of ancient ideas or ancient wisdom. Soon Laozi's historicity was accepted,
and his biography was included in Sima Qian's famous 1st century B.C.E. collection of
historical records.

The Taode jing has a different form than most of the writings of the "hundred schools,"
which are typically composed of passages, short or long, that open with a phrase such
as "Confucius said" or "Mozi said." The contents may be short didactic sayings, or
they may be stories about conversations between a teacher and his students or
between the teacher and an opponent who represents a different opinion. In contrast,
the Taode jingtakes the form of poetry, and mentions no names. It is composed of 81
chapters, each no more than a page in length; some verses are only six to eight lines
long.

Another individual who wrote about the way, or Tao, was Zhuang Zhou (4th century
B.C.E.), also known as Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzu). Zhuang Zhou was an historical figure,
but little is known about him, and while he may have written parts of the book that
bears his name, other sections are obviously later additions. The book in its current
form was not compiled until 300 C.E.
 BELIEFS
Sacred Narratives

There is no one sacred narrative that is meaningful to Taoism above all others. There
are stories about the life of Laozi and of Laozi as an immortal, but these are not
foundational stories in the way that the story of Jesus is to Christianity, or those of
Buddha is to Buddhism. The legendary Laozi was initially a political philosopher, and
only later conceived of as a Taoist immortal.

Taoist religious movements began centuries later, based on purported revelations from
a deified Laozi and other gods and immortals. Among these revelations there are
many sacred stories, and there are also stories that predate these organized
movements but either served as thematic models, or inspired later Taoism in some
way.

One such collection of early stories, in poetic form, has been translated as "The Songs
of the South." Originating from the state of Chu in around the 4th century B.C.E.,
these poems represent a different culture than that of northern China of the Shang
and Zhou dynasties. The degree of difference is a matter of some scholarly
controversy. Some Han texts describe Chu as a barbarian culture under the religious
aegis of shamans, but this may have been based on attempts by Confucian scholars to
demean a competitive cultural sphere. The founders of the Han dynasty were from
Chu, and at the time of the "Songs of the South," Chu controlled much of the territory
south of the Yangzi River.

The most striking and memorable of the "Songs of the South" is a long narrative poem
the title of which, "Li sao," is usually translated as "Encountering Sorrow." It was
itself modeled after early sacred songs, and it was also a model for later accounts of
ecstatic journeys. In addition, "Li sao" provides an early example of the fascinatingly
ambiguous relationship between a human and the object of his or her spiritual
yearning.

In the case of Qu Yuan, the author of "Li Sao," the object of his yearning was the
ruler. He complained that the ruler had rejected him for public office, despite his
moral purity and love of righteousness. He had been "slandered" and "cast off," as so
many in early China had been due to political intrigues and machinations. Seeking an
alternative place to be useful, Qu Yuan rode a "phoenix-figured cart" yoked to "jade
dragons," and traveled to many realms where spirits and gods dwell. He spoke of
wooing various spirit maidens, a sexually ambiguous metaphor for his yearning for the
acceptance of the ruler. Dancing among the splendors of these realms, he suddenly
caught a glimpse of his old world, and he decided to "join Peng Xian in the place where
he abides." Ancient commentators identified Peng Xian as a minister to a Shang ruler,
one who had drowned himself. Qu Yuan's suicide by drowning is still commemorated
in yearly Dragon Boat festivals. Some modern scholars argue that Peng and Xian are
two different names, both of legendary shamans who created new shamanic skills.

Another set of shorter narrative poems from Chu with clear shamanic references is
helpful in understanding the allusions of "Li sao." Called the "Nine Songs," these
poems may have been the texts of Chu ritual dramas. In them, the eroticism of the
relationship between human and deity is even more pronounced. Lacking a strong
political theme, the poems focus on a search for an intimate relationship with deity,
and they detail various visionary encounters that occur, after which the seeker finds
him or herself again alone and abandoned.

While there are many differences between the texts of the Taoist canon and these Chu
poems, one can find within the canon many accounts of encounters with spirits,
immortals, and gods. Each set of scriptures revealed to the founders of the various
sects of Taoist religion was said to have been given by an immortal or deity, in a
visionary context. Those of the Shangqing sect were particularly vivid descriptions of
these encounters, and they were the foundation of the sect's emphasis on the
individual's personal, visionary journey to the spirit world.

The Shangqing texts described the encounters of Yang Xi, who received the texts, with
the "Perfected," or "True Ones," who declared themselves to be higher deities than
those who had visited the Celestial Masters. One section described the betrothal and
spirit marriage between Yang Xi and one of the Perfected females. It indicated that the
sexual rites of the Celestial Masters were inferior to a pure relationship with spirit in
which no vital energy is lost. Erotic in its imagery, the text nonetheless emphasized
that no base sexual acts would occur; the mixing of energies was a totally internal and
purely alchemical process.

