Introduction to Eddy Current Testing

1.- Introduction 5.- Procedure Issues

Basic Principles Reference Standards
History of ET Signal Filtering
Present State of ET

6.- Applications
2.- The Physics Surface Breaking Cracks
Properties of Electricity SBC using Sliding Probes
Current Flow & Ohm's Law Metal Thinning (Corrosion)
Induction & Inductance Tube Inspection
Self Inductance Conductivity
Mutual Inductance Heat Treat Verification
Circuits & Phase Thickness of Thin Mat'ls
Impedance Thickness of Coatings
Depth & Current Density
Phase Lag
7.- Advanced Techniques
Scanning
3.- Instrumentation Multi-Frequency Tech.
Eddy Current Instruments Swept Frequency Tech.
Resonant Circuits Pulsed ET Tech.
Bridges Background Pulsed ET
Impedance Plane Remote Field Tech.
Display - Analog Meter Impedance Matching

4.- Probes/Coil Design 8.- Quizzes

Probes - Mode of Operation
Probes - Configuration
Probes - Shielding & Loading 9.- Formulae & Tables
Coil Design EC Standards & Methods
EC Material Properties
 1 INTRODUCTION
Basic Principles of Eddy Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal of
“electromagnetism” as the basis for conducting examinations. Several other
methods such as Remote Field Testing (RFT), Flux Leakage and Barkhausen
Noise also use this principle.

Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction.

When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a
magnetic field develops in and around the conductor. This magnetic field
expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the current
is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the close
proximity to this changing magnetic field, current will be induced in this second
conductor. Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a circular
path. They get their name from “eddies” that are formed when a liquid or gas
flows in a circular path around obstacles when conditions are right.
View movie clip of an eddy current inspection. (430Kb)

One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of
inspections and measurements that can be performed. In the proper
circumstances, eddy currents can be used for:

Crack detection
Material thickness measurements
Coating thickness measurements
Conductivity measurements for:
o Material identification
o Heat damage detection
o Case depth determination
o Heat treatment monitoring

Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include:

Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

Detects surface and near surface defects
Inspection gives immediate results
Equipment is very portable
Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
Minimum part preparation is required
Test probe does not need to contact the part
Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

Some of the limitations of eddy current inspection include:

Only conductive materials can be inspected

Surface must be accessible to the probe
Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
Reference standards needed for setup
Depth of penetration is limited
Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and
probe scan direction are undetectable
 History of Eddy Current Testing

Eddy current testing has its origins with

Michael Faraday's discovery
ofelectromagnetic induction in 1831.
Faraday was a chemist in England during
the early 1800's and is credited with the
discovery of electromagnetic induction,
electromagnetic rotations, the magneto-
optical effect, diamagnetism, and other
phenomena. In 1879, another scientist
named Hughes recorded changes in the
properties of a coil when placed in
contact with metals of
different conductivityand permeability.
However, it was not until the Second
World War that these effects were put to
practical use for testing materials. Much
work was done in the 1950's and 60's,
particularly in the aircraft and nuclear
industries. Eddy current testing is now a
widely used and well-understood
inspection technique.

Present State of Eddy

Current Inspection

Eddy current inspection is used in a

variety of industries to find defects and
make measurements. One of the
primary uses of eddy current testing is
for defect detection when the nature of
the defect is well understood. In
general, the technique is used to inspect
a relatively small area and the probe
design and test parameters must be
established with a good understanding
of the flaw that is to be detected. Since
eddy currents tend to concentrate at the
surface of a material, they can only be
used to detect surface and near surface defects.

In thin materials such as tubing and sheet stock, eddy currents can be used to
measure the thickness of the material. This makes eddy current a useful tool for
detecting corrosion damage and other damage that causes a thinning of the
material. The technique is used to make corrosion thinning measurements on
aircraft skins and in the walls of tubing used in assemblies such as heat
exchangers. Eddy current testing is also used to measure the thickness of paints
and other coatings.

Eddy currents are also affected by the electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability of materials. Therefore, eddy current measurements can be used to
sort materials and to tell if a material has seen high temperatures or been heat
treated, which changes the conductivity of some materials.

Eddy current equipment and probes can be purchased in a wide variety of

configurations. Eddyscopes and a conductivity tester come packaged in very
small and battery operated units for easy portability. Computer based systems are
also available that provide easy data manipulation features for the laboratory.
Signal processing software has also been developed for trend removal,
background subtraction, and noise reduction. Impedance analyzers are also
sometimes used to allow improved quantitative eddy-current measurements.
Some laboratories have multidimensional scanning capabilities that are used to
produce images of the scan regions. A few portable scanning systems also exist
for special applications, such as scanning regions of aircraft fuselages.

Research to Improve Eddy current measurements

A great deal of research continues to be done to improve eddy current

measurement techniques. A few of the these activities, which are being
conducted at Iowa State University, are described below.

Photoinductive Imaging (PI)

A technique known as photoinductive imaging (PI) was pioneered at CNDE and
provides a powerful, high-resolution scanning and imaging tool. Microscopic
resolution is available using standard-sized eddy-current sensors. Development
of probes and instrumentation for photoinductive (PI) imaging is based on the use
of a medium-power (5 W nominal power) argon ion laser. This probe provides
high resolution images and has been used to study cracks, welds, and diffusion
bonds in metallic specimens. The PI technique is being studied as a way to image
local stress variations in steel.
Pulsed Eddy Current
Research is currently being conducted on the use of a technique called pulsed
eddy current (PEC) testing. This technique can be used for the detection and
quantification of corrosion and cracking in multi-layer aluminum aircraft
structures. Pulsed eddy-current signals consist of a spectrum of frequencies
meaning that, because of the skin effect, each pulse signal contains information
from a range of depths within a given test specimen. In addition, the pulse signals
are very low-frequency rich which provides excellent depth penetration. Unlike
multi-frequency approaches, the pulse-signals lend themselves to convenient
analysis. .

Measurements have been carried out both in the laboratory and in the field.
Corrosion trials have demonstrated how material loss can be detected and
quantified in multi-layer aluminum structures. More recently, studies carried out
on three and four layer structures show the ability to locate cracks emerging from
fasteners. Pulsed eddy-current measurements have also been applied to
ferromagnetic materials. Recent work has been involved with measuring the case
depth in hardened steel samples.
 2 THE PHYSICS
Properties of Electricity

Since eddy current inspection makes use of electromagnetic induction, it is important to

know about the scientific principles of electricity and magnetism. For a review of these
principles, the Science of NDT materials on this Internet site may be helpful. A review of
the key parameters will be provided here.

Electricity

It is well known that one of the subatomic particles

of an atom is the electron. Atoms can and usually
do have a number of electrons circling its nucleus.
The electrons carry a negative electrostatic charge
and under certain conditions can move from atom
to atom. The direction of movement between atoms
is random unless a force causes the electrons to
move in one direction. This directional movement
of electrons due to some imbalance of force is what
is known as electricity.

Amperage

The flow of electrons is measured in units called amperes or amps for short. An
amp is the amount of electrical current that exists when a number of electrons,
having one coulomb of charge, move past a given point in one second.
A coulomb is the charge carried by 6.25 x 1018electrons or
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.

Electromotive Force

The force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit

is called the electromotive force, or EMF. Sometimes it is
convenient to think of EMF as electrical pressure. In other words,
it is the force that makes electrons move in a certain direction
within a conductor. There are many sources of EMF, the most
common being batteries and electrical generators.
The Volt

The unit of measure for EMF is the volt. One volt is defined as the electrostatic
difference between two points when one joule of energy is used to move one
coulomb of charge from one point to the other. A joule is the amount of energy
that is being consumed when one watt of power works for one second. This is
also known as a watt-second. For our purposes, just accept the fact that one joule
of energy is a very, very small amount of energy. For example, a typical 60-watt
light bulb consumes about 60 joules of energy each second it is on.

Resistance

Resistance is the opposition of a body or substance to the flow of electrical

current through it, resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat, light, or
other forms of energy. The amount of resistance depends on the type of material.
Materials with low resistance are good conductorsof electricity. Materials with
high resistance are good insulators.

Current Flow and Ohm's Law

Ohm's law is the most important, basic law of electricity. It defines the
relationship between the three fundamental electrical quantities: current, voltage,
and resistance. When a voltage is applied to a circuit containing only resistive
elements (i.e. no coils), current flows according to Ohm's Law, which is shown
below.

I=V/R

Where:
Electrical Current
I=
(Amperes)
V = Voltage (Voltage)
R = Resistance (Ohms)
Ohm's law states that the electrical current (I) flowing in an circuit is
proportional to the voltage(V) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R).
Therefore, if the voltage is increased, the current will increase provided the
resistance of the circuit does not change. Similarly, increasing the resistance of
the circuit will lower the current flow if the voltage is not changed. The formula
can be reorganized so that the relationship can easily be seen for all of the three
variables.

The Java applet below allows the user to vary each of these three parameters in
Ohm's Law and see the effect on the other two parameters. Values may be input
into the dialog boxes, or the resistance and voltage may also be varied by moving
the arrows in the applet. Current and voltage are shown as they would be
displayed on an oscilloscope with the X-axis being time and the Y-axis being the
amplitude of the current or voltage. Ohm's Law is valid for both direct current
(DC) and alternating current (AC). Note that in AC circuits consisting of purely
resistive elements, the current and voltage are always in phase with each other.

Exercise: Use the interactive applet below to investigate the relationship of the
variables in Ohm's law. Vary the voltage in the circuit by clicking and dragging
the head of the arrow, which is marked with the V. The resistance in the circuit
can be increased by dragging the arrow head under the variable resister, which is
marked R. Please note that the vertical scale of the oscilloscope screen
automatically adjusts to reflect the value of the current.

See what happens to the voltage and current as the resistance in the circuit is
increased. What happens if there is not enough resistance in a circuit? If the
resistance is increased, what must happen in order to maintain the same level of
current flow?
 Induction and Inductance

Induction

In 1824, Oersted discovered that current passing

though a coil created a magnetic field capable of
shifting a compass needle. Seven years later, Faraday
and Henry discovered just the opposite. They noticed
that a moving magnetic field would induce current in
an electrical conductor. This process of generating
electrical current in a conductor by placing the
conductor in a changing magnetic field is
calledelectromagnetic induction or just induction.
It is called induction because the current is said to be induced in the conductor by
the magnetic field.

Faraday also noticed that the rate at which the magnetic field changed also had an
effect on the amount of current or voltage that was induced. Faraday's Law for
an uncoiled conductor states that the amount of induced voltage is proportional to
the rate of change of flux lines cutting the conductor. Faraday's Law for a straight
wire is shown below.

Where:

VL = the induced voltage in volts

dø/dt = the rate of change of magnetic flux in webers/second

Induction is measured in unit of Henries (H) which reflects this dependence on

the rate of change of the magnetic field. One henry is the amount of inductance
that is required to generate one volt of induced voltage when the current is
changing at the rate of one ampere per second. Note that current is used in the
definition rather than magnetic field. This is because current can be used to
generate the magnetic field and is easier to measure and control than magnetic
flux.
Inductance

When induction occurs in an electrical

circuit and affects the flow of electricity it is
called inductance,L. Self-inductance, or
simply inductance, is the property of a
circuit whereby a change in current causes a
change in voltage in the same circuit. When
one circuit induces current flow in a second
nearby circuit, it is known as mutual-
inductance. The image to the right shows an
example of mutual-inductance. When an AC
current is flowing through a piece of wire in a circuit, an electromagnetic field is
produced that is constantly growing and shrinking and changing direction due to
the constantly changing current in the wire. This changing magnetic field will
induce electrical current in another wire or circuit that is brought close to the wire
in the primary circuit. The current in the second wire will also be AC and in fact
will look very similar to the current flowing in the first wire. An electrical
transformer uses inductance to change the voltage of electricity into a more
useful level. In nondestructive testing, inductance is used to generate eddy
currents in the test piece.

It should be noted that since it is the changing magnetic field that is responsible
for inductance, it is only present in AC circuits. High frequency AC will result in
greater inductive reactance since the magnetic field is changing more rapidly.

Self-inductance and mutual-inductance will be discussed in more detail in the

following pages.

Self-Inductance and Inductive Reactance

The property of self-inductance is a particular form of electromagnetic induction.

Self inductance is defined as the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying wire
when the current in the wire itself is changing. In the case of self-inductance, the
magnetic field created by a changing current in the circuit itself induces a voltage
in the same circuit. Therefore, the voltage is self-induced.
The term inductor is used to describe a circuit element possessing the property of
inductance and a coil of wire is a very common inductor. In circuit diagrams, a
coil or wire is usually used to indicate an inductive component. Taking a closer
look at a coil will help understand the reason that a voltage is induced in a wire
carrying a changing current. The alternating current running through the coil
creates a magnetic field in and around the coil that is increasing and decreasing
as the current changes. The magnetic field forms concentric loops that surround
the wire and join to form larger loops that surround the coil as shown in the
image below. When the current increases in one loop the expanding magnetic
field will cut across some or all of the neighboring loops of wire, inducing a
voltage in these loops. This causes a voltage to be induced in the coil when the
current is changing.

By studying this image of a coil, it can be seen that the number of turns in the
coil will have an effect on the amount of voltage that is induced into the circuit.
Increasing the number of turns or the rate of change of magnetic flux increases
the amount of induced voltage. Therefore,Faraday's Law must be modified for a
coil of wire and becomes the following.
Where:

VL = induced voltage in volts

N = number of turns in the coil
dø/dt = rate of change of magnetic flux in
webers/second

The equation simply states that the amount of induced voltage (VL) is
proportional to the number of turns in the coil and the rate of change of the
magnetic flux (dø/dt). In other words, when the frequency of the flux is increased
or the number of turns in the coil is increased, the amount of induced voltage will
also increase.

In a circuit, it is much easier to measure current than it is to measure magnetic

flux, so the following equation can be used to determine the induced voltage if
the inductance and frequency of the current are known. This equation can also be
reorganized to allow the inductance to be calculated when the amount of inducted
voltage can be determined and the current frequency is known.

