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Also, the bond energy is the amount of energy absorbed when the bond is
broken.
(ii) The bond lengths and bond energies of carbon-carbon single, double and
triple bonds are listed below.
State the relationship between the strength of a covalent bond and its length
[1 mark]
The shorter the bond, the stronger it is. That means that more energy will be
required to break it.
This is why the carbon-carbon triple bond is the shortest, and thus has the
highest bond energy (839 KJ mol-1)
(b) Bond energies can be used to estimate the enthalpies of reactions in which
bonds are broken and new bonds are formed. Consider the gas-phase reaction
between methane (CH4) and chlorine to produce methylchloride (CH 3Cl) and
hydrogen chloride
(ii) Using bond energy values from Table 1, calculate the enthalpy change of
reaction ∆Hrxn for the equation required in (b) (i)
[3 marks]
What really happened:
CH4 (g) + Cl2 (g) CH 3Cl (g) + HCl (g)
By looking at the equation:
(iv) On the axes provided below, draw the energy profile diagram for the reaction in
(b)(i) [2 marks]
This of course depends on your ∆H value…
Energy (KJ mol-
Reactants EA
HCl (g)
1
Steps:
Measure 75cm3 of 1.00M hydrochloric acid into a polystyrene cup
Stir gently for three minutes, taking the temperature reading every minute
for 3 minutes
Record the constant temperature as the initial temperature
Add 75cm3 of 1.00M potassium hydroxide and stir for the next seven minutes,
recording the temperature of the mixture at 1 minute intervals. Record the
highest temperature as the final temperature
The temperature change (∆T) = initial temp=final temp
Calculations:
Using EH = mc∆T where m= mass of solution= (75 +75 = 150g) and c = 4.18
J g-1oC-1
The number of moles of HCl (or NaOH) used:
1000 cm3 = 1 mole
1cm3= 1/1000
75 cm3 = 1/1000 x 75 = 0.075 moles
We say 0.075 moles = EH (from above)
So 1 mole = EH/0.075 (this would be the molar enthalpy of neutralization)
MODULE 2: KINETICS AND EQUILIBRIA
2. (a) Define EACH of the following terms:
(i) Standard electrode potential of a half-cell [2
marks]
This is the maximum potential difference obtained when two half cells are
connected together under standard conditions
OR
This is a cell potential against which the cell potential of other elements can
be measured
(b) Consider the following (unbalanced) equation which describes the process that is
taking place in an electrochemical cell under standard conditions:
Al (s) + Sn2+ (aq) → Al3+ (aq) + Sn (s)
As you can see, Al is being oxidized (change from 0 to +3). Oxidation occurs at the
anode (An Ox)
Also, Sn is being reduced (change from +2 to 0). Reduction occurs at the cathode
(Red Cat)
(i) Write the ionic half-equation for the reaction taking place at EACH of the
electrodes [2 marks]
(iii) Draw a well labeled diagram of the electrochemical cell. Include the
direction of electron flow [6 marks]
Electron flow
Tin rod
Aluminium
(cathode)
rod (anode)
Salt bridge
Solution B: 1
Solution A: 1 moldm-
moldm-3 Sn2+ ions
3
Al3+ ions
(iv) For EACH electrode shown in Table 2, select the E Θ value to determine EΘ
cell [2 marks]
Ag+ + e Ag +0.80
Al3+ + 3e Al -1.66
Ba2+ + 2e Ba -2.90
Oxidation +2 +4 +2 +4
state of
Group IV
element
x -4 = 0
x = +4
(b) (i) Explain the relative stabilities of the +2 oxidation states of the oxides of
carbon and lead [4 marks]
Carbon is most stable in the +4 state (as CO 2) and least stable in the
+2 state (as CO)
Lead is most stable in the +2 state (as PbO) and least stable in the +4
state (as PbO2)
+2
state
+4
state
C Si G Sn Pb
e
Group IV
Elements
Lead is a metal, and so prefers to lose two electrons to be stable. This gives
Pb an oxidation number of +2.
(ii) Use the electrode potential value in the electrode reaction for lead ions to
explain the relative stabilities of the +2 and +4 oxidation states of lead:
[2 marks]
The EΘ value for Pb going from the +4 to the +2 state is large and positive.
This means it is very energetically feasible for Pb to be converted from the
+4 to the +2 state. This suggests that for Pb, the +2 state is much more
feasible than the +4.
**Since PbO2 is amphoteric, it will react with both acids and bases to form a
salt and water
A white precipitate (which is the salt) will be formed and may dissolve in the
(colorless) water which is also formed
Both lead (IV) chloride and water will be formed. Since lead chloride is
insoluble, there will be a white precipitate in a colorless liquid (water)
4. (a) The atoms of certain elements contain nuclei in which the ratio of
neutrons to protons is greater than 1. These nuclei tend to emit radiation in
order to bring the ratio closer to 1.
(i) Describe the THREE types of radiation that an unstable atom may emit.