Ultimate Reality and Divine Beings

According to the Taode jing, something existed "before heaven and earth" and the
author, not knowing the name of that something, called it Tao (Ch. 25). This Tao is a
very different Tao from the tao discussed as "the way," and it is a later use of the
term. The Taode jing uses the term in both ways (and several others). To distinguish
them, this article will capitalize the Tao of cosmology. This Tao is said to be the
primordial "stuff" from which all matter emerges.

From Tao a primal matrix of energy spontaneously occurred, existing then for eons in
a state of chaos known as hundun. Within this matrix are the qi, the cosmic breaths
that animate the universe, but at this point the qi are undifferentiated and exist only
as potential energies. At a certain point, for unknown reasons, the qi are
released. Some are light (yang), and travel upward to the heavens, some are heavy
(yin), and travel down to earth. Between these is a point of connection, the center
between the heavens and earth, which is equally important. From these three
emerges all of existence, described as the "myriad things," or the "ten thousand
things."

Once Tao enters into existence, it takes on yet another meaning; it is the natural
patterns and cycles of the cosmic and earthly order. All natural phenomena are
generated by the alternation between yin and yang energies. Matter ebbs and flows,
expands and contracts. The cycle of existence spontaneously moves through each of
the Five Phases: Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, and Earth. All things are thus classified
according to yin/yang and the Five Phases (sometimes called the Five Agents or the
Five Elements). Within everything there is also qi, the animating breath that is the
source of life.

Tao is not an entity or a divine being. There are no divine beings that existed before
this initial moment of creation, but the number of Taoist deities is staggering. The
pantheon differs according to sect and region, and its ranks are fluid. No divine being
exists forever, and all who interact with humans are subject to human time. Some
change over time, and all of them change status with time. Some are elevated, others
forgotten.

In the early days of Taoist religion, deities that preexisted Taoism continued to be
important to the Taoist religion, such as Xiwangmu, the Queen Mother of the West,
and her consort, the King Father of the East. She resides on the sacred mountain,
Kunlun, is able to teach and confer immortality, and remains a popular Chinese deity
today. Another significant early deity who carried over into Taoism was Taiyi, the
Great Unity or the Supreme One. In Shangqing Taoism he is regarded as the deity
who resides in the Great Dipper and built and unified the Nine Palaces of Heaven.

The Yellow Emperor, or Huangdi, was an important figure for Huanglao Taoism;
Huangdi, who became popular during the Han dynasty, was said to have ruled China
during the 3rd millennium B.C.E. To him were attributed several texts concerning
immortality, and some also credited him with the creation of humanity and the
invention of writing, the compass, the pottery wheel, the breeding of silkworms, and
many other essential elements of human culture. The Jade Emperor is another Taoist
deity who, like the Yellow Emperor, was said to have created humanity; he remains
very popular today.

With the Way of the Celestial Masters, Laozi became a principle deity, and he
continues to be the personification of Tao for many Taoists. He is usually regarded as
one of the Three Pure Ones, along with the Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning,
the Celestial Worthy of Numinous Treasure. There are also the three Officials, the
Emperor of the South Pole and Long Life, the Emperors of the Thirty-two Heavens, the
Emperor of Purple Tenuity and the Northern Pole, and many, many more. All of these
deities are divine emanations of celestial energy, pure cosmic qi, and have emerged
from primordial chaos.
Taoist immortals are another kind of divine being, and a third type are the
ancestors. Only those who die a natural death at the end of a completed life cycle can
become ancestors, who then may act as benefactors to the living members of the
family. Ancestors can also judge, however, and they may cause trouble for the living
who do not act as the ancestors expect them to act.

Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence

According to the earliest Taoist texts, when human nature is aligned with the rest of
nature, order and harmony are the result. From this perspective, the purpose of self-
cultivation is to return to a mode of existence that is natural, but has been obscured
by social conditioning. Repeating certain actions, such as physical exercises, is a way
of training the body so that it is free to react in a spontaneous, natural way. It is
similar to the experience of practicing one's shots in basketball and then making a
clutch basket in the big game — the preparation through repetition makes it possible
to act, at a certain moment, without thinking, in pure spontaneity (zi-ran). That
spontaneity is the mode of being that is experienced fully, at all times, only by the
immortals. For most people, however, including the laity and many of the Taoshi, the
goal is less lofty: to experience a long and healthy life.

Humans can deviate from the natural order. When they do so, they bring destruction
upon themselves and those around them. Confucian scholars were criticized in
the Taode jing for imposing rules and social expectations. According to the Taode jing,
social mores and threats of punishment cause more harm than good, as they are
methods of forcing appropriate behavior rather than allowing it to occur
spontaneously and naturally.

Instead, the only way to encourage appropriate behavior is by modeling it. If a ruler is
a person of impeccable character, those he leads would naturally follow. But how is
the ruler to become the ideal role model, thus insuring harmony for his empire? As an
8th century Taoist master said to a Tang emperor, "Who governs his body, governs the
country." Self-cultivation practices were common among the Chinese nobility as early
as the Warring States period, if not before. The types of practices have varied widely,
from simple reflection and self-examination — being "watchful over oneself when
alone" (The Doctrine of the Mean) — to, on the opposite end of the spectrum, taking
elixirs in hopes of becoming an immortal.