Where:

VL = the induced voltage in volts

L = the value of inductance in henries
di/dt = the rate of change of current in amperes per second
Lenz's Law

Soon after Faraday proposed his law of induction, Heinrich Lenz developed a
rule for determining the direction of the induced current in a loop.
Basically, Lenz's law states that an induced current has a direction such that
its magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic field that induced the
current. This means that the current induced in a conductor will oppose the
change in current that is causing the flux to change. Lenz's law is important in
understanding the property of inductive reactance, which is one of the properties
measured in eddy current testing.

Inductive Reactance

The reduction of current flow in a circuit due to induction is called inductive

reactance. By taking a closer look at a coil of wire and applying Lenz's law, it
can be seen how inductance reduces the flow of current in the circuit. In the
image below, the direction of the primary current is shown in red, and the
magnetic field generated by the current is shown in blue. The direction of the
magnetic field can be determined by taking your right hand and pointing your
thumb in the direction of the current. Your fingers will then point in the direction
of the magnetic field. It can be seen that the magnetic field from one loop of the
wire will cut across the other loops in the coil and this will induce current flow
(shown in green) in the circuit. According to Lenz's law, the induced current
must flow in the opposite direction of the primary current. The induced current
working against the primary current results in a reduction of current flow in the
circuit.

It should be noted that the inductive reactance will increase if the number of
winds in the coil is increased since the magnetic field from one coil will have
more coils to interact with.
Similarly to resistance, inductive reactance reduces the flow of current in a
circuit. However, it is possible to distinguish between resistance and inductive
reactance in a circuit by looking at the timing between the sine waves of the
voltage and current of the alternating current. In an AC circuit that contains only
resistive components, the voltage and the current will be in-phase, meaning that
the peaks and valleys of their sine waves will occur at the same time. When there
is inductive reactance present in the circuit, the phase of the current will be
shifted so that its peaks and valleys do not occur at the same time as those of the
voltage. This will be discussed in more detail in the section on circuits.

Mutual Inductance
(The Basis for Eddy Current Inspection)

The magnetic flux through a circuit can be related to the current in that circuit
and the currents in other nearby circuits, assuming that there are no nearby
permanent magnets. Consider the following two circuits.
The magnetic field produced by circuit 1 will intersect the wire in circuit 2 and
create current flow. The induced current flow in circuit 2 will have its own
magnetic field which will interact with the magnetic field of circuit 1. At some
point P, the magnetic field consists of a part due toi and a part due to i . These
1 2

fields are proportional to the currents producing them.

The coils in the circuits are labeled L1 and L2 and this term represents the self
inductance of each of the coils. The values of L1 and L2 depend on the
geometrical arrangement of the circuit (i.e. number of turns in the coil) and the
conductivity of the material. The constant M, called themutual inductance of
the two circuits, is dependent on the geometrical arrangement of both circuits. In
particular, if the circuits are far apart, the magnetic flux through circuit 2 due to
the current i will be small and the mutual inductance will be small. L and M are
1 2

constants.

We can write the flux, B through circuit 2 as the sum of two parts.

B2 = Li + iM
2 2 1

An equation similar to the one above can be written for the flux through circuit 1.

B1 = Li + iM
1 1 2

Though it is certainly not obvious, it can be shown that the mutual inductance is
the same for both circuits. Therefore, it can be written as follows:

M =M 1,2 2,1
How is mutual induction used in eddy current
inspection?

In eddy current inspection, the eddy currents are

generated in the test material due to mutual
induction. The test probe is basically a coil of wire
through which alternating current is passed.
Therefore, when the probe is connected to an
eddyscope instrument, it is basically represented by circuit 1 above. The second
circuit can be any piece of conductive material.

When alternating current is passed through the coil, a

magnetic field is generated in and around the coil.
When the probe is brought in close proximity to a
conductive material, such as aluminum, the probe's
changing magnetic field generates current flow in the
material. The induced current flows in closed loops
in planes perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They are named eddy
currents because they are thought to resemble the eddy currents that can be seen
swirling in streams.

The eddy currents produce their own magnetic fields

that interact with the primary magnetic field of the
coil. By measuring changes in the resistance and
inductive reactance of the coil, information can be
gathered about the test material. This information
includes the electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability of the material, the amount of material
cutting through the coils magnetic field, and the
condition of the material (i.e. whether it contains cracks or other defects.) The
distance that the coil is from the conductive material is called liftoff, and this
distance affects the mutual-inductance of the circuits. Liftoff can be used to make
measurements of the thickness of nonconductive coatings, such as paint, that
hold the probe a certain distance from the surface of the conductive material.
It should be noted that if a sample is ferromagnetic, the magnetic flux is
concentrated and strengthened despite opposing eddy current effects. The
increase inductive reactance due to the magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic
materials makes it easy to distinguish these materials from nonferromagnetic
materials.

In the applet below, the probe and the sample are shown in cross-section. The
boxes represent the cross-sectional area of a group of turns in the coil. The liftoff
distance and the drive current of the probe can be varied to see the effects of the
shared magnetic field. The liftoff value can be set to 0.1 or less and the current
value can be varied from 0.01 to 1.0. The strength of the magnetic field is shown
by the darkness of the lines.

Circuits and Phase

A circuit can be thought of as a closed path in which current flows through the
components that make up the circuit. The current (i) obeys Ohm's Law, which is
discussed on the page oncurrent flow. The simple circuit below consists of a
voltage source (in this case an alternating current voltage source) and a resistor.
The graph below the circuit diagram shows the value of the voltage and the
current for this circuit over a period of time.
This graph shows one complete cycle of an alternating current source. From the
graph, it can be seen that as the voltage increases, the current does the same. The
voltage and the current are said to be "in-phase" since their zero, peak, and valley
points occur at the same time. They are also directly proportional to each other.

In the circuit below, the resistive component has been replaced with an inductor.
When inductance is introduced into a circuit, the voltage and the current will be
"out-of-phase," meaning that the voltage and current do not cross zero, or reach
their peaks and valleys at the same time. When a circuit has an inductive
component, the current (i ) will lag the voltage by one quarter of a cycle. One
L

cycle is often referred to as 360o, so it can be said that the current lags the voltage
by 90o.
This phase shift occurs because the inductive reactance changes with changing
current. Recall that it is the changing magnetic field caused by a changing
current that produces inductive reactance. When the change in current is
greatest, inductive reactance will be the greatest, and the voltage across the
inductor will be the highest. When the change in current is zero, the inductive
reactance will be zero and the voltage across the inductor will be zero. Be
careful not to confuse the amount of current with the amount of change in the
current. Consider the points where the current reaches it peak amplitude and
changes direction in the graph below (0o, 180o, and 360o). As the current is
changing directions, there is a split second when the change in current is
zero. Since the change in current is zero, no magnetic field is generated to
produce the inductive reactance. When the inductive reactance is zero, the
voltage across the inductor is zero.
The resistive and inductive components are of primary interest in eddy current
testing since the test probe is basically a coil of wire, which will have both
resistance and inductive reactance. However, there is a small amount of
capacitance in the circuits so a mention is appropriate. This simple circuit below
consists of an alternating current voltage source and a capacitor. Capacitance in a
circuit caused the current (i ) to lead the voltage by one quarter of a cycle
c

(90o current lead).

When there is both resistance and inductive reactance (and/or capacitance) in a

circuit, the combined opposition to current flow is known as impedance.
Impedance will be discussed more on the next page.
 Impedance

Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a circuit presents to

alternating current. Impedance is measured in ohms and may include resistance
(R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive reactance (XC). However, the
total impedance is not simply the algebraic sum of the resistance, inductive
reactance, and capacitive reactance. Since the inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance are 90o out of phase with the resistance and, therefore, their maximum
values occur at different times, vector addition must be used to calculate
impedance.

In the image below, a circuit diagram is shown that represents an eddy current
inspection system. The eddy current probe is a coil of wire so it contains
resistance and inductive reactance when driven by alternating current. The
capacitive reactance can be dropped as most eddy current probes have little
capacitive reactance. The solid line in the graph below shows the circuit's total
current, which is affected by the total impedance of the circuit. The two dashed
lines represent the portion of the current that is affected by the resistance and the
inductive reactance components individually. It can be seen that the resistance
and the inductive reactance lines are 90o out of phase, so when combined to
produce the impedance line, the phase shift is somewhere between zero and 90o.
The phase shift is always relative to the resistance line since the resistance line is
always in-phase with the voltage. If more resistance than inductive reactance is
present in the circuit, the impedance line will move toward the resistance line and
the phase shift will decrease. If more inductive reactance is present in the circuit,
the impedance line will shift toward the inductive reactance line and the phase
shift will increase.
The relationship between impedance and its individual components (resistance
and inductive reactance) can be represented using a vector as shown below. The
amplitude of the resistance component is shown by a vector along the x-axis and
the amplitude of the inductive reactance is shown by a vector along the y-axis.
The amplitude of the the impedance is shown by a vector that stretches from zero
to a point that represents both the resistance value in the x-direction and the
inductive reactance in the y-direction. Eddy current instruments with impedance
plane displays present information in this format.
The impedance in a circuit with resistance and inductive reactance can be
calculated using the following equation. If capacitive reactance was present in the
circuit, its value would be added to the inductance term before squaring.

The phase angle of the circuit can also be calculated using some trigonometry.
The phase angle is equal to the ratio between the inductance and the resistance in
the circuit. With the probes and circuits used in nondestructive testing,
capacitance can usually be ignored so only inductive reactance needs to be
accounted for in the calculation. The phase angle can be calculated using the
equation below. If capacitive reactance was present in the circuit, its value would
simply be subtracted from the inductive reactance term.
 or

The applet below can be used to see how the variables in the above equation are
related on the the vector diagram (or the impedance plane display). Values can be
entered into the dialog boxes or the arrow head on the vector diagram can be
dragged to a point representing the desired values. Note that the capacitive
reactance term has been included in the applet but as mentioned before, in eddy
current testing this value is small and can be ignored.

Impedance and Ohm's Law

In previous pages, Ohm's Law was discussed for a purely resistive circuit. When
there is inductive reactance or capacitive reactance also present in the circuit,
Ohm's Law must be written to include the total impedance in the circuit.
Therefore, Ohm's law becomes:

I=V/Z

Ohm's law now simply states that the current (I), in amperes, is proportional to
the voltage (V), in volts, divided by the impedance (Z), in ohms.
The applet below can be used to see how the current and voltage of a circuit are
affected by impedance. The applet allows the user to vary the inductance (L),
resistance (R), voltage (V)and current (I). Voltage and current are shown as they
would be displayed on an oscilloscope. Note that the resistance and/or the
inductive reactance values must be changed to change the impedance in the
circuit.

Also note that when there is inductance in the circuit, the voltage and current are
out of phase. This is because the voltage across the inductor will be a maximum
when the rate of change of the current is greatest. For a sinusoidal wave form like
AC, this is at the point where the actual current is zero. Thus the voltage applied
to an inductor reaches its maximum value a quarter-cycle before the current does,
and the voltage is said to lead the current by 90o.

Depth of Penetration & Current

Density

Eddy currents are closed loops of induced

current circulating in planes perpendicular to
the magnetic flux. They normally travel
parallel to the coil's winding and flow is limited
to the area of the inducing magnetic field. Eddy
currents concentrate near the surface adjacent
to an excitation coil and their strength
decreases with distance from the coil as shown
in the image. Eddy current density decreases
exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is known as the skin effect.
The skin effect arises when the eddy currents flowing in the test object at any
depth produce magnetic fields which oppose the primary field, thus reducing the
net magnetic flux and causing a decrease in current flow as the depth increases.
Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface can be viewed as shielding the coil's
magnetic field, thereby weakening the magnetic field at greater depths and
reducing induced currents.

The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the
frequency of the excitation current and the electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability of the specimen. The depth of penetration decreases with increasing
frequency and increasing conductivity and magnetic permeability. The depth at
which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of the surface
density, is called the standard depth of penetration ( ). The word 'standard'
denotes plane wave electromagnetic field excitation within the test sample
(conditions which are rarely achieved in practice). Although eddy currents
penetrate deeper than one standard depth of penetration, they decrease rapidly
with depth. At two standard depths of penetration (2 ), eddy current density has
decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5% of the surface density. At three depths (3 ),
the eddy current density is down to only 5% of the surface density.
Since the sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends on the eddy current
density at the defect location, it is important to know the strength of the eddy
currents at this location. When attempting to locate flaws, a frequency is often
selected which places the expected flaw depth within one standard depth of
penetration. This helps to assure that the strength of the eddy currents will be
sufficient to produce a flaw indication. Alternately, when using eddy currents to
measure the electrical conductivity of a material, the frequency is often set so that
it produces three standard depths of penetration within the material. This helps to
assure that the eddy currents will be so weak at the back side of the material that
changes in the material thickness will not affect the eddy current measurements.

The applet below illustrates how eddy current density changes in a semi-infinite
conductor. The applet can be used to calculate the standard depth of penetration.
The equation for this calculation is:

Where:
= Standard Depth of Penetration (mm)
= 3.14
f = Test Frequency (Hz)
= Magnetic Permeability (H/mm)
= Electrical Conductivity (% IACS)

(Note: The applet has an input box for relative permeability since this is often the
more readily available value. The applet multiplies the relative permeability of
the material by the permeability of free space to get to H/mm units.)
The applet also indicates graphically the phase lag at one and two standard
depths of penetration. Phase lag will be discussed on the following page.

Phase Lag

Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that makes it possible to
obtain information about the depth of a defect within a material. Phase lag is the
shift in time between the eddy current response from a disruption on the surface
and a disruption at some distance below the surface. The generation of eddy
currents can be thought of as a time dependent process, meaning that the eddy
currents below the surface take a little longer to form than those at the
surface. Disruptions in the eddy currents away from the surface will produce
more phase lag than disruptions near the surface. Both the signal voltage and
current will have this phase shift or lag with depth, which is different from the
phase angle discussed earlier. (With the phase angle, the current shifted with
respect to the voltage.)

