BUDDHISM

Background Information on Buddhism

Buddhism is based on the teachings of Buddha, the Enlightened One. Born Siddhartha Gautama in