Suffering and the Problem of Evil

Taoist ideas about suffering and evil reflect a variety of influences, including early
Chinese religious beliefs, Buddhist beliefs, and popular religion. Different sects have
different beliefs, and these change over time, and individuals also have their own
beliefs. At times parallel beliefs are held that might seem contradictory. These
contradictions arise out of the multiple belief systems from which individual beliefs are
formed.
According to the Taode jing and Zhuangzi, nature itself is amoral; it cares nothing for
individuals. The Zhuangzi emphasizes that death is part of a natural cycle, and that
illness, death, and misfortune are inevitable aspects of human life. Thus, they are not
punishments for misdeeds, or manifestations of evil.

The Taode jing states that nature is not sentimental and treats the people like
sacrifices. Individuals are best off if they accommodate themselves to nature's laws
and patterns, because to go against nature will only bring difficulty and
trouble. When humans deviate from the natural order, societies will develop that are
harmful to many. On the other hand, when the ruler is enlightened, or advised by an
enlightened sage, the people he rules will exist in harmony with one another and with
nature.

According to ancient Chinese religious beliefs, which differ quite a bit from the above
but carried over into Taoist religion, each person has multiple souls: three hun, or
cloud souls, and seven po, or bone souls. The hun are light and naturally move
toward heaven, while the po are heavy and earth-bound, and deliberately aim to
destroy the body so that they may rejoin the substance from which they came. The po
will also report one's misdeeds to the heavenly officials.

Afterlife and Salvation

In no area is the lack of a single unified Taoist belief system more evident than in the
case of concepts about the afterlife and salvation. Several factors have contributed to
this: 1) Taoism was at no point the only religion of China, but, rather, coexisted with
Confucianism and Buddhism, as well as with Chinese folk religion; 2) each Taoist sect
had its own beliefs and textual traditions, and these underwent changes over time;
and 3) death and the afterlife became the province of Buddhism early in Chinese
history, so that most ideas about the afterlife are Buddhist, or were developed in
reaction to Buddhism.

Art found by archaeologists excavating tombs of the nobility has been quite varied,
and does not support any unified set of beliefs about the afterlife. Murals or carvings
featuring the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, immortals, and other legendary
characters of popular Taoism have been found in tombs, but there are Confucian,
Buddhist, and other mythical images present in the same tombs. In later dynasties,
continuing into the present, it is not uncommon to invite both Buddhist and Taoist
priests to officiate at a funeral, and the structure of contemporary Taoist funerals is
similar in many ways to those of Buddhism.

It is not surprising that once Buddhism had become established in China, many of its
ideas about the afterlife were adopted by Taoism, because there were so many well-
developed Buddhist ideas on the topic. Lingbao Taoism in particular incorporated
many Buddhist ideas about the afterlife, and Lingbao priests perform rituals
pertaining to the afterlife that priests of other sects do not, such as rituals transferring
merit to the deceased. Shangqing Taoist scriptures include elaborate descriptions of
the heavens and, to a lesser extent, the underworld; the use of Buddhist or Sanskrit
terminology in naming some of these is a clear sign of their Buddhist origin. The
concept of rebirth also became a factor in later Taoism.

Taoist notions of life beyond death are thus most easily discerned by looking at the
time prior to the establishment of Buddhism in China. Generally speaking, early
Taoist concepts of salvation focused on this life rather than an afterlife. Early Taoist
groups were founded on utopian ideas of a new and perfect society, echoing
sentiments found in the Taode jing. The focus for some individual practitioners,
both fangshi, Taoshi, and some members of the nobility, was immortality of the
physical body. They were not interested in what happens after death because they
hoped never to die. Instead, they hoped to live forever in human form, with the
supernatural powers of an immortal. Related to the quest for immortality was a
popular interest in realms of the immortals that were believed to be located on earth
— on mountains, islands, or other locations that are usually invisible to the human
eye.