Phase lag is an important parameter in eddy current testing because it makes it

possible to estimate the depth of a defect, and with proper reference specimens,
determine the rough size of a defect. The signal produced by a flaw depends on
both the amplitude and phase of the eddy currents being disrupted. A small
surface defect and large internal defect can have a similar effect on the magnitude
of impedance in a test coil. However, because of the increasing phase lag with
depth, there will be a characteristic difference in the test coil impedance vector.
Phase lag can be calculated with the following equation. The phase lag angle
calculated with this equation is useful for estimating the subsurface depth of a
discontinuity that is concentrated at a specific depth. Discontinuities, such as a
crack that spans many depths, must be divided into sections along its length and a
weighted average determined for phase and amplitude at each position below the
surface.

In
Radians

In
Degrees

Where:
=Phase Lag (Rad or Degrees)
x=Distance Below Surface (in or mm)
=Standard Depth of Penetration (in or mm)

At one standard depth of penetration, the phase lag is one radian or 57o. This
means that the eddy currents flowing at one standard depth of penetration ( )
below the surface, lag the surface currents by 57o. At two standard depths of
penetration (2 ), they lag the surface currents by 114o. Therefore, by measuring
the phase lag of a signal the depth of a defect can be estimated.

On the impedance plane, the liftoff signal serves as the reference phase
direction. The angle between the liftoff and defect signals is about twice the
phase lag calculated with the above equation. As mentioned above,
discontinuities that have a significant dimension normal to the surface, will
produce an angle that is based on the weighted average of the disruption to the
eddy currents at the various depths along its length.
In the applet below, the relationship between the depth and dimensions of a
discontinuity and the rotation produced on the impedance plane is explored. The
red lines represent the relative strength of the magnetic field from the coil and the
dashed lines indicate the phase lag of the eddy currents induced at a particular
depth.
 3 EINSTRUMENTATION
Eddy Current Instruments

Eddy current instruments can be

purchased in a large variety of
configurations. Both analog and digital
instruments are available. Instruments
are commonly classified by the type of
display used to present the data. The
common display types are analog
meter, digital readout, impedance plane and time versus signal amplitude. Some
instruments are capable of presenting data in several display formats.

The most basic eddy current testing instrument consists of an alternating current
source, a coil of wire connected to this source, and a voltmeter to measure the
voltage change across the coil. An ammeter could also be used to measure the
current change in the circuit instead of using the voltmeter.

While it might actually be possible to detect some types of defects with this type
of equipment, most eddy current instruments are a bit more sophisticated. In the
following pages, a few of the more important aspects of eddy current
instrumentation will be discussed.
 Resonant Circuits

Eddy current probes typically have a frequency or a range of frequencies that

they are designed to operated. When the probe is operated outside of this range,
problems with the data can occur. When a probe is operated at too high of a
frequency, resonance can occurs in the circuit. In a parallel circuit with resistance
(R), inductance (XL) and capacitance (XC), as the frequency increases
XL decreases and XC increase. Resonance occurs when XL and XC are equal but
opposite in strength. At the resonant frequency, the total impedance of the circuit
appears to come only from resistance since XL and XC cancel out. Every circuit
containing capacitance and inductance has a resonant frequency that is inversely
proportional to the square root of the product of the capacitance and inductance.

In eddy current probes and cables, it is commonly stated that capacitance is

negligible. However, even circuits not containing discreet components for
resistance, capacitance, and inductance can still exhibit their effects. When two
conductors are placed side by side, there is always some capacitance between
them. Thus, when many turns of wire are placed close together in a coil, a
certain amount of stray capacitance is produced. Additionally, the cable used to
interconnect pieces of electronic equipment or equipment to probes, often has
some capacitance, as well as, inductance. This stray capacitance is usually very
small and in most cases has no significant effect. However, they are not
negligible in sensitive circuits and at high frequencies they become quite
important.

The applet below represents an eddy current probe with a default resonant
frequency of about 1.0 kHz. An ideal probe might contain just the inductance, but
a realistic probe has some resistance and some capacitance. The applet initially
shows a single cycle of the 1.0 kHz current passing through the inductor.
Exercise 1: Using your mouse, adjust the resistance by sliding the slide bar.
Does the frequency change?

Exercise 2: Note that changing the inductance and/or the capacitance changes
the resonant frequency of this resonant circuit. Can you find several
combinations of capacitance and inductance that resonate at 1.0 kHz?

Bridges

The bridge circuit shown in the applet below is known as the Maxwell-Wien
bridge (often called the Maxwell bridge), and is used to measure unknown
inductances in terms of calibrated resistance and capacitance. Calibration-grade
inductors are more difficult to manufacture than capacitors of similar precision,
and so the use of a simple "symmetrical" inductance bridge is not always
practical. Because the phase shifts of inductors and capacitors are exactly
opposite each other, a capacitive impedance can balance out an inductive
impedance if they are located in opposite legs of a bridge, as they are here.
Unlike this straight Wien bridge, the balance of the Maxwell-Wien bridge is
independent of the source frequency. In some cases, this bridge can be made to
balance in the presence of mixed frequencies from the AC voltage source, the
limiting factor being the inductor's stability over a wide frequency range.

Exercise: Using the equations within the applet, calculate appropriate values for
C and R2 for a set of probe values. Then, using your calculated values, balance
the bridge. The oscilloscope trace representing current (brightest green) across
the top and bottom of the bridge should be minimized (straight line).

In the simplest implementation, the standard capacitor (C) and the resistor in
parallel with it are made variable, and both must be adjusted to achieve balance.
However, the bridge can be made to work if the capacitor is fixed (non-variable)
and more than one resistor is made variable (at least the resistor in parallel with
the capacitor, and one of the other two). However, in the latter configuration it
takes more trial-and-error adjustment to achieve balance as the different variable
resistors interact in balancing magnitude and phase.

Another advantage of using a Maxwell bridge to measure inductance rather than

a symmetrical inductance bridge is the elimination of measurement error due to
the mutual inductance between the two inductors. Magnetic fields can be difficult
to shield, and even a small amount of coupling between coils in a bridge can
introduce substantial errors in certain conditions. With no second inductor to
react within the Maxwell bridge, this problem is eliminated.
 Display - Complex Impedance Plane (eddy scope)

Electrical Impedance (Z), is the total opposition that a

circuit presents to an alternating current. Impedance,
measured in ohms, may include resistance (R), inductive
reactance (X ), andcapacitive reactance (X ). Eddy
L C

current circuits usually have only R and (X )

L

components. As discussed in the page on impedance, the

resistance component and the reactance component are
not in phase, so vector addition must be used to relate
them with impedance. For an eddy current circuit with
resistance and inductive reactance components, the total
impedance is calculated using the following equation.

You will recall that this can be graphically displayed using the impedance plane
diagram as seen above. Impedance also has an associated angle, called the phase
angle of the circuit, which can be calculated by the following equation.

The impedance plane diagram is a very useful way of displaying eddy current
data. As shown in the figure below, the strength of the eddy currents and the
magnetic permeability of the test material cause the eddy current signal on the
impedance plane to react in a variety of different ways.
If the eddy current circuit is balanced in air and then placed on a piece of
aluminum, the resistance component will increase (eddy currents are being
generated in the aluminum and this takes energy away from the coil, which
shows up as resistance) and the inductive reactance of the coil decreases (the
magnetic field created by the eddy currents opposes the coil's magnetic field and
the net effect is a weaker magnetic field to produce inductance). If a crack is
present in the material, fewer eddy currents will be able to form and the
resistance will go back down and the inductive reactance will go back up.
Changes in conductivity will cause the eddy current signal to change in a
different way.
When a probe is placed on a magnetic material such as steel, something different
happens. Just like with aluminum (conductive but not magnetic), eddy currents
form, taking energy away from the coil, which shows up as an increase in the
coils resistance. And, just like with the aluminum, the eddy currents generate
their own magnetic field that opposes the coils magnetic field. However, you will
note for the diagram that the reactance increases. This is because the magnetic
permeability of the steel concentrates the coil's magnetic field. This increase in
the magnetic field strength completely overshadows the magnetic field of the
eddy currents. The presence of a crack or a change in the conductivity will
produce a change in the eddy current signal similar to that seen with aluminum.

In the applet below, liftoff curves can be generated for several nonconductive
materials with various electrical conductivities. With the probe held away from
the metal surface, zero and clear the graph. Then slowly move the probe to the
surface of the material. Lift the probe back up, select a different material and
touch it back to the sample surface.

Experiment

Generate a family of liftoff curves for the different materials available in the
applet using a frequency of 10kHz. Note the relative position of each of the
curves. Repeat at 500kHz and 2MHz. (Note: it might be helpful to capture an
image of the complete set of curves for each frequency for comparison.)

1) Which frequency would be best if you needed to distinguish between two high
conductivity materials?
2) Which frequency would be best if you needed to distinguish between two low
conductivity materials?

The impedance calculations in the above applet are based on codes by Jack Blitz
from "Electrical and Magnetic Methods of Nondestructive Testing," 2nd ed.,
Chapman and Hill.

Display - Analog Meter

Analog instruments are the

simplest of the instruments
available for eddy current
inspections. They are used for
crack detection, corrosion
inspection, or conductivity testing.
These types of instruments contain
a simple bridge circuit, which
compares a balancing load to that
measured on the test specimen. If
any changes in the test specimen
occur which deviate from normal
you will see a movement on the instruments meter.

Analog meters such as the D'Arsonval design pictured in the applet below, must
"rectify" the AC into DC. This is most easily accomplished through the use of
devices called diodes. Without going into elaborate detail over how and why
diodes work as they do, remember that they each act like a one-way valve for
electrons to flow. They act as a conductor for one polarity and an insulator for
another. Arranged in a bridge, four diodes will serve to steer AC through the
meter movement in a constant direction.
An analog meter can easily measure just a few microamperes of current and is
well suited for use in balancing bridges.

Exercise: Using the equations within the applet, calculate appropriate values for
C and R2 for a set of probe values. Then balance the bridge using your calculated
values. The analog meter should swing close to the left end if its scale indicates
little or no current across the bridge. Across the bridge should be minimized
(straight line).
 4 Probes / Coil Desing
Probes - Mode of Operation

Eddy current probes are available in a

large variety of shapes and sizes. In
fact, one of the major advantages of
eddy current inspection is that probes
can be custom designed for a wide
variety of applications. Eddy current
probes are classified by the
configuration and mode of operation of
the test coils. The configuration of the
probe generally refers to the way the
coil or coils are packaged to best "couple" to the test area of interest. An example
of different configurations of probes would be bobbin probes, which are inserted
into a piece of pipe to inspect from the inside out, versus encircling probes, in
which the coil or coils encircle the pipe to inspect from the outside in. The mode
of operation refers to the way the coil or coils are wired and interface with the
test equipment. The mode of operation of a probe generally falls into one of four
categories: absolute, differential, reflection and hybrid. Each of these
classifications will be discussed in more detail below.

Absolute Probes

Absolute probes generally have a single test

coil that is used to generate the eddy currents
and sense changes in the eddy current field. As
discussed in the physics section, AC is passed
through the coil and this sets up an expanding
and collapsing magnetic field in and around
the coil. When the probe is positioned next to
a conductive material, the changing magnetic
field generates eddy currents within the
material.
The generation of the eddy currents take energy from the coil and this appears as
an increase in the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy currents generate
their own magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field of the coil and this
changes the inductive reactance of the coil. By measuring the absolute change in
impedance of the test coil, much information can be gained about the test
material.

Absolute coils can be used for flaw detection, conductivity measurements, liftoff
measurements and thickness measurements. They are widely used due to their
versatility. Since absolute probes are sensitive to things such as conductivity,
permeability liftoff and temperature, steps must be taken to minimize these
variables when they are not important to the inspection being performed. It is
very common for commercially available absolute probes to have a fixed "air
loaded" reference coil that compensates for ambient temperature variations.

Differential Probes

Differential probes have two active

coils usually wound in opposition,
although they could be wound in
addition with similar results. When
the two coils are over a flaw-free
area of test sample, there is no
differential signal developed
between the coils since they are
both inspecting identical material.
However, when one coil is over a
defect and the other is over good
material, a differential signal is
produced. They have the advantage
of being very sensitive to defects
yet relatively insensitive to slowly
varying properties such as gradual dimensional or temperature variations. Probe
wobble signals are also reduced with this probe type. There are also
disadvantages to using differential probes. Most notably, the signals may be
difficult to interpret. For example, if a flaw is longer than the spacing between
the two coils, only the leading and trailing edges will be detected due to signal
cancellation when both coils sense the flaw equally.
Reflection Probes

Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential probe, but one coil is
used to excite the eddy currents and the other is used to sense changes in the test
material. Probes of this arrangement are often referred to as driver/pickup probes.
The advantage of reflection probes is that the driver and pickup coils can be
separately optimized for their intended purpose. The driver coil can be made so
as to produce a strong and uniform flux field in the vicinity of the pickup coil,
while the pickup coil can be made very small so that it will be sensitive to very
small defects.

Some absolute and differential "transformer" type eddy current probes.

The through-transmission method is sometimes used when complete penetration

of plates and tube walls is required.

Hybrid Probes

An example of a hybrid probe is the split D,

differential probe shown to the right. This probe has
a driver coil that surrounds two D shaped sensing
coils. It operates in the reflection mode but
additionally, its sensing coils operate in the
differential mode.
This type of probe is very sensitive to surface cracks. Another example of a
hybrid probe is one that uses a conventional coil to generate eddy currents in the
material but then uses a different type of sensor to detect changes on the surface
and within the test material. An example of a hybrid probe is one that uses a Hall
effect sensor to detect changes in the magnetic flux leaking from the test surface.
Hybrid probes are usually specially designed for a specific inspection
application.