Include in your answer the symbols and penetrating power of EACH
type of radiation [6 marks]
4 2
He
2
β Particles Electrons 100
0e
1
γ Rays Electromagnetic waves 10,000
(ii) Americium-241 (Am-241) decays via alpha particle emission. Write the
nuclear equations to show the new element that forms when an atom
241
of 95 Am decays via the emission of 2 alpha particles
[2 marks]
+ +
241 4 4 233
Similarity:
All of the elements have more than 18 electrons, and they have the same
arrangement of electrons up until the 3p orbital (1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6). This is
sometimes represented as [Ar] followed by the rest of the electronic
configuration
Difference:
Sc and Zn both have electrons in the d orbitals, but K does not. This is
because Sc and Zn are transition metals and K is a Group 1 metal OR
K and Sc have electrons in the 4s orbital, but Zn 2+ does not. This is because
the configuration of Zn is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2. For Zn2+, 2 electrons
were lost from the 4s orbital first, making it 1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
MODULE 2: KINETICS AND EQUILIBRIA
(a) Using the buffer system mentioned above, describe how the solution
maintains and almost constant pH even when small amounts of acid or
alkali are added to the solution [6 marks]
This buffer consists of a solution of a weak acid in the presence of one of its salts
(that is, H2PO4- and Na2HPO4).
Two reactions will be happening:
Equation 2 has not yet been used. This equation produces a large amount of
HPO42- ions. In the event that a large amount of acid (H +) is added to the
solution, then the HPO42- from Equation 2 will be used to trap the added acid
(H+).
(b) Calculate the pH of a soft drink in which the major buffer ingredients are
6.5 g of NaH2PO4 and 8.0 g of Na2HPO4 per 355 cm3 of solution
[salt]
Since we are told that Ka (H2PO4-) = 6.4 x 10-8 moldm-3, if it has a Ka (acid
dissociation constant) value then this is the acid! (NaH 2PO4)
120 g = 1 mole
1g = 1/120
1 cm3 = 0.05417
/355
1000cm3 = 0.05417
/355 x 1000 = 0.1526 moles…. Concentration: 0.1526 moldm-3
So the concentration of the salt would be:
142 g = 1 mole
1g = 1/142
1 cm3 = 0.0563
/355
1000cm3 = 0.0563
/355 x 1000 = 0.1587 moles…. Concentration: 0.1587 moldm-3
(0.1587moldm-3)
(c) Many chemical reactions occur in living systems such as the human body.
Discuss the importance of biological buffers to the maintenance of a
healthy body. (Include an example of a chemical reaction of a blood
buffer) [4 marks]
In living things, the pH of the blood must be kept constant, or else they will die.
If a person has been running rapidly for a long time, he usually starts gasping for
breath. This means that he is struggling to inhale oxygen and exhale carbon
dioxide.
If carbon dioxide is allowed to build up in the blood, it combines with water to form
carbonic acid. This carbonic acid rapidly breaks down into H + and CO32- ions. The H+
ions can cause the blood to become acidic. This can be lethal to cells.
6. (a) The atomic and ionic radii of the Group II elements gradually increase
down the group. Outline the reasons for this trend
[3 marks]
The atomic radius can be visualized as the distance between the nucleus and
the outermost shell.
The Group II elements lose 2 electrons to become stable, thus forming cations
with a charge of +2. Since they all lose one shell, there is still an increase in
the number of shells as the Group is descended. Hence the radius of the ion
formed also increases.
(b) Account for the variation in the melting points of the Group II elements
from magnesium to barium
[4 marks]
It would make sense to reason out that, as the Group is descended, there are
more electrons and so there would be more metallic bonds, hence an
increase in melting points. However, this is not so for Group 2.
What happens is that since the ionic radius is becoming larger, the attraction
for the delocalized electrons becomes weaker. Thus there is a decrease in
melting points.
**I am not sure if you were supposed to know this… or if CAPE wanted you to
just reason it out and go with what is expected…
(c)Table 4 shows the observations when 0.1 moldm -3 solutions of the metal
ions are treated with 1 moldm-3 Na2SO4
Mg2+ No precipitate
When the ions are reacted with sodium sulphate, the Group 2 sulphates are
being formed.
We can explain this by considering the sulphates being dissolved in water as two
steps:
(Remember: An ionic lattice is being broken up. The energy needed for this is the
reverse of the lattice energy -ΔHlatt).
The smaller the ionic radius, the less hydration energy will be required. Hence
BeSO4 will require the least hydration energy, while BaSO 4 will require the most.
It makes sense that the greater the total energy for these processes, the less
soluble the compound will be. As the group is descended, solubility of the
sulphates decreases.
(d) Explain the variation in the thermal decomposition of the nitrates of the
Group II elements
[3 marks]
The oxide ion is smaller than the nitrate ion. It will follow that the oxide ion is
more stable than the nitrate ion. This explains why the nitrates of the Group II
elements decompose under heat to form Group II oxides.
The more reactive an element is, when it forms a compound, that compound will
be very stable. Since reactivity increases as the Group is descended, the most
reactive Group 2 element would be Ba. Therefore Ba(NO 3)2 would be most stable
No matter how many mistakes you have made, this paper was ONLY
40%. You still have a fighting chance to get that distinction. CAPE
accepts many answers, and I have only given a few of them here. And
marks CAN be given for different things than I have suggested… Keep
believing in yourself… Yes, you can still do it!