Some Taoist gods are believed to reside on the sun, moon, planets, and constellations,
and the Taoist adept is able to travel to these places during ritual trances. Some of
the mystical excursions of Shangqing Taoism, for example, are to astronomical
realms. The Big Dipper and its central star, the Pole Star, are especially important to
Taoism. The deity Taiyi is believed to have a residence on the Pole Star, and the gods
who reside within the body also reside in the (literal) heavens. The origin of these
beliefs can be traced to a highly developed astronomical knowledge and religious
engagement with astronomical realms that date back to the Shang dynasty (1700-
1027 B.C.E.).
 FACTS
Taoism, also known as Daoism, is an indigenous Chinese religion often associated
with the Daode jing (Tao Te Ching), a philosophical and political text purportedly
written by Laozi (Lao Tzu) sometime in the 3rd or 4th centuries B.C.E. The Daode jing
focuses on dao as a "way" or "path" — that is, the appropriate way to behave and to
lead others — but the Daode jing also refers to Tao as something that existed "before
Heaven and Earth," a primal and chaotic matrix from which all forms emerged. Taoism
did not exist as an organized religion until the Way of the Celestial Masters sect was
founded in 142 C.E. by Zhang Daoling, who based the sect on spiritual
communications from the deified Laozi. The Way of the Celestial Masters and other
later sects of Taoism engaged in complex ritual practices, including devotion to a wide
range of celestial divinities and immortals, and thousands of Taoist religious texts
were produced over the centuries. Taoists also engaged with Chinese politics in a
variety of ways throughout Chinese history. At one time, scholars in both China and
the West distinguished philosophical from religious Taoism, but more recently a
continuity of belief and practice between these has been recognized. In both, a
harmonious relationship between nature, humanity, and the divine is emphasized,
and both are concerned with appropriate behavior and ways of leading and governing
others. The term "Tao" has a number of meanings. Taoist religious sects were
persecuted in China during the 19th and 20th centuries, but are currently undergoing
a revival. Western interest in Taoism has, for the most part, been confined to the
Daode jing, but in both the West and in the East, there is considerable interest in
practices which, while not "Taoist" per se, are often associated with Taoism, ranging
from fengshui to taiji quan to acupuncture and herbal medicine.

Quick Fact Details:

 Formed: As with many ancient religious traditions, an exact date is impossible

to determine. Taoist ideas and early writings long precede any organizational
structure. The date given here (c. 550 B.C.E.) is generally the time period when
a variety of spiritual thinkers were putting their ideas into writing. These
writings were not collected as a composite teaching of the "Tao" until the 4th or
3rd century B.C.E.

 Deity: While Taoists recognize a vast pantheon of gods and goddesses, they do
not acknowledge any that are omnipotent or eternal. All the gods, including
Laozi, are divine emanations of celestial energy.

 Headquarters: Taoism has no centralized authority and different sects have

different headquarters. However, the White Cloud Temple in Beijing is a key
center for training for priests and for administration.
Quick Fact Sources Quick Facts

FORMED C. 550 B.C.E.

ADHERENTS 20,000,000

DEITY PANTHEISTIC

SACRED TEXT ZHUANGZI, DAODE JING, YI JING

ORIGIN CHINA

HEADQUARTERS WHITE CLOUD TEMPLE, BEIJING, CHINA

 GODS AND GODDESSES

Jiu Wang Ye (九皇爺 "Nine Emperor God") refer to spirits of nine emperors, worshiped
as emanations of Mazu, patron goddess of sailors. A festival is held over the first nine
days of the ninth lunar month to celebrate the return from heaven to earth of the Nine
Emperor spirits.

Mazu (媽祖), the patroness, also considered as the goddess of sailors. Shrines can be
found in coastal areas of Eastern and South-Eastern China. Today, belief in Mazu is
especially popular in the South and South-East, including Fujian (福建), Guangdong (
廣東), Hainan (海南), Taiwan (台灣), Hong Kong (香港), and Vietnam (越南).

Qiye (七爺 "Seventh Lord") and Baye (八爺 "Eighth Lord"), two generals and best
friends, often seen as giant puppets in street parades. 8 is black, because he drowned
rather than miss his appointment to meet with 7, even though a flood was coming. 7
has his tongue sticking out, because he hanged himself in mourning for 8.

Shangdi Shangdi (上帝) (lit. Supreme Emperor) is originally the supreme god,
synonymous with the concept of Tian. This title/name was later applied to the
supreme deity of various religions, including Yu Huang Dadi and the Christian God.

Cheng Huang (城隍), a class of protective deities: Each city has a Cheng Huang who
looks after the fortunes of the city and judges the dead. Usually these are famous or
noble persons from the city who were deified after death. The Cheng Huang Miao (城隍
廟) or "Shrine of the Cheng Huang" was often the focal point of a town in ancient
times.

Jiu Wang Ye (九皇爺 "Nine Emperor God") refer to spirits of nine emperors, worshiped
as emanations of Mazu, patron goddess of sailors. A festival is held over the first nine
days of the ninth lunar month to celebrate the return from heaven to earth of the Nine
Emperor spirits.

Mazu (媽祖), the patroness, also considered as the goddess of sailors. Shrines can be
found in coastal areas of Eastern and South-Eastern China. Today, belief in Mazu is
especially popular in the South and South-East, including Fujian (福建), Guangdong (
廣東), Hainan (海南), Taiwan (台灣), Hong Kong (香港), and Vietnam (越南).

Qiye (七爺 "Seventh Lord") and Baye (八爺 "Eighth Lord"), two generals and best
friends, often seen as giant puppets in street parades. 8 is black, because he drowned
rather than miss his appointment to meet with 7, even though a flood was coming. 7
has his tongue sticking out, because he hanged himself in mourning for 8.

Shangdi Shangdi (上帝) (lit. Supreme Emperor) is originally the supreme god,
synonymous with the concept of Tian. This title/name was later applied to the
supreme deity of various religions, including Yu Huang Dadi and the Christian God.