Probes - Configurations

As mentioned on the previous page, eddy current probes are classified by the
configuration and mode of operation of the test coils. The configuration of the
probe generally refers to the way the coil or coils are packaged to best "couple"
to the test area of interest. Some of the common classifications of probes based
on their configuration include surface probes, bolt hole probes, inside diameter
(ID) probes, and outside diameter (OD) probes.

Surface Probes

Surface probes are usually designed to be

handheld and are intended to be used in
contact with the test surface. Surface
probes generally consist of a coil of very
fine wire encased in a protective housing.
The size of the coil and shape of the
housing are determined by the intended
use of the probe. Most of the coils are
wound so that the axis of the coil is
perpendicular to the test surface. This coil
configuration is sometimes referred to as
a pancake coil and is good for detecting
surface discontinuities that are oriented
perpendicular to the test surface.
Discontinuities, such as delaminations,
that are in a parallel plane to the test
surface will likely go undetected with this coil configuration.
Wide surface coils are used when scanning large areas for relatively large
defects. They sample a relatively large area and allow for deeper penetration.
Since they do sample a large area, they are often used for conductivity tests to get
more of a bulk material measurement. However, their large sampling area limits
their ability to detect small discontinuities.

Pencil probes have a small surface coil that is encased in a long slender housing
to permit inspection in restricted spaces. They are available with a straight shaft
or with a bent shaft, which facilitates easier handling and use in applications such
as the inspection of small diameter bores. Pencil probes are prone to wobble due
to their small base and sleeves are sometimes used to provide a wider base.

Bolt Hole Probes

Bolt hole probes are a special type of surface probe that is designed to be used
with a bolt hole scanner. They have a surface coil that is mounted inside a
housing that matches the diameter of the hole being inspected. The probe is
inserted in the hole and the scanner rotates the probe within the hole.

ID or Bobbin Probes

ID probes, which are also referred to as

Bobbin probes or feed-through probes,
are inserted into hollow products, such
as pipes, to inspect from the inside out.
The ID probes have a housing that
keep the probe centered in the product
and the coil(s) orientation somewhat
constant relative to the test surface.
The coils are most commonly wound
around the circumference of the probe
so that the probe inspects an area around the entire circumference of the test
object at one time.
OD or Encircling Coils

OD probes are often called encircling coils.

They are similar to ID probes except that the
coil(s) encircle the material to inspect from the
outside in. OD probes are commonly used to
inspect solid products, such as bars.

Probes - Shielding & Loading

One of the challenges of performing an eddy current

inspection is getting sufficient eddy current field strength
in the region of interest within the material. Another
challenge is keeping the field away from nonrelevant
features of the test component. The impedance change
caused by nonrelevant features can complicate the
interpretation of the signal. Probe shielding and loading
are sometimes used to limit the spread and concentrate
the magnetic field of the coil. Of course, if the magnetic
field is concentrated near the coil, the eddy currents will also be concentrated in
this area.

Probe Shielding

Probe shielding is used to prevent or reduce the interaction of

the probe's magnetic field with nonrelevent features in close
proximity of the probe. Shielding could be used to reduce edge
effects when testing near dimensional transitions such as a step
or an edge. Shielding could also be used to reduce the effects
of conductive or magnetic fasteners in the region of testing.
Eddy current probes are most often shielded using magnetic shielding or eddy
current shielding. Magnetically shielded probes have their coil surrounded by a
ring of ferrite or other material with high permeability and low conductivity. The
ferrite creates an area of low magnetic reluctance and the probe's magnetic field
is concentrated in this area rather than spreading beyond the shielding. This
concentrates the magnetic field into a tighter area around the coil.

Eddy current shielding uses a ring of highly conductive but nonmagnetic

material, usually copper, to surround the coil. The portion of the coil's magnetic
field that cuts across the shielding will generate eddy currents in the shielding
material rather than in the nonrelevent features outside of the shielded area. The
higher the frequency of the current used to drive the probe, the more effective the
shielding will be due to the skin effect in the shielding material.

Probe Loading with Ferrite Cores

Sometimes coils are wound around a ferrite core. Since

ferrite is ferromagnetic, the magnetic flux produced by
the coil prefers to travel through the ferrite as opposed to
the air. Therefore, the ferrite core concentrates the
magnetic field near the center of the probe. This, in turn,
concentrates the eddy currents near the center of the
probe. Probes with ferrite cores tend to be more sensitive
than air core probes and less affected by probe wobble
and lift-off.

Coil (Probe) Design

The most important feature in eddy current testing is the way in which the eddy
currents are induced and detected in the material under test. This depends on the
design of the probe. As discussed in the previous pages, probes can contain one
or more coils, a core and shielding. All have an important effect on the probe,
but the coil requires the most design consideration.
A coil consists of a length of wire wound in a helical manner around the length of
a former. The main purpose of the former is to provide a sufficient amount of
rigidity in the coil to prevent distortion. Formers used for coils with diameters
greater than a few millimeters (i.e. encircling and pancake coils), generally take
the form of tubes or rings made from dielectric materials. Small-diameter coils
are usually wound directly onto a solid former.

The region inside the former is called the core, which can consist of either a solid
material or just air. When the core is air or a nonconductive material, the probe
is often referred to as an air-core probe. Some coils are wound around a ferrite
core which concentrates the the coil's magnetic field into a smaller area. These
coils are referred to as "loaded" coils.

The wire used in an eddy current probe is typically made from copper or other
nonferrous metal to avoid magnetic hysteresis effects. The winding usually has
more than one layer so as to increase the value of inductance for a given length of
coil. The higher the inductance (L) of a coil, at a given frequency, the greater the
sensitivity of eddy current testing.

It is essential that the current through the coil is as low as possible. Too high a
current may produce:

a rise in temperature, hence an expansion of the coil, which increases the

value of L.
magnetic hysteresis, which is small but detectable when a ferrite core is
used.

The simplest type of probe is the single-coil probe, which is in widespread use.
The following applet may be used to calculate the effect of the inner and outer
diameters, length, number of turns and wire diameter of a simple probe design on
the probe's self inductance. Dimensional units are in millimeters.
A more precise value of L is given by:

L = Kn2 p [ (ro2 - rc2) - µrrc2] µo / l

ro is the mean radius of the coil.

rc is the radius of the core.
l is the length of the coil.
n is the number of turns.
µr is the relative magnetic permeability of the core.
µo is the permeability of free space (i.e. 4 pi x 10-7 H/m).
K is a dimensionless constant characteristic of the length and the external
and internal radii.
 5 Procedure Issues
Reference Standards

In eddy current testing, the use of reference standards in setting up the equipment
is particularly important since signals are affected by many different variables
and slight changes in equipment setup can drastically alter the appearance of a
signal. As with most other NDT methods, the most useful information is obtained
when comparing the results from an unknown object to results from a similar
object with well characterized features and defects. In almost all cases, eddy
current inspection procedures require the equipment to be configured using
reference standards.

For crack detection, corrosion thinning and other material damage, reference
standards are used to setup the equipment to produce a recognizable signal or set
of signals from a defect or set of defects. In many cases, the appearance of a test
signal can be related to the appearance of a signal from a known defect on the
reference standard to estimate the size of a defect in the test component. Signals
that vary significantly from the responses produced by the reference standard
must be further investigated to the determine the source of the signal.
The reference standard should be of the same material as the test article. If this is
not possible or practical, it should be of material that has the same electrical
conductivity and magnetic permeability. Component features (material thickness,
geometry, etc.) should be the same in the reference standard as those in the test
region of interest. If the reference standard is the type with intentional defects,
these defects should be as representative of actual defects in the test component
as possible. The closer the reference standard is to the actual test component, the
better. However, since cracks and corrosion damage are often difficult and costly
to produce, artificial defects are commonly used. Narrow notches produced with
electron discharge machining (EDM) and saw cuts are commonly used to
represent cracks, and drilled holes are often used to simulate corrosion pitting.

Common eddy current reference standards include:

Conductivity standards.
Flat plate discontinuity standards.
Flat plate metal thinning standards (step or tapered wedges).
Tube discontinuity standards.
Tube metal thinning standards.
Hole (with and without fastener) discontinuity standards

Signal Filtering

Signal filtering is often used in eddy current testing to eliminate unwanted

frequencies from the receiver signal. While the correct filter settings can
significantly improve the visibility of a defect signal, incorrect settings can
distort the signal presentation and even eliminate the defect signal completely.
Therefore, it is important to understand the concept of signal filtering.

Filtering is applied to the received signal and, therefore, is not directly related to
the probe drive frequency. This is most easily understood when picturing a time
versus signal amplitude display. With this display mode, it is easy to see that the
signal shape is dependent on the time or duration that the probe coil is sensing
something. For example, if a surface probe is placed on the surface of conductor
and rocked back and forth, it will produce a wave like signal. When the probe is
rocked fast, the signal will have a higher frequency than when the probe is
rocked slowly back and forth.
The signal does not need a wavelike appearance to have frequency content and
most eddy current signals will be composed of a large number of frequencies.
Consider a probe that senses a notch for 1/60th of a second. In a period of one
second the probe could (in theory) go over the notch 60 times, resulting in the
notch signal having a frequency of 60 Hz. But, imposed on this same signal,
could be the signal resulting from probe wobble, electronic noise, a conductivity
shift and other factors which occur at different frequencies.

Filters Effects

The two standard filters found in most

impedance plane display instruments are the
‘High Pass Filter’ (HPF) and ‘Low Pass
Filter’ (LPF). Some instruments also have
a‘Band Pass Filter’ (BPF), which is a
combination high and low pass filter. Filters
are adjusted in Hertz (Hz).

The HPF allows high frequencies to pass and

filters out the low frequencies. The HPF is
basically filtering out changes in the signal
that occur over a significant period of time.

The LPF allows low frequency to pass and

filters out the high frequency. In other words,
all portions of the signal that change rapidly (have a high slope) are filtered, such
as electronic noise.
In the image above, the gradual (low frequency) changes were first filtered out
with a HPF and then high frequency electronic noise was filtered with a LPF to
leave a clearly visible flaw indication. It should also be noted that since flaw
indication signals are comprised of multiple frequencies, both filters have a
tendency to reduce the indication signal strength. Additionally, scan speed must
be controlled when using filters. Scan over a flaw too slow and the HPF might
filter out the flaw indication. Scan over the flaw too fast and the LPF might
eliminate the flaw indication.

Filter Settings

If the spectrum of the signal frequency

and the signal amplitude or attenuation
are plotted, the filter responses can be
illustrated in graphical form. The
image to the right shows the response
of a LPF of 20Hz and a HPF of 40Hz.
The LPF allows only the frequencies
in yellow to pass and the HPF only
allow those frequencies in the blue
area to pass. Therefore, it can be seen
that with these settings there are no
frequencies that pass (i.e. the frequencies passed by the LPF are filtered out by
the HPF and visa versa).

To create a window of acceptance for

the signals, the filters need to overlap.
In the image to the right, the LPF has
been adjusted to 60Hz and the HPF to
10Hz. The area shown in gray is where
the two frequencies overlap and the
signal is passed. A signal of 30Hz will
get through at full amplitude, while a
signal of 15Hz will be attenuated by
approximately 50%. All frequencies
above or below the gray area (the pass
band) will be rejected by one of the
two filters.
Use of Filters

The main function of the LPF is to remove high frequency interference noise.
This noise can come from a variety of sources including the instrumentation
and/or the probe itself. The noise appears as an unstable dot that produces jagged
lines on the display as seen in the signal from a surface notch shown in the left
image below. Lowering the LPF frequency will remove more of the higher
frequencies from the signal and produce a cleaner signal as shown in the center
image below. When using a LPF, it should be set to the highest frequency that
produces a usable signal. To reduce noise in large surface or ring probes, it may
be necessary to use a very low LPF setting (down to 10Hz). The lower the LPF
setting, the slower the scanning speed must be and the more closely it must be
controlled. The image on the right below shows a signal that has been clipped
due to using a scan speed too fast for the selected HPF setting.

The HPF is used to eliminate low frequencies which are produced by slow
changes, such as conductivity shift within a material, varying distance to an edge
while scanning parallel to it, or out-of-round holes in fastener hole inspection.
The HPF is useful when performing automated or semiautomatic scans to keep
the signal from wandering too far from the null (balance) point. The most
common application for the HPF is the inspection of fastener holes using a
rotating scanner. As the scanner rotates at a constant RPM, the HPF can be
adjusted to achieve the desired effect.
Use of the HPF when scanning manually is not recommended, as keeping a
constant scanning speed is difficult, and the signal deforms and amplitude
decreases. The size of a signal decreases as the scan speed decreases and a flaw
indication can be eliminated completely if the scan is not done with sufficient
speed. In the images below, it can be seen that a typical response from a surface
notch in aluminum without HPF (left image) looks considerably different when
the HPF is activated (right image). With the HPF, looping signals with a positive
and similar negative deflection are produced on the impedance plane.

The use of a minimal HPF setting (1 or 2 Hz) may be used when manually
scanning, provided the operator can largely control the scan speed and becomes
familiar with the indication signal changes as scan speed is varied slightly. An
good example of such an application would be the manual scan of the radius of a
wheel that is rotated by hand, but the speed of rotation can be kept relatively
constant.
 6 Applications
Surface Breaking Cracks

Eddy current equipment can be used for a variety of

applications such as the detection of cracks
(discontinuities), measurement of metal thickness,
detection of metal thinning due to corrosion and
erosion, determination of coating thickness, and the
measurement of electrical conductivity and
magnetic permeability. Eddy current inspection is
an excellent method for detecting surface and near
surface defects when the probable defect location
and orientation is well known.

Defects such as cracks are detected when they

disrupt the path of eddy currents and weaken their
strength. The images to the right show an eddy
current surface probe on the surface of a conductive
component. The strength of the eddy currents under
the coil of the probe ins indicated by color. In the lower image, there is a flaw
under the right side of the coil and it can be see that the eddy currents are weaker
in this area.