Cheng Huang (城隍), a class of protective deities: Each city has a Cheng Huang who
looks after the fortunes of the city and judges the dead. Usually these are famous or
noble persons from the city who were deified after death. The Cheng Huang Miao (城隍
廟) or "Shrine of the Cheng Huang" was often the focal point of a town in ancient
times.

Sun Wukong (孫悟空，齊天大聖； "The Monkey King" or "Great Sage Equaling Heaven")
is the stone monkey born from heaven and earth who wreaked havoc in heaven and
was punished by the Buddha under the five fingers mountain for 500 years. Released
by the Tang Monk,Xuanzang (or Tang Sanzang), he traveled under Xuanzang as his
disciple to the Thunder Monastery in the West (presumably India) for the Buddhist
scriptures to redeem himself. Depending on which version of the Journey to the
West legend, where Sun Wukong supposedly originates, Sun Wukong is only
sometimes referred to as an actual god.

Tu Di Gong (土地公, tǔ dì gōng), the "God of the earth", a genius loci who protects a
local place (especially hills), and whose statue may be found in roadside shrines. He is
also the god of wealth, by virtue of his connection with the earth, and therefore,
minerals and buried treasure.

Wenchangdi (文昌帝 "Emperor Promoting Culture"), god of students, scholars, and

examination. He is worshipped by students who wish to pass their examinations.
Inept examiners in ancient times sometimes sought "divine guidance" from him to
decide rank between students.

Xi Wangmu (西王母), the "Queen Mother of the West" who reigns over a paradisial
mountain and has the power to make others immortal. In some myths, she is the
mother of the Jade Emperor (玉帝).

Yuexia Laoren (月下老人 "Old Man Under the Moon"). The matchmaker who pairs
lovers together, worshipped by those seeking their partner.

Zao Shen (灶君|灶神), the 'Kitchen God' mentioned in the title of Amy Tan's novel, The
Kitchen God's Wife. He reports to heaven on the behavior of the family of the house
once a year, at Chinese New Year, and is given sticky rice in order to render his speech
less comprehensible on that occasion.
Zhusheng Niangniang (註生娘娘 "Birth-Registry Goddess"). She is worshipped by
people who want children, or who want their child to be a boy.
 FOUNDER
Though one may find Taoist ideas and believes in the centuries before the Warring
States period (5th century BC - 3rd century BC) in China, it may be assumed that the
true founder of Taoism is Lao-tzu(the Old Sage). He lived and worked as an archivist in
Chou, where he met Confucius to talk about rites.

Lao-tzu is the traditional author of Tao-te ching(The Classic of Tao and its
Characteristics), a handbook of wisdom written upon his retirement to West at the
request of the Guardian of the Pass, Yin Hsi.

In his book Lao-tzu developed the main Taoist ideas and concepts such as Tao, wu-
wei (nondoing), wu (emptiness), and fu (return). He applied his philosophy to the
human condition and shaped the life style of the sages in conformity with the
immutable laws of the Universe. He even traced the pathof the political leaders in
order to rule their lands in peace and harmony.

Most of the specialists today believe that Lao-tzu didn't exist as a person and author
of Tao-te ching. His name would have been the title of the book (ascribed to him) or the
name of a group of persons interested in philosophy and wisdom.

Still we study Taoism in relation with Lao-tzu, his book and his life philosophy as
recorded by the Chinese antiquity historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien (145-85 BC) in
his Historical Records.

Taoism may be approached as a way of life inspired by the natural course of nature.
This approach is accurate if we think of the many stories contained in several
important books inspired by Tao-te ching,such as: Nan-hua chen-ching (by Chuang-tzu)
and The Way of Perfect Emptiness (by Lieh-tzu), dealing with life facts.

Lao-tzu was interested in shaping a specific life method to help one find the inner
balance when dealing with the most confusing and challenging problems.
 TAOIST SYMBOLISM
The Taijitu or yin and yang symbol as well as the Ba gua
or Eight Trigrams are associated with Taoist symbolism.
While almost all Taoist organizations make use of the yin
and yang symbol, one could also call it Confucian, Neo-
Confucian or pan-Chinese. The yin and yang make a
backwards "S" shape, with yin on bottom. One is likely to
see this symbol as decorations on Taoist organization
flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical
robes. According to Song Dynasty sources, it originated
around the 10th century. Previously, yin and yang were
symbolized by a tiger and dragon. Bagua with name and
nature.

Yin and Yang

Yin yang are complementary opposites within a greater whole. Everything has both yin
and yang aspects, although yin or yang elements may manifest more strongly in
different objects or at different times. Yin yang constantly interacts, never existing in
absolute stasis. The concept of yin and yang is often symbolized by various forms of
the Taijitu symbol, for which it is probably best known in
western cultures.

The nature of yin–yang

In Taoist philosophy, yin and yang arise together from an

initial quiescence or emptiness, and continue moving in
tandem until quiescence is reached again. For instance,
dropping a stone in a calm pool of water will
simultaneously raise waves and lower troughs between
them, and this alternation of high and low points in the
water will radiate outward until the movement dissipates
and the pool is calm once more. Yin–yang, thus, are
always opposite and equal qualities. Further, whenever
one quality reaches its peak it will naturally begin to transform into the opposite
quality: grain that reaches its full height in summer (fully yang) will produce seeds
and die back in winter (fully yin) in an endless cycle. It is impossible to talk about yin
or yang without some reference to the opposite, since yin–yang are bound together as
parts of a mutual whole. A race with only men or only women would disappear in a
single generation; but men and women together create new generations that allow the
race they mutually create (and mutually come from) to survive. The interaction of the
two gives birth to things.

Yin and yang transform each other: like an undertow in the ocean, every advance is
complemented by a retreat, and every rise transforms into a fall. Thus, a seed will
sprout from the earth and grow upwards towards the sky – an intrinsically yang
movement. Then when it reaches its full potential height it will fall.
 Ba Gua

The ba gua literally "eight symbols" are

eight diagrams used in Taoist cosmology to
represent the fundamental principles of
reality, seen as a range of eight interrelated
concepts. Each consists of three lines, each
either "broken" or "unbroken," representing
a yin line or a yang line, respectively. Due
to their tripartite structure, they are often
referred to as "trigrams" in English.

The trigrams are related to taiji philosophy

and the wu xing, or "five elements". The
relationships between the trigrams are
represented in two arrangements, the Primordial, "Earlier Heaven" and the Manifested
"Later Heaven" bagua. The trigrams have correspondences in astronomy, astrology,
geography, geomancy, anatomy, the family, and elsewhere.

The ancient Chinese classic I Ching consists of all 64 possible pairs of trigrams (called
"hexagrams") and commentary on them.

The eight trigrams are:

 Qián - "Heaven"
 Duì - "Lake/Marsh"
 Lí - "Fire"
 Zhèn - "Thunder"
 Xùn - "Wind"
 Kǎn - "Water"
 Gèn - "Mountain"
 Kūn - "Earth"

Bagua Map and Feng Shui

A bagua map is a tool used in modern forms of feng shui to map a room or location
and see how the different sections correspond to different aspects in one's life. These
sections are believed to relate to every area or aspect of life and are divided into such
categories as fame, relationships/marriage, children/creativity, helpful people/travel,
career, inner knowledge, family/ancestors/health, and wealth/blessings.

In this system, the map is intended to be used over the land, one's home, office or
desk to find areas lacking good chi, and to show where there are negative or missing
spaces that may need rectifying or enhancing in life or the environment.

For example, if the bagua grid is placed over the entire house plan and it shows the
toilet, bathroom, laundry, or kitchen in the wealth/blessings area it would be
considered that the money coming into that particular environment would disappear
very fast, as if to be 'going down the drain.'

Other Symbols, Rituals

Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical
writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing
guidance for the spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc.
Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.

A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper or the
"Bushel", the Chinese equivalent. In the Shang dynasty the Big Dipper was considered
a deity, while during the Han dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar
god, Taiyi.

Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs,
which feature Chinese dragons and phoenixes made from multi-colored ceramic tiles.
They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A
related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two
dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master. In general though, Chinese
Taoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it from other structures.
 RITUALS AND WORSHIP
Sacred Time

Sacred time in Taoism is not focused on creation, but on the notion of "returning to
the root" (Ch. 16). The Taode jing states, "Returning is the movement of the Tao" (Ch.
40). Ch. 21 asks, "How do I know the way of all things at the Beginning?" and
responds, "By what is within me." To return to the root is to experience the cosmos
before creation occurred, but not in order to remain permanently in that state. It is a
way of starting anew, of experiencing the cycles of regeneration that are characteristic
of existence. Creation does not happen just once; it is a continuous process.

According to Taoism, and Chinese thought in general, the cycles of nature are
movements of qi as it is shaped by alternating patterns of yin and yang and the Five
Phases. Qi moves outward to create or be transformed, and returns inward to
regenerate. Time likewise moves through regular cycles, such as day to night, spring
to summer to winter to fall. The moon, stars, and planets also move in regular
cycles. All of these cycles are regenerative: day turns into night, night turns back into
day; spring moves toward winter, and winter leads back to spring.

That time moves in cycles, expanding and returning, does not mean that things never
change; to the contrary things are always transforming, always evolving. To bring
about change, whether personal or for the benefit of others, one must first return to
the beginning. All Taoist rituals do this, and lone meditators visualize the same
experience. It is the foundation of both internal and external alchemy.

The elixir of immortality is created by taking its ingredients through a process of

evolution, and then back through the cycles until they reach a pure essence that
existed before time. This is what gives the elixir its power; it is in a state of
timelessness, and thus it can confer that state to one who consumes it.