Of course, factors such as the type of material, surface finish and condition of the
material, the design of the probe, and many other factors can affect the sensitivity
of the inspection. Successful detection of surface breaking and near surface
cracks requires:

1. A knowledge of probable defect type, position, and orientation.

2. Selection of the proper probe. The probe should fit the geometry of the
part and the coil must produce eddy currents that will be disrupted by the
flaw.
 3. Selection of a reasonable probe drive frequency. For surface flaws, the
frequency should be as high as possible for maximum resolution and high
sensitivity. For subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are necessary to get
the required depth of penetration and this results in less sensitivity.
Ferromagnetic or highly conductive materials require the use of an even
lower frequency to arrive at some level of penetration.
4. Setup or reference specimens of similar material to the component being
inspected and with features that are representative of the defect or
condition being inspected for.

The basic steps in performing an

inspection with a surface probe
are the following:

1. Select and setup the

instrument and probe.
2. Select a frequency to
produce the desired depth
of penetration.
3. Adjust the instrument to
obtain an easily recognizable defect response using a calibration standard
or setup specimen.
4. Place the inspection probe (coil) on the component surface and null the
instrument.
5. Scan the probe over part of the surface in a pattern that will provide
complete coverage of the area being inspected. Care must be taken to
maintain the same probe-to-surface orientation as probe wobble can affect
interpretation of the signal. In some cases, fixtures to help maintain
orientation or automated scanners may be required.
6. Monitor the signal for a local change in impedance that will occur as the
probe moves over a discontinuity.

The applet below depicts a simple eddy current probe near the surface of a
calibration specimen. Move the probe over the surface of the specimen and
compare the signal responses from a surface breaking crack with the signals from
the calibration notches. The inspection can be made at a couple of different
frequencies to get a feel for the effect that frequency has on sensitivity in this
application.
 Surface Crack Detection Using Sliding Probes

Many commercial aircraft applications involve the use of multiple fasteners to

connect the multi-layer skins. Because of the fatigue stress that is caused by the
typical application of any commercial aircraft, fatigue cracks can be induced in
the vicinity of the fastener holes. In order to inspect the fastener holes in an
adequate amount of time, sliding probes are an efficient method of inspection.

Sliding probes have been named so because they move over fasteners in a sliding
motion. There are two types of sliding probes, fixed and adjustable, which are
usually operated in the reflection mode. This means that the eddy currents are
induced by the driver coil and detected by a separate receiving coil.

Sliding probes are one of the fastest methods to inspect large numbers of fastener
holes. They are capable of detecting surface and subsurface discontinuities, but
they can only detect defects in one direction. The probes are marked with a
detection line to indicate the direction of inspection. In order to make a complete
inspection there must be two scans that are orthogonal (90 degrees) to each other.

Probe Types

Fixed Sliding Probes

These probes are generally used for thinner material compared to the adjustable
probes. Maximum penetration is about 1/8 inch. Fixed sliding probes are
particularly well suited for finding longitudinal surface or subsurface cracks such
as those found in lap joints. Typical frequency range is
from 100 Hz to 100 kHz.

Adjustable Sliding Probes

These probes are well suited for finding subsurface cracks
in thick multi-layer structures, like wing skins. Maximum
penetration is about 3/4 inch. The frequency range for
adjustable sliding probes is from 100 Hz to 40 kHz.

Adjustable probes, as the name implies, are adjustable with the use of spacers,
which will change the penetration capabilities. The spacer thickness between the
coils is normally adjusted for the best detection. For tangential scans or 90 degree
scanning with an offset from the center, a thinner spacer is often used.
The spacer thickness range can vary from 0 (no
spacer) for inspections close to the surface and
small fastener heads to a maximum of about 0.3
inch for deep penetration with large heads in the
bigger probe types. A wider spacer will give more
tolerance to probe deviation as the sensitive area
becomes wider but the instrument will require more
gain. Sliding probes usually penetrate thicker
materials compared to the donut probes.

Reference Standards

Reference/calibration standards for setup of sliding probes typically consist of

three or four aluminum plates that are fastened together within a lap joint type
configuration. EDM notches or naturally/artificially- induced cracks are located
in the second or third layer of the standard.

Reference standards used should be manufactured from the same material type,
alloy, material thickness, and chemical composition that will be found on the
aircraft component to be inspected. Sizes and tolerances of flaws introduced in
the standards are usually regulated by inspection specifications.
Inspection Variables

Liftoff Signal Adjustment

Liftoff is normally adjusted to be relatively horizontal. The term "relatively
horizontal" is used here because the liftoff signal often appears a curved line
rather than a straight line. Sometimes liftoff can be a sharp curve and may need
to be adjusted to run slightly upwards before moving downwards. See Figures 1
and 2.

Scan Patterns
A typical scan is centralized over the fastener head and moves along the axis of
the fastener holes. This scan is generally used to detect cracks positioned along
the axis of the fastener holes. For detecting cracks located transverse or 90
degrees from the axis of the fastener holes, a scan that is 90 degrees from the axis
of the fastener holes is recommended.

Signal Interpretation
When the probe moves over a fastener hole with a crack, the indication changes
and typically will create a larger vertical movement. The vertical amplitude of
the loop depends on the crack length, with longer cracks giving higher
indications.

If the crack is in the far side of the fastener, as the probe moves over it, the dot
will follow the fastener line first but will move upwards (clockwise) as it goes
over the crack. If the crack is in the near side, it will be found first and the dot
will move along the crack level before coming down to the fastener level.
If two cracks on opposite sides of the fastener hole are present, the dot will move
upwards to the height by the first crack length and then come back to the fastener
line and balance point. If the second crack is longer than the first one, the dot will
move even higher and complete the loop (clockwise) before going down to the
balance point. See Figures 3 and 4.

Probe Scan Deviation

Most probes are designed to give a narrow indication for a good fastener hole so
that the loops from the cracks are more noticeable. Some probes and structures
can give wider indications and a similar result can be obtained if the probe is not
straight when it approaches the fastener. It is important to keep the probe
centralized over the fastener heads. Doing this will give you a maximum
indication for the fastener and a crack.

If the probe deviates from the center line, the crack indication will move along
the loop that we saw in Figure 5 and is now present in Figure 6. The crack
indication is at "a" when the probe is centralized and moves toward "b" as it
deviates in one direction, or "c" as it deviates in the opposite direction. Point "b"
gives an important indication even if it loses a small amount of amplitude it has
gained in phase, giving a better separation angle. This is because we deviated to
the side where the crack is located.
Crack Angle Deviation
A reduction in the crack indication occurs when the crack is at an angle to the
probe scan direction. This happens if the crack is not completely at 90 degrees to
the normal probe scan or changes direction as it grows. Both the fixed and
adjustable sliding probes are capable of detecting cracks up to about 30 degrees
off angle. See Figures 7 and 8.

Electrical Contact
When inspecting fasteners that have just been installed or reference standards
that have intimate contact with the aluminum skin plate, it is not unusual to
obtain a smaller than normal indication. In some extreme cases, the fastener
indication may disappear almost completely. This is due to the good electrical
contact between the fastener and the skin. This condition allows the eddy
currents to circulate without encountering a boundary, and therefore, no obstacle
or barrier. Because of this effect, it is recommended to paint the holes before
fastener installation.
 Tube Inspection

Eddy current inspection is often used to detect corrosion,

erosion, cracking and other changes in tubing. Heat
exchangers and steam generators, which are used in power
plants, have thousands of tubes that must be prevented
from leaking. This is especially important in nuclear power
plants where reused, contaminated water must be
prevented from mixing with fresh water that will be
returned to the environment. The contaminated water flows
on one side of the tube (inside or outside) and the fresh
water flows on the other side. The heat is transferred from
the contaminated water to the fresh water and the fresh
water is then returned back to is source, which is usually a
lake or river. It is very important to keep the two water sources from mixing, so
power plants are periodically shutdown so the tubes and other equipment can be
inspected and repaired. The eddy current test method and the related remote field
testing method provide high-speed inspection techniques for these applications.

A technique that is often used

involves feeding a differential bobbin
probe into the individual tube of the
heat exchanger. With the differential
probe, no signal will be seen on the
eddy current instrument as long as no
metal thinning is present. When metal
thinning is present, a loop will be seen
on the impedance plane as one coil of
the differential probe passes over the flawed area and a second loop will be
produced when the second coil passes over the damage. When the corrosion is on
the outside surface of the tube, the depth of corrosion is indicated by a shift in the
phase lag. The size of the indication provides an indication of the total extent of
the corrosion damage.

A tube inspection using a bobbin probe is simulated below. Click the "null"
button and then drag either the absolute or the differential probe through the tube.
Note the different signal responses provided by the two probes. Also note that the
absolute probe is much more sensitive to dings and the build up of magnetite on
the outside of the tube than the differential probe is.
 Conductivity Measurements

One of the uses of eddy current instruments

is for the measurement of electrical
conductivity. The value of the electrical
conductivity of a metal depends on several
factors, such as its chemical composition
and the stress state of its crystalline
structure. Therefore, electrical conductivity
information can be used for sorting metals,
checking for proper heat treatment, and
inspecting for heat damage.

The technique usually involves nulling an absolute probe in air and placing the
probe in contact with the sample surface. For nonmagnetic materials, the change
in impedance of the coil can be correlated directly to the conductivity of the
material. The technique can be used to easily sort magnetic materials from
nonmagnetic materials but it is difficult to separate the conductivity effects from
the magnetic permeability effects, so conductivity measurements are limited to
nonmagnetic materials. It is important to control factors that can affect the results
such as the inspection temperature and the part geometry. Conductivity changes
with temperature so measurements should be made at a constant temperature and
adjustments made for temperature variations when necessary. The thickness of
the specimen should generally be greater than three standard depths of
penetration. This is so the eddy currents at the back surface of the sample are
sufficiently weaker than the variations in the specimen thickness that are not seen
in the measurements.

Generally large pancake type, surface

probes are used to get a value for a
relatively large sample area. The instrument
is usually setup such that a ferromagnetic
material produces a response that is nearly
vertical. Then, all conductive but
nonmagnetic materials will produce a trace
that moves down and to the right as the
probe is moved toward the surface.
Think back to the discussion on the impedance plane and these type of responses
make sense. Remember that inductive reactance changes are plotted along the y-
axis and resistance changes are plotted in the x-axis. Since ferromagnetic
materials will concentrate the magnetic field produced by a coil, the inductive
reactance of the coil will increase. The effects on the signal from the magnetic
permeability overshadow the effects from conductivity since they are so much
stronger.

When the probe is brought near a conductive but nonmagnetic material, the coil's
inductive reactance goes down since the magnetic field from the eddy currents
opposes the magnetic field of the coil. The resistance in the coil increases since it
takes some of the coil's energy to generate the eddy currents and this appears as
additional resistance in the circuit. As the conductivity of the materials being
tested increases, the resistance losses will be less and the inductive reactance
changes will be greater. Therefore, the signals will be come more vertical as the
conductivity increases, as shown in the image above.

To sort materials using an impedance plane device, the signal from the unknown
sample must be compared to a signal from a variety of reference
standards. However, there are devices available that can be calibrated to produce
a value for electrical conductivity which can then be compared to published
values of electrical conductivity in MS/m or percent IACS (International
Annealed Copper Standard). Please be aware that the conductivity of a particular
material can vary significantly with slight variations in the chemical composition
and, thus, a conductivity range is generally provided for a material. The
conductivity range for one material may overlap with the range of a second
material of interest, so conductivity alone can not always be used to sort
materials. The electrical conductivity values for a variety of materials can be
found in the material properties reference tables.

The following applet is based on codes for nonferrous materials written by Back
Blitz from his book, "Electrical and Magnetic Methods of Nondestructive
Testing", 2nd ed., Chapman & Hill (1997). The applet demonstrates how an
impedance plane eddy current instrument can be used for the sorting of materials.
Conductivity Measurements
for the Verification of Heat
Treatment

With some materials, such as solution heat

treatable aluminum alloys, conductivity
measurements are often made verifying that
parts and materials have received the proper
heat treatment. High purity aluminum is soft
and ductile, and gains strength and hardness
with the addition of alloying elements. A few
such aluminum alloys are the 2000 series
(2014, 2024, etc.), 6000 series (6061, 6063,
etc.), and 7000 series (7050, 7075, etc.). The 2xxx series aluminum alloys have
copper, the 6xxx series have magnesium, and the 7xxx have zinc as their major
alloying elements.

Heat treatment of aluminum alloys is accomplished in two phases - solution heat

treatment and then aging. In the solution heat treatment step, the alloys are heated
to an elevated temperature to dissolve the alloying elements into solution. The
metal is then rapidly cooled or quenched to “freeze” the atoms of the alloying
elements in the lattice structure of the aluminum. This distorts and stresses the
structure, making electron movement more difficult, thereby decreasing the
electrical conductivity. In this condition, the alloys are still relatively soft but
start to gain strength as the alloying elements begin to precipitate out of solution
to form extremely small particles that impede the movement of dislocations
within the material.
 The formation of the precipitates can be controlled for many alloys by heating
and holding the material at an elevated temperature for a period of time (artificial
aging). As the alloying elements precipitate out of solid solution, the conductivity
of the material gradually increases. By controlling the amount of precipitated
particles within the aluminum, the properties can be controlled to produce peak
strength or some combinations of strength and corrosion resistance. Sometimes,
the material must be annealed or put into the softest, most ductile condition
possible in order to perform forming operations. Annealing allows all of the
alloying elements to precipitate out of solution to form a coarse, widely spaced
precipitate. The electrical conductivity is greatest when the material is in the
annealed condition.

Since solution heat-treated and aged materials are stronger, components can be
made using less material. A lighter or more compact design is often of great
importance to the designer and well worth the cost of the heat treating process.
However, think of the consequences that could arise if a component that was
supposed to be solution heat-treated and aged somehow left the manufacturing
facility and was put into service unheat-treated or annealed. This is a real
possibility since heat-treated aluminum parts look exactly like unheat-treated
parts. Consider 2024 aluminum as an example. Select tensile properties and its
electrical conductivity for various heat treatment conditions are given in the
following table.

Properties for Alclad 2024 Aluminum

Electrical
Heat Treatment Condition Ultimate Strength Yield Strength
Conductivity
Annealed (O) 26 ksi (180 MPa) 11 ksi (75 MPa) 50 % IACS
Solution Heat Treated and
64 ksi (440 MPa) 42 ksi (290 MPa) 30 % IACS
Naturally Aged (T42)
Solution Heat Treated,
Coldworked and 70 ksi (485 MPa) 66 ksi (455 MPa) 38 % IACS
Artificially Aged (T861)
It can be seen that the yield strength for the material is 42 kilopounds/square inch
(ksi) (290 MPa) in the solution heat-treated and naturally aged condition (T42
condition). The yield strength can be increased to 66 ksi (455 MPa) when
coldworked and artificially aged (T861 condition). But in the annealed condition,
the yield strength is reduced to 11 ksi (75 MPa). If an annealed part were
accidentally used where a part in the T42 or T861 was intended, it would likely
fail prematurely. However, a quick check of the conductivity using an eddy
current instrument of all parts prior to shipping would prevent this from
occurring.
 Thickness Measurements of
Thin Material

Eddy current techniques can be used to

perform a number of dimensional
measurements. The ability to make rapid
measurements without the need for couplant
or, in some cases even surface contact,
makes eddy current techniques very useful.
The type of measurements that can be made
include:

thickness of thin metal sheet and foil,

and of metallic coatings on metallic and nonmetallic substrate
cross-sectional dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods
 thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metallic substrates

Corrosion Thinning of Aircraft Skins

One application where the eddy current technique

is commonly used to measure material thickness is
in the detection and characterization of corrosion
damage on the skins of aircraft. Eddy current
techniques can be used to do spot checks or
scanners can be used to inspect small areas. Eddy
current inspection has an advantage over
ultrasound in this application because no
mechanical coupling is required to get the energy
into the structure. Therefore, in multi-layered areas
of the structure like lap splices, eddy current can
often determine if corrosion thinning is present in
buried layers.

Eddy current inspection has an advantage over

radiography for this application because only single
sided access is required to perform the inspection.
To get a piece of film on the back side of the aircraft skin might require removing
interior furnishings, panels, and insulation which could be very costly. Advanced
eddy current techniques are being developed that can determine thickness
changes down to about three percent of the skin thickness.

Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Sheet, Strip and Foil

Eddy current techniques are used to measure the thickness of hot sheet, strip and
foil in rolling mills, and to measure the amount of metal thinning that has
occurred over time due to corrosion on fuselage skins of aircraft. On the
impedance plane, thickness variations exhibit the same type of eddy current
signal response as a subsurface defect, except that the signal represents a void of
infinite size and depth. The phase rotation pattern is the same, but the signal
amplitude is greater. In the applet, the lift-off curves for different areas of the
taper wedge can be produced by nulling the probe in air and touching it to the
surface at various locations of the tapered wedge.
If a line is drawn between the end points of the lift-off curves, a comma shaped
curve is produced. As illustrated in the second applet, this comma shaped curve
is the path that is traced on the screen when the probe is scanned down the length
of the tapered wedge so that the entire range of thickness values are measured.

When making this measurement, it is important to keep in mind that the depth of
penetration of the eddy currents must cover the entire range of thicknesses being
measured. Typically, a frequency is selected that produces about one standard
depth of penetration at the maximum thickness. Unfortunately, at lower
frequencies, which are often needed to get the necessary penetration, the probe
impedance is more sensitive to changes in electrical conductivity. Thus, the
effects of electrical conductivity cannot be phased out and it is important to
verify that any variations of conductivity over the region of interest are at a
sufficiently low level.

Measurement of Cross-sectional Dimensions of Cylindrical Tubes and Rods

Dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods can be measured with either OD coils
or internal axial coils, whichever is appropriate. The relationship between change
in impedance and change in diameter is fairly constant, except at very low
frequencies. However, the advantages of operating at a higher normalized
frequency are twofold. First, the contribution of any conductivity change to the
impedance of the coil becomes less important and it can easily be phased out.
Second, there is an increase in measurement sensitivity resulting from the higher
value of the inductive component of the impedance. Because of the large phase
difference between the impedance vectors corresponding to changes in fill-factor
and conductivity (and defect size), simultaneous testing for dimensions,
conductivity, and defects can be carried out.

Typical applications include measuring eccentricities of the diameters of tubes

and rods and the thickness of tube walls. Long tubes are often tested by passing
them at a constant speed through encircling coils (generally differential) and
providing a close fit to achieve as high a fill-factor as possible.

An important application of tube-wall thickness measurement is the detection and

assessment of corrosion, both external and internal. Internal probes must be used
when the external surface is not accessible, such as when testing pipes that are
buried or supported by brackets. Success has been achieved in measuring
thickness variations in ferromagnetic metal pipes with the remote field technique.

Thickness Measurement of Thin Conductive Layers

It is also possible to measure the thickness of a thin layer of metal on a metallic

substrate, provided the two metals have widely differing electrical conductivities
(i.e. silver on lead where = 67 and 10 MS/m, respectively). A frequency must be
selected such that there is complete eddy current penetration of the layer, but not
of the substrate itself. The method has also been used successfully for measuring
thickness of very thin protective coatings of ferromagnetic metals (i.e. chromium
and nickel) on non-ferromagnetic metal bases.

Depending on the required degree of penetration, measurements can be made

using a single-coil probe or a transformer probe, preferably reflection type.
Small-diameter probe coils are usually preferred since they can provide very high
sensitivity and minimize effects related to property or thickness variations in the
underlying base metal when used in combination with suitably high test
frequencies. The goal is to confine the magnetizing field, and the resulting eddy
current distribution, to just beyond the thin coating layer and to minimize the
field within the base metals
 Thickness Measurements of Nonconducting Coatings on
Conductive Materials

The thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined

simply from the effect of liftoff on impedance. This method has widespread use
for measuring thickness of paint and plastic coatings. The coating serves as a
spacer between the probe and the conductive surface. As the distance between
the probe and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy current field strength
decreases because less of the probe's magnetic field can interact with the base
metal. Thicknesses between 0.5 and 25 µm can be measured to an accuracy
between 10% for lower values and 4% for higher values. Contributions to
impedance changes due to conductivity variations should be phased out, unless it
is known that conductivity variations are negligible, as normally found at higher
frequencies.

Fairly precise measurements can be made with a standard eddy current flaw
detector and a calibration specimen. The probe is nulled in air and the direction
of the lift-off signal is established. The location of the signal is marked on the
screen as the probe is placed on the calibration specimen in areas of decreasing
coating thickness. When the probe is placed on the test surface, the position of
the signal will move from the air null position to a point that can be correlated to
the calibration markings.
Specialized eddy current coating thickness detectors are also available and are
often pocket-sized with the probe resembling a small pencil. They are usually
operated by a small battery and provide a digital read-out in the appropriate units.
Calibration adjustments, some of which are laid down by standards such as BS
EN 2360 (1995) and ASTM B 244 and E 376, may be assisted by the use of an
inbuilt microprocessor.
 7 Advanced Techniques
Scanning

Eddy current data can be collected using automated scanning systems to improve
the quality of the measurements and to construct images of scanned areas. The
most common type of scanning is line scanning where an automated system is
used to push the probe at a fixed speed. Line scan systems are often used when
performing tube inspections or aircraft engine blade slot inspections, where
scanning in one dimension is needed. The data is usually presented as a strip
chart recording. The advantage of using a linear scanning system is that the probe
is moved at a constant speed, so indications on the strip chart can be correlated to
a position on the part being scanned. As with all automated scanning systems,
operator variables, such as wobble of the probe, are reduced.

Two-dimensional scanning systems are used to scan a two-dimensional area.

This could be a scanning system that scans over a relatively flat area in a X-Y
raster mode, or it could be a bolt hole inspection system that rotates the probe as
it is moved into the hole. The data is typically displayed as a false-color plot of
signal strength or phase angle shift as a function of position, just like an
ultrasonic C-scan presentation. Shown below is a portable scanning system that is
designed to work on the skins of aircraft
fuselage and wing sections.

Listed below are some automated scanning

advantages:

minimizes changes in liftoff or fill factor

resulting from probe wobble, uneven
surfaces, and eccentricity of tubes caused
by faulty manufacture or damage
accurate indexing
repeatability
high resolution mapping
 Multiple Frequency Techniques

Multiple frequency eddy current techniques simply involve collecting data at

several different frequencies and then comparing the data or mixing the data in
some way.

Why the need for multiple frequencies? - Some background information

The impedance of an eddy current probe may be affected by the following

factors:

variations in operating frequency

variations in electrical conductivity and the magnetic permeability of a
object or structure, caused by structural changes such as grain structure,
work hardening, heat treatment, etc.
changes in liftoff or fill factor resulting from probe wobble, uneven
surfaces, and eccentricity of tubes caused by faulty manufacture or
damage
the presence of surface defects such as cracks, and subsurface defects such
as voids and nonmetallic inclusions
dimensional changes, for example, thinning of tube walls due to corrosion,
deposition of metal deposits or sludge, and the effects of denting
the presence of supports, walls, and brackets
the presence of discontinuities such as edges

Several of these factors are often present simultaneously. In the simple case
where interest is confined to detecting defects or other abrupt changes in
geometry, a differential probe can be used to eliminate unwanted factors,
providing they vary in a gradual manner. For example, variations in electrical
conductivity and tube thinning affect both coils of a differential probe
simultaneously. However, if unwanted parameters that occur abruptly are
affecting the measurements, they can sometimes be negated by mixing signals
collected at several frequencies.

An example of where a multi-frequency eddy current inspection is used is in heat

exchanger tube inspections. Heat exchanger assemblies are often a collection of
tubing that have support brackets on the outside. When attempting to inspect the
full wall thickness of the tubing, the signal from the mounting bracket is often
troublesome.
By collecting a signal at the frequency necessary to inspect the full thickness of
the tube and subtracting a second signal collected at a lower frequency (which
will be more sensitive to the bracket but less sensitive to features in the tubing),
the effects of the bracket can be reduced.

There are a number of commercially available multi-frequency eddy current

instruments. Most operate at only two frequencies at a time but some units can
collect data at up to four frequencies simultaneously. Multi-frequency
measurements can also be made using an impedance analyzer but this equipment
is generally not suitable for field measurements. A typical impedance analyzer
system is shown below. The interest in pulsed eddy current instruments is largely
due to their ability to, in essence, perform multi-frequency measurements very
quickly and easily.

Swept Frequency

Swept frequency eddy current techniques involve collecting eddy current data at
a wide range of frequencies. This usually involves the use of a specialized piece
of equipment such as an impedance analyzer, which can be configured to
automatically make measurements over a range of frequencies. The swept-
frequency technique can be implemented with commercial equipment but it is a
difficult and time-consuming measurement. The advantage of a swept frequency
measurement is that depth information can be obtained since eddy current depth
of penetration varies as a function of frequency.
Swept frequency measurements are useful in applications such as measuring the
thickness of conductive coatings on conductive base metal, differentiating
between flaws in surface coatings and flaws in the base metal and differentiating
between flaws in various layers of built-up structure. An example application
would be the lap splice of a commercial aircraft. Swept frequency measurements
would make it possible to tell if cracking was occurring on the outer skin, the
inner skin or a double layer. Below is an example of the type of data that can be
obtained from swept-frequency measurements.

Data from swept-frequency measurements on two heats of material.

It can be seen that in the etched condition, the material labeled "good" exhibits a
much different signal response than the material labeled "bad." It can also be
seen that a frequency of around 2.2 MHz provides the largest separation in the
curves. Therefore, this frequency should be used if a single frequency is used to
sort the parts made from the two metals.
 Pulsed Eddy Current Inspection

Conventional eddy current inspection techniques use sinusoidal alternating

electrical current of a particular frequency to excite the probe. The pulsed eddy
current technique uses a step function voltage to excite the probe. The advantage
of using a step function voltage is that it contains a continuum of frequencies. As
a result, the electromagnetic response to several different frequencies can be
measured with just a single step. Since the depth of penetration is dependent on
the frequency of excitation, information from a range of depths can be obtained
all at once. If measurements are made in the time domain (that is by looking at
signal strength as a function of time), indications produced by flaws or other
features near the inspection coil will be seen first and more distant features will
be seen later in time.

To improve the strength and ease interpretation of the signal, a reference signal is
usually collected, to which all other signals are compared (just like nulling the
probe in conventional eddy current inspection). Flaws, conductivity, and
dimensional changes produce a change in the signal and a difference between the
reference signal and the measurement signal that is displayed. The distance of the
flaw and other features relative to the probe will cause the signal to shift in time.
Therefore, time gating techniques (like in ultrasonic inspection) can be used to
gain information about the depth of a feature of interest.

Additional Background Information on Pulsed Eddy Current Techniques

 Background on Pulsed Eddy Current
(adapted from Blitz, 1997)

The use of pulsed eddy currents has long been considered for testing metals
(Libby, 1971) and it has been applied to operations in specialized areas, such as
in the nuclear energy industry, where testing equipment is often constructed to
order. However, significant progress in this direction has taken place only
recently after appropriate advances in technology (Krzwosz et al. 1985; Sather,
1981; Waidelich, 1981; Wittig and Thomas 1981), but at the time of writing,
commercial equipment was not yet available. The method has the potential
advantages of greater penetration, the ability to locate discontinuities from time-
of-flight determinations, and a ready means of multi-frequency measurement. At
present, it does not generally have the precision of the conventional methods. The
apparatus is somewhat complicated in design and not readily usable by the
average operator who is experienced with the conventional eddy current
equipment. Its main successes are in the testing of thin metal tubes and sheets, as
well as metal cladding for measuring thickness and for the location and sizing of
internal defects.