According to the Shangqing scriptures, the god Taiyi who resides in the Dipper created
time's cycles by pacing through the void with a series of precise steps that divided time
and space. In some rituals, the Taoshi repeats these steps, thus unifying and
mediating between heaven and earth. Sometimes he wields a sword with which he
symbolically divides the void. In doing so, the Taoshi repeats the cycle of creation and
at the same time returns to the uncreated state.

In other Taoist rituals, it is the legendary emperor of ancient times, Yü the Great,
whose step is emulated. When the flood waters of chaos threatened, he traveled
throughout the empire learning the names of all the gods of the rivers and mountains,
even every hill and stream, so that he could summon them to draw the waters off the
land and out to sea. As in the case of Taiyi, the Taoshi repeats his steps to recreate
the world in the face of chaos.
The Taoist adept must repeat the process of organizing the cosmos, and he must also
become aware of and experience his proper place in the cosmic order. All humans,
even those who are not Taoshi, need to adapt themselves to the patterns of nature and
time in order to participate in the harmony of the cosmos. To align oneself with these
natural patterns is to experience one's true nature, and thus to experience sacred
time.

Sacred Space

Sacred space and sacred time are one in Taoism. The ritual space that is created by
the Taoshi symbolizes the cosmos and links heaven and earth. It is always created
just before the ritual begins, whether the ritual takes place outdoors, in the home of a
layperson, or inside a temple. It is a sacred area created for the purpose of the ritual,
and then returned to ordinary space at the ritual's end.

A contemporary ritual structure, used today in southern Taiwan in a Way of the

Celestial Masters ritual, begins with a square, each of the four sides representing
north, south, east, and west. The square is divided into an inner and an outer altar,
the inner to the north and the outer to the south. Just within the boundary to the
north are hung portraits of the presiding deities. These may include the Heavenly
Worthy of the Primordial Beginning, the Heavenly Worthy of the Numinous Treasure,
the Heavenly Worthy of the Way and its Power (the deified Laozi), the Jade Emperor,
and the Great Emperor of the Purple Empyrean. These are the deities of highest rank.

A table located just to the south of these portraits is the Golden Gate, a threshold, and
below that is the "cave table," where the heart of the ritual will take place.

Portraits are hung along the east and west boundaries. Along the west, within the
inner altar area, are the gods of earth and hell, and along the east, the gods of heaven
and water. Along the eastern boundary of the outer altar area are portraits of Taoist
officers and generals and the Four Saints and along the east, officers and generals and
the Six Masters. The officers and generals include the Mother of Lightning, the Duke
of Thunder, the marshals of the four directions, and other martial and protective
deities. The identity of the Four Saints varies; sometimes they are the Emperors of the
four directions. The Six Masters include Zhang Taoling and other Celestial
Masters. These are the mid-ranking deities.

Just within the southern boundary is the Three Realms Table (the Three Realms
include various lesser heavens). Offerings for the popular gods are placed here, and
behind it are bleachers on which deities that are brought from people's homes and
deities from temples are placed so that they can observe the ritual. These are the
deities of lowest rank.

The officiating priests, including those who recite the liturgies, are located around
the cave table, and the musicians are to the east and west. A few high ranking
laypersons may attend, or they may be represented by lanterns hung along the south
wall.

The hierarchy of participants, including the gods, is evident in this arrangement. This
hierarchical structure, the titles of the members of the pantheon, and the ritual itself
are all elements taken from Han religion, which was based on Shang and Zhou
religious practices.

The sacred spaces created by Taoist priests for rituals are not the only sacred spaces
in Taoism. There are also geographical locations imbued with sacred energy. The
most notable of these are the five sacred mountains of Taoism, which are located in
the north (Hengshan in Shanxi province), south (also called Hengshan, but this Heng
is a different word, in Hunan), east (Taishan in Shandong), west (Huashan in
Shaanxi), and center (Songshan in Henan). Other mountains are considered sacred as
well, some more notable than the five, such as Mao Shan and Longhu Shan,
headquarters for Shangqing and Zhengyi Taoism respectively, or Zhongnan Shan,
where the founder of Quanzhen Taoism had a hermitage and had contact with divine
beings. Other mountains, like Kunlun, are believed to be the dwelling places of
immortals.

Caves and grottoes are also thought to be sacred. There are countless caves and
grottoes within the mountains of China, and among them are many that are occupied
by hermits and Taoist adepts.

The central altar for Taoist ritual is also called a cave, but it is understood that at the
same time it is a mountain. At this altar, the Taoshi goes within/rises to the peak as
he undertakes a mystical journey on behalf of all. The ritual brings the participants
back to the state of the cosmos before time, space, and matter had been differentiated.

Rites and Ceremonies

The Taoist festival calendar represents an amalgamation of various sources, and

varies according to sect, region, and temple.

Major festivals last for days, from two or three up to seven or more. A two-day service
may involve fifteen different rites corresponding to distinct texts, each rite lasting from
one to several hours. Typically each of these rites consists of these stages:
purification, invocation of the deities, prayers, consecration and offerings, hymns,
dances, and perambulations.