When comparing the pulsed method with the conventional eddy current
technique, the conventional technique must be regarded as a continuous wave
method for which propagation takes place at a single frequency or, more
correctly, over a very narrow frequency bandwidth. With pulse methods, the
frequencies are excited over a wide band, the extent of which varies inversely
with the pulse length; this allows multi-frequency operation. As found with
ultrasonic testing, the total amount of energy dissipated within a given period of
time is considerably less for pulsed waves than for continuous waves having the
same intensity. For example, with pulses containing only one or two wavelengths
and generated 1000 times per second, the energy produced is only about 0.002 of
that for continuous waves having the same amplitude. Thus, considerably higher
input voltages can be applied to the exciting coil for pulsed operation than for
continuous wave operation.

Pulsed waves can reasonably be expected to allow penetration of measurable

currents through a metal sample to a depth of about 10 times the standard
penetration depth, provided a suitable probe is used (i.e. a shielded ferrite-cored
coil, see section 5.3).
 Therefore, penetration is possible through a 2 mm thick plate at frequencies of 1-
3 kHz for non-ferromagnetic metals having corresponding electrical
conductivities ranging from 60 down to 20MS/m. However, with an
unmagnetized steel plate 2 mm thick, where sigma = 5 MS/m and µr = 100, the
maximum frequency for through-penetration is only 100 Hz.

Pulsed eddy currents may be generated by a thyratron connected in series with

the exciting coil through a capacitor (e.g. Waidelich, 1981). A direct voltage, on
the order of 1200 V, slowly charges the capacitance and when the thyratron
conducts there is an abrupt discharge through the coil in which free-damped
harmonic oscillations occur. This is repeated periodically (i.e. at 1 kHz), so as to
propagate the eddy current pulses through the metal.

The currents are detected by a receiving probe located either adjacent to or on the
opposite side of the metal sample from the exciting probe when access is
possible. The range of propagated frequencies depends on the logarithmic
decrement of the exciting circuit, and because the speed of the waves is a
function of frequency, dispersion takes place and the pulse changes in shape as it
progresses through the metal. As one would expect, the height of the peak and its
time delay can be related to the thickness of the metal. Waidelich reports a
maximum penetration of 90 mm for aluminum sheet and 10 mm for steel. For 6
mm thick sheets, the peak value of the received pulse voltage was 13 V for
aluminum but only 20 mV for steel. Krzwosz et al. (1985) has shown how pulses
that result from the presence of internal simulated defects produce broadening
with an increase in depth.

The frequency content of the pulses depends on their lengths, and in the extreme,
contains continuous spectra ranging from less than 100 Hz to 1 or 2 kHz. By
performing a Fourier transformation, the pulse obtained by the receiving probe
can be displayed in the form of the variation of amplitude (or phase) with
frequency. By sampling different delay times within a pulse, different parts of the
spectrum can be evaluated (Sather, 1981). If both amplitude and phase are
measured, two parameters (i.e. presence of defects, variations in tube thickness,
and changes in fill-factor or liftoff) can be evaluated for each frequency selected
in the same way as with the multi-frequency method, although, at present, with a
lower degree of precision.
Dodd et al.(1988) has designed and developed a pulsed magnetic saturation
method for the eddy current testing of ferromagnetic metals. The DC field pulses
are generated by passing a high-current pulse through an electromagnet so as to
produce saturation in the metal object; the pulse length is made equal to the
thickness of the object, thus ensuring complete eddy current penetration where
feasible. The DC pulse, on the order of 1 ms duration, simultaneously produces
an eddy current pulse, which is detected by a probe; the output of the probe is
characteristic of the material being tested.

This technique has the advantage of producing high magnetic peak powers with
low average powers, thus keeping any heating of the test sample down to an
acceptable level. It has been applied successfully to the internal testing of the
walls of steel steam generator tubes, and tubes of diameter 10.9 mm and wall
thickness 5 mm have been examined with peak powers of 500 kW. Small defects
close to the external surfaces can be detected, and by taking advantage of the
multi-frequency properties of pulsed eddy currents, their indications can be
resolved from those that originate from other characteristics of the tubes.

More recent work on the use of pulsed eddy currents has been reported by Gibbs
and Campbell (1991), who inspected cracks under fasteners in aluminum aircraft
structures. Here, a Hall element was used as a receiver. Radial position,
approximate depth, and relative size of defects hidden under fastener heads could
be determined in countersunk areas for defect depths of up to 7 mm for
nonferrous fasteners and 14 mm for ferrous fasteners.

Lebrun et al. (1975) reported the detection of deep cracks in ferromagnetic

samples using an emission coil excited by square pulses of high intensity and
employing highly sensitive magneto-resistive sensors to measure the resultant
magnetic fields. Defects of 1 mm x 1 mm could be detected at a depth of 5 mm
and 3 mm x 4 mm at a depth of 20 mm.

Remote Field Sensing

Eddy current testing for external defects in tubes where external access is not
possible (e.g. buried pipelines), is conducted using internal probes. When testing
thick-walled ferromagnetic metal pipes with conventional internal probes, very
low frequencies (e.g. 30 Hz for a steel pipe 10 mm thick) are necessary to
achieve the through-penetration of the eddy currents.
This situation produces a very low sensitivity of flaw detection. The degree of
penetration can, in principle, be increased by the application of a saturation
magnetic field. However, because of the large volume of metal present, a large
saturation unit carrying a heavy direct current may be required to produce an
adequate saturating field.

The difficulties encountered in the internal testing of ferromagnetic tubes can be

greatly alleviated with the use of the remote field eddy current method. This
method provides measurable through penetration of the walls at three times the
maximum frequency possible with the conventional direct field method. This
technique was introduced by Schmidt in 1958. Although it has been used by the
petroleum industry for detecting corrosion in their installations since the early
1960s, it has only recently evoked general interest. This interest is largely
because the method is highly sensitive to variations in wall thickness, but
relatively insensitive to fill-factor changes. The method has the added advantage
of allowing equal sensitivities of detection at both the inner and outer surfaces of
a ferromagnetic tube. It cannot, however, differentiate between signals from
these respective surfaces.

For more information on Remote Field Testing can be found in the Specialized
NDT Methodssection of this site.

Impedance Matching

Eddy current testing requires us to determine the components of the impedance

of the detecting coil or the potential difference across it. Most applications
require the determination only of changes in impedance, which can be measured
with a high degree of sensitivity using an AC bridge.
The principles of operation of the most commonly used eddy current instruments
are based on Maxwell's inductance bridge, in which the components of the
impedance of the detecting coil, commonly called a probe, are compared with
known variable impedances connected in series and forming the balancing arm of
the bridge. Refer back to Bridges.

The input to the bridge is an AC

oscillator, often variable in both
frequency and amplitude. The
detector arm takes the form of either
a meter or a storage cathode-ray
oscilloscope, a phase-sensitive
detector, a rectifier to provide a
steady indication, and usually an
attenuator to confine the output
indication within a convenient
range. Storage facilities are
necessary in the oscilloscope in
order to retain the signal from the
detector for reference during
scanning with the probe.

The highest sensitivity of detection

is achieved by properly matching the
impedance of the probe to the impedance of the measuring instrument. Thus,
with a bridge circuit that is initially balanced, a subsequent but usually small
variation in the impedance of the probe upsets the balance, and a potential
difference appears across the detector arm of the bridge.

Although the Maxwell inductance bridge forms the basis of most eddy current
instruments, there are several reasons why it cannot be used in its simplest form
(i.e. Hague, 1934), including the creation of stray capacitances, such as those
formed by the leads and leakages to earth. These unwanted impedances can be
eliminated by earthing devices and the addition of suitable impedances to
produce one or more wide-band frequency (i.e. low Q) resonance circuits.
Instruments having a wide frequency range (i.e. from 1 kHz to 2 MHz) may
possess around five of these bands to cover the range. The value of the
impedance of the probe is therefore an important consideration in achieving
proper matching and, as a result, it may be necessary to change the probe when
switching from one frequency band to another.
 8 QUIZZES
Eddy Current Inspection Quizzes

These quizzes draw from the same database of questions and differ only in the
number of questions presented. Each time a quiz is opened, a new set of random
questions will be produced from the database. The Collaboration for NDE
Education does not record the names of individuals taking a quiz or the results of
a quiz.

20 Question ET Quiz

Which of the following are a common eddy current

1 reference standard?

Conductivity standards
Tube discontinuity standards
Hole discontinuity standards
All of the above

Sliding probes usually operate in the:

2
Reflection mode
Through-transmission mode
Pulsed mode
Differential mode

When using the liftoff trace of an impedance plane

3 instrument to distinguish between several materials with
high electrical conductivity, it is best to test using a:

High frequency
Variable frequency
 Low frequency
None of the above

The depth of penetration is affected by:

4
Magnetic permeability
Electrical resistivity
Probe drive frequency
All of the above

The HPF allows:

5
Low frequencies to pass and filters out the high frequencies
High frequencies to pass and filters out the low frequencies
For the combined frequencies to be adjusted to a harmonic
balance
The shape of the waveform to be clipped beyond it
frequency balance

Probe shielding is used to:

6
Shape the eddy currents to the curvature of the part
Reduce the inductive coupling of the probe and part
Increase the probe impedance
Reduce the effects of nonrelevant features in close proximity
to the probe

The main purpose of an iron core in a probe is to:

7
Shift the transmission of eddy currents in order to decrease
penetration
Allow the probe to operate at a higher frequency
Concentrate the magnetic field near the center of the probe
Allow testing of very dense materials
 The principles of operation of the most commonly used eddy
8 current instruments are based on:

Roentgen's formulas
Maxwell's inductance bridge
Reciprocity
The Inverse Square Law

When maintaining constant liftoff is a problem, what type of

9 probe should be used?

A absolute probe
A differential probe
A reflection probe
Both B and C

Eddy current testing can be used to:

10
Detect surface and near surface cracks
Measure electrical conductivity
Measure the thickness of nonconductive coatings on plastics
Both A and B

Sliding probes are used to test:

11
Large flat surfaces
Inside bolt holes
In radiuses
Around the edges of fasteners

When testing for surface flaws, the probe drive frequency

12 used:

Should be as high as possible

Should be as low as possible
Depends on the conductivity and permeability of the
 material
Depends only on the material conductivity

Which component features should be similar to the reference

13 standard?

Material thickness
Material geometry
Material conductivity
All of the above

Relative permeability is:

14
The permeability in a vacuum
A unitless value
The ratio of the measured permeability and the permeability
in a vacuum

Both B and C

When an absolute probe is brought near a ferromagnetic

15 material, the inductive reactance of the coil will:

Remain unchanged
Increase because the material will concentrate the magnetic
field in and around the coil
Decrease because the material will concetrate the magnetic
field in and around the coil
Decrease because the magnetic field of the coil will be
weakened by the material

Which of the following are a common eddy current reference

16 standard?

Conductivity standards
Tube discontinuity standards
Hole discontinuity standards
 All of the above

The higher the frequency of the current used to drive the

17 probe, the:

More effective shielding will be due to skin effect

Deeper the eddy currents will penetrate
Stronger the probe's magnetic field will be
Both A and C

Drilled holes are commonly used to represent:

18
Pitting
Cracks
Delaminations

None of the above

An eddy current test circuit will have:

19
Resistance
Inductive reactance
A small amount of capacitance
All of the above

Inductance is caused by:

20
The interaction of a changing magnetic field with a
conductor
Direct current
Resistance in the coil
None of the above

35 Question ET Quiz
 Probe shielding is used to:
1
Shape the eddy currents to the curvature of the part
Reduce the inductive coupling of the probe and part
Increase the probe impedance
Reduce the effects of nonrelevant features in close proximity
to the probe

Filters are adjusted in:

2
Hz
KHz
MHz
THz

Eddy current testing can be used to:

3
Detect surface and near surface cracks
Measure electrical conductivity
Measure the thickness of nonconductive coatings on plastics
Both A and B

The coil in an eddy current probe is most often made from:

4
Iron
Copper
Silver
Platinum

LPF stands for:

5
Low Pulse Frequency
Low Pass Filter
 Last Pass Filter
Low Pass Frequency

An eddy current test circuit will have:

6
Resistance
Inductive reactance
A small amount of capacitance
All of the above

Which of the following are a common eddy current reference

7 standard?

Conductivity standards
Tube discontinuity standards
Hole discontinuity standards
All of the above

The main function of the LPF is to:

8
Control probe wobble
Adjust the machine to the proper conductivity standard
Shift the waveform to the left of the screen
Remove high frequency interference noise

When testing for subsurface flaws, the frequency should be:

9
As high as possible
As low as possible
Calculated to produce a 90o difference between the liftoff
and flaw signals
None of the above

Sliding probes usually operate in the:

10 Reflection mode
Through-transmission mode
Pulsed mode
Differential mode

Which type of probe has a long slender housing to permit

11 inspection in restricted spaces?

Pancake probes
Pencil probes
Encircling probes
Sliding probes

Pencil probes are prone to:

12
Energy spikes
Low frequency noise
Wobble
Both A and C

Relative permeability is:

13
The permeability in a vacuum
A unitless value
The ratio of the measured permeability and the permeability
in a vacuum

Both B and C

Sliding probes are used to test:

14
Large flat surfaces
Inside bolt holes
In radiuses
Around the edges of fasteners
 When a probe is brought near a conductive but nonmagnetic
15 material, the coil's inductive reactance will:

Increase
Decrease
Remain the same
Remain the same until the probe touches the material

What is the relationship between electrical conductivity and

16 electrical resistivity?

They are directly proportional

They are not related
One is the inverse of the other
It depends on the test frequency

A bolt hole probe and scanner is used to inspect:

17
Flat surfaces
Radiuses
Holes
Both B and C

Some common classifications of probes include:

18
Surface probes
Bolt hole probes
ID probes
All of the above

Most surface probe coils are wound so that:

19
They transmit a frequency that will slightly resonate the part
surface
They create a static magnetic field
 The axis of the coil is perpendicular to the test surface
Both B and C

Discontinuities, such as delaminations, that are in a plane

20 that is parallel with the test surface will likely:

Be easily detected with a surface probe

Be easily detected with an internal probe
Be easily detected with an external probe
None of the above

When making a conductivity measurement, the thickness of

21 the material should be at least ___ times the standard depth
of penetration.

1
2
3
4

Phase lag:
22
Increase with discontinuity depth
Decrease with discontinuity depth
Is the same as phase angle
Is the same as the angle separating the liftoff and flaw
signals on an impedance plane

The depth of penetration is affected by:

23
Magnetic permeability
Electrical resistivity
Probe drive frequency
All of the above
 Which type of probe is most often used to inspect the inside
24 diameter of a machined hole?

Pencil probes
Surface probes
Bolt hole probes
Bobbin probes

A probes that can be used to inspect the entire circumference

25 of test objects are:

Encircling or bobbin probes

Circumference probes
Pencil probes
None of the above

Which type of probe is most commonly sued to inspect solid

26 products such as bar stock?

Bobbin probes
Surface coils
Encircling coils
Pencil probes

Probe shielding and loading are sometimes used to:

27
Prevent external electrical interference
Limit the spread and concentrate the magnetic field of the
coil
Magnetically saturate the part
None of the above

Since eddy current signals are affected by many different

28 variables, it is particularly important to use what when
setting up the equipment?
 Couplant
Fluorescent particles
Reference standards
Non abrasive cleaners

When an absolute probe is brought near a ferromagnetic

29 material, the inductive reactance of the coil will:

Remain unchanged
Increase because the material will concentrate the magnetic
field in and around the coil
Decrease because the material will concetrate the magnetic
field in and around the coil
Decrease because the magnetic field of the coil will be
weakened by the material

Use of the HPF is not recommended:

30
On thin parts
On thick parts
When scanning manually
On ferrous parts

Probes for inspection of pipe and tubing are typically of the:

31
Surface probe variety
Bolt hole variety
Bobbin (ID) variety
All of the above are correct

Probes with iron cores tend to:

32
Be more sensitive than air core probes and less affected by
probe wobble
Be more difficult to use
 Increase the background noise of the signal
Both B and C

Which component features should be similar to the reference

33 standard?

Material thickness
Material geometry
Material conductivity
All of the above

The principles of operation of the most commonly used eddy

34 current instruments are based on:

Roentgen's formulas
Maxwell's inductance bridge
Reciprocity
The Inverse Square Law

The higher the inductance of a coil at a given frequency:

35
The more penetrating the eddy currents will be
The less sensitive the coil will be
The more sensitive the coil will be
None of the above

50 Question ET Quiz

Probe shielding is used to:

1 Shape the eddy currents to the curvature of the part
Reduce the inductive coupling of the probe and part
Increase the probe impedance
Reduce the effects of nonrelevant features in close proximity
to the probe

Drilled holes are commonly used to represent:

2
Pitting
Cracks
Delaminations

None of the above

A bolt hole probe and scanner is used to inspect:

3
Flat surfaces
Radiuses
Holes
Both B and C

Discontinuities, such as delaminations, that are in a plane

4 that is parallel with the test surface will likely:

Be easily detected with a surface probe

Be easily detected with an internal probe
Be easily detected with an external probe
None of the above

When testing for subsurface flaws, the frequency should be:

5
As high as possible
As low as possible
Calculated to produce a 90o difference between the liftoff
and flaw signals
 None of the above

Eddy current testing can be used to:

6
Detect surface and near surface cracks
Measure electrical conductivity
Measure the thickness of nonconductive coatings on plastics
Both A and B

The depth of penetration is affected by:

7
Magnetic permeability
Electrical resistivity
Probe drive frequency
All of the above

Phase lag:
8
Increase with discontinuity depth
Decrease with discontinuity depth
Is the same as phase angle
Is the same as the angle separating the liftoff and flaw
signals on an impedance plane

The principles of operation of the most commonly used eddy

9 current instruments are based on:

Roentgen's formulas
Maxwell's inductance bridge
Reciprocity
The Inverse Square Law

Narrow EDM notches and saw cuts:

10
Are never used because they are too wide
 Are never used due to their heat affected zones
Are commonly used to represent cracks
Both A and B

When making a conductivity measurement, the thickness of

11 the material should be at least ___ times the standard depth
of penetration.

1
2
3
4

Wide surface probes are used when scanning:

12
Large areas for very small cracks
Small areas for delaminations
Large areas for relatively large defects
None of the above

The HPF is used to:

13
Eliminate low frequencies which are produced by slow
changes, such as a conductivity shift
Adjust the bandwidth to a neutral frequency in order to
maximize depth of penetration
Remove any standing waves in the output signal
Shift the waveform from positive to negative when a
rejectable defect is identified

Which type of probe has a long slender housing to permit

14 inspection in restricted spaces?

Pancake probes
Pencil probes
Encircling probes
 Sliding probes

Most surface probe coils are wound so that:

15
They transmit a frequency that will slightly resonate the part
surface
They create a static magnetic field
The axis of the coil is perpendicular to the test surface
Both B and C

When maintaining constant liftoff is a problem, what type of

16 probe should be used?

A absolute probe
A differential probe
A reflection probe
Both B and C

Some common classifications of probes include:

17
Surface probes
Bolt hole probes
ID probes
All of the above

Since eddy current signals are affected by many different

18 variables, it is particularly important to use what when
setting up the equipment?

Couplant
Fluorescent particles
Reference standards
Non abrasive cleaners

HPF stands for:

19 High Pulse Filter
Harmonic Pulse Filter
High Pass Filter
High Pulse Factor

LPF stands for:

20
Low Pulse Frequency
Low Pass Filter
Last Pass Filter
Low Pass Frequency

When using eddy currents to measure the thickness of a

21 nonconductive coating applied to a conductive base, the
measurement is based on:

A frequency change due to liftoff

An impedance change due to a change in conductivity
An impedance change due to liftoff
Both A and C

The HPF allows:

22
Low frequencies to pass and filters out the high frequencies
High frequencies to pass and filters out the low frequencies
For the combined frequencies to be adjusted to a harmonic
balance
The shape of the waveform to be clipped beyond it
frequency balance

Scanning speed must be controlled:

23
When using a small transducer
When using a large transducer
When using a high pass filter
 When using a large low frequency probe

Which type of probe is most often used to inspect the inside

24 diameter of a machined hole?

Pencil probes
Surface probes
Bolt hole probes
Bobbin probes

What is the relationship between electrical conductivity and

25 electrical resistivity?

They are directly proportional

They are not related
One is the inverse of the other
It depends on the test frequency

Which type of probe is most commonly sued to inspect solid

26 products such as bar stock?

Bobbin probes
Surface coils
Encircling coils
Pencil probes

Probe shielding and loading are sometimes used to:

27
Prevent external electrical interference
Limit the spread and concentrate the magnetic field of the
coil
Magnetically saturate the part
None of the above

When testing for surface flaws, the probe drive frequency

28 used:

Should be as high as possible

Should be as low as possible
Depends on the conductivity and permeability of the
material
Depends only on the material conductivity

What material(s) is/are commonly used to shield an eddy

29 current probe?

Ferrite
Aluminum
Lead
Both A and B

Which of the following are a common eddy current reference

30 standard?

Conductivity standards
Tube discontinuity standards
Hole discontinuity standards
All of the above

The main purpose of an iron core in a probe is to:

31
Shift the transmission of eddy currents in order to decrease
penetration
Allow the probe to operate at a higher frequency
Concentrate the magnetic field near the center of the probe
Allow testing of very dense materials

Use of the HPF is not recommended:

32
On thin parts
On thick parts
 When scanning manually
On ferrous parts

An eddy current test circuit will have:

33
Resistance
Inductive reactance
A small amount of capacitance
All of the above

Inductance is identified by the letter:

34
L
M
Z
X

Inductance is caused by:

35
The interaction of a changing magnetic field with a
conductor
Direct current
Resistance in the coil
None of the above

The higher the inductance of a coil at a given frequency:

36
The more penetrating the eddy currents will be
The less sensitive the coil will be
The more sensitive the coil will be
None of the above

Probes with iron cores tend to:

37
Be more sensitive than air core probes and less affected by
 probe wobble
Be more difficult to use
Increase the background noise of the signal
Both B and C

Relative permeability is:

38
The permeability in a vacuum
A unitless value
The ratio of the measured permeability and the permeability
in a vacuum

Both B and C

The higher the frequency of the current used to drive the

39 probe, the:

More effective shielding will be due to skin effect

Deeper the eddy currents will penetrate
Stronger the probe's magnetic field will be
Both A and C

The main function of the LPF is to:

40
Control probe wobble
Adjust the machine to the proper conductivity standard
Shift the waveform to the left of the screen
Remove high frequency interference noise

In almost all cases, eddy current inspection procedures

41 require the equipment to be calibrated to:

A reference standard
An identified defect
A crack which is � the rejection criteria
 A crack twice the rejection criteria

The coil in an eddy current probe is most often made from:

42
Iron
Copper
Silver
Platinum

Eddy currents are generated when:

43
A conductive material is placed in a changing magnetic field
When a conductive material is moved through a static
magnetic field
When a static magnetic field is moved across the surface of a
conductive material
All of the above

Pencil probes are prone to:

44
Energy spikes
Low frequency noise
Wobble
Both A and C

A probes that can be used to inspect the entire circumference

45 of test objects are:

Encircling or bobbin probes

Circumference probes
Pencil probes
None of the above

A probe that is often intended to be used in contact with the

46 test surface is called a:
 Reference probe
Surface probe
Transmission probe
Reflection probe

Probes for inspection of pipe and tubing are typically of the:

47
Surface probe variety
Bolt hole variety
Bobbin (ID) variety
All of the above are correct

When using the liftoff trace of an impedance plane

48 instrument to distinguish between several materials with
high electrical conductivity, it is best to test using a:

High frequency
Variable frequency
Low frequency
None of the above

Sliding probes are used to test:

49
Large flat surfaces
Inside bolt holes
In radiuses
Around the edges of fasteners

Filtering is applied to the received signal and, therefore:

50
It should be added to the base signal
It is not directly related to the probe drive frequency
Should be added to the pick-up coil
Should be subtracted from the amplitude of the dB
 9 Formulae & Tables
EC Standards and Methods

STANDARDS

British Standards (BS) and American Standards (ASTM) relating to magnetic

flux leakage and eddy current methods of testing are given below. National
standards are currently being harmonized across the whole of Europe, and British
Standards are no exception. Harmonized standards will eventually be identified
by the initials BS EN; for example, BS 5411 has been revised and is now known
as BS EN 2360. Harmonization is unlikely to be completed before 2001. The
year of updating a British Standard is given in brackets. ASTM standards are
published annually and updated when necessary.

FLUX LEAKAGE METHODS (INCLUDING MAGNETIC PARTICLE

INSPECTION)

British Standards (BS)

BS 6072:1981 (1986) Magnetic particle flaw detection

BS 4489:1984 Black light measurement
BS 5044:1973 (1987) Contrast aid paints
BS 5138:1974 (1988) Forged and stamped crankshafts
BS 3683 (part 2):1985 Glossary
BS 4069:1982 Inks and powders

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

ASTM E 709 Magnetic particle inspection practice

ASTM E 125 Indications in ferrous castings
ASTM E 1316 Definition of terms
ASTM E 570 Flux leakage examination of ferromagnetic steel tubular products
EDDY CURRENT METHODS

British Standards (BS)

BS 3683 (part 5):1965 (1989) Eddy current flaw detection glossary

BS 3889 (part 2A): 1986 (1991) Automatic eddy current testing of wrought steel
tubes
BS 3889 (part 213): 1966 (1987) Eddy current testing of nonferrous tubes
BS 5411 (part 3):1984 Eddy current methods for measurement of coating
thickness of nonconductive coatings on nonmagnetic base material. Withdrawn:
now known as BS EN 2360 (1995).

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

ASTM A 450/A450M General requirements for carbon, ferritic alloys and

austenitic alloy steel tubes
ASTM B 244 Method for measurement of thickness of anodic coatings of
aluminum and other nonconductive coatings on nonmagnetic base materials with
eddy current instruments
ASTM B 659 Recommended practice for measurement of thickness of metallic
coatings on nonmetallic substrates
ASTM E 215 Standardizing equipment for electromagnetic testing of seamless
aluminum alloy tube
ASTM E 243 Electromagnetic (eddy current) testing of seamless copper and
copper alloy tubes
ASTM E 309 Eddy current examination of steel tubular products using magnetic
saturation
ASTM E 376 Measuring coating thickness by magnetic field or eddy current
(electromagnetic) test methods
ASTM E 426 Electromagnetic (eddy current) testing of seamless and welded
tubular products austenitic stainless steel and similar alloys
ASTM E 566 Electromagnetic (eddy current) sorting of ferrous metals
ASTM E 571 Electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of nickel and nickel
alloy tubular products
ASTM E 690 In-situ electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of nonmagnetic
heat-exchanger tubes
ASTM E 703 Electromagnetic (eddy current) sorting of nonferrous metals
ASTM E 1004 Electromagnetic (eddy current) measurements of electrical
conductivity
ASTM E 1033 Electromagnetic (eddy current) examination of type F
continuously welded (CW) ferromagnetic pipe and tubing above the Curie
temperature
ASTM E 1316 Definition of terms relating to electromagnetic testing
ASTM G 46 Recommended practice for examination and evaluation of pitting
corrosion

Material Properties Tables

Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity

Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys (htm) (pdf)

Copper & Copper Alloys (htm) (pdf)

Iron & Iron Alloys (htm) (pdf)

Magnesium & Magnesium Alloys (htm) (pdf)

Nickel & Nickel Alloys (htm) (pdf)

Titanium & Titanium Alloys (htm) (pdf)

Misc. Materials & Alloys (htm) (pdf)

 TOMADO DE LA WEB:

http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/cc_ec_index.htm