There are two main types of ritual: 1) funeral rites or periodic rites on behalf of
ancestors, which are performed only by some sects, sometimes in tandem with
Buddhist priests; and 2) rites on behalf of local communities. Both types include rites
to install the ritual space, rites of fasting, rites of communion or offering, and rites to
disperse the ritual space.
Rituals on behalf of the community may involve tens or even hundreds of villages, and
occur every three, five, or twelve years. They can be extraordinarily expensive, and are
paid for by household donations and community leaders. Aside from the rituals
themselves, there will also be plays, processions, military parades, and communal
meals.

As for the performance of the rituals themselves, no mistakes can be made; no step or
recitation must falter. Apprenticed Taoshi serve as musicians; more advanced
trainees assist by lighting incense and reciting certain passages. The heart of the
ritual is conducted by five Taoshi: a Great Master and his four assistants. One of
these assistants heads the intricate and complex processions and dances, and is
responsible for knowing the entire sequence of rites that make up the full
ritual. Another prepares in advance every communication with the celestial
bureaucracy that is used during the course of the entire ritual, and recites all of the
invocations and consecrations, the texts of purification, elevation, and confession.

During much of the activities, the Great Master is preparing for his role, quietly
murmuring secret formulas and doing mudras with his hands inside his sleeves. At
times he picks up the incense burner and holds it as he breathes in and out, facing
different directions, or he burns talismanic symbols or initials documents. Primarily,
he enacts internally the actions spoken by the texts that are being recited by his
assistant.

At a certain point, he rises and performs the "dance of the stars," the step of Yu
or Taiyi. Then he falls prostrate, in a fetal position with arms and legs under his body,
face in hands, as he internally journeys to the Heavenly Assembly, locus of the
Heavenly Worthies, accompanied by divine escorts (all described in the recitation that
accompanies these acts). In this sense, the master is the mountain, just as the
incense burner and the altar are also the mountain. In ancient times, the altar was
built upon a series of graduated steps, so that the master actually ascended the steps
at this point in the ritual, but these days the ascent is entirely internal.

There he presents the memorial that is the heart of the ritual texts. The memorial is a
petition to the gods, written in literary language, stating the name and purpose of the
ritual, its date and location, the names and addresses of the participants, and a vow
— that is a request and a pledge on behalf of all the participants.

Worship and Devotion in Daily Life

It is difficult to write about lay activity in Taoism, because generally speaking only
Taoshi (Taoist priests) are understood to be "Taoists." Daily involvement with Taoism
on the part of the laity is not ritualized in any particular way. In immigrant
communities, Taoism has been merged with other religions, and has integrated many
popular practices, and this was also the case on the mainland. Studies of Taoist
practices have, for the most part, focused on the Taoshi, rather than lay
practitioners. Some lay activities are more closely associated with the barefoot
masters, and thus have received less recognition and scholarly attention.

There is one area in which the Taoshi are still actively engaged with the laity. The
Taoshi who live at home (as opposed to those who live in monasteries, much more rare
these days) serve as consultants to those members of the community who have
personal problems or illness. Each Taoshi has an "office" where the household altar is
kept, along with statues or paintings of deities and important figures in Taoist
history. When an individual comes to consult, first the layperson will explain his or
her problem or illness, while the Taoshi quietly listens. He will then quickly write a
talismanic symbol that embodies the energy of his vital power to be transferred to his
"client." This talisman will either be carried until the problem is resolved, or ingested
by burning and dissolving the ashes in water, or rolled into a little ball and taken as a
pill.

Small voluntary contributions are sometimes given for this and other services, such as
the healing of childhood fears and individual purifications. When children are
brought, the parent will first explain the problem; then the Taoshi will prepare a
talisman, curse the demons who have caused the fear, and spit a mouthful of talisman
water into the child's face. Depletion of energy in adults, the cause of many illnesses,
will sometimes be treated by burning lamps representing the stars of the Dipper. The
Taoshi will also sometimes prescribe herbal medicines, perform acupuncture, or do an
astrological or fengshui reading, always in conjunction with a ritual cure.

Unlike laypersons, the Taoshi have a rigorous life of daily practice. While in training,
a great deal of time will be spent learning every aspect of ritual performance. The
sacred texts that are used in the major rituals are recited over and over, until they are
memorized. Moral behavior is also expected, with rules increasing with the level of
mastery; this is in order that vital energies be nourished rather than dissipated by
inappropriate behavior. Periodic rituals of confession are also important practices for
the Taoshi.

In addition the Taoshi will perform several self-cultivating practices on a regular

basis. Among these might be gymnastic or breath-control exercises, special diets,
meditation, etc. Visualization practices are common, such as visualizing the gods
within the body or visualizing journeys to the celestial palaces. These exercises are
performed on certain days, and at certain times of the day, establishing harmony with
the celestial realms. Sometimes the Taoshi will engage in retreats, long vigils during
which sleep is forbidden, or fasts, during which they abstain from sexual activity and
avoid certain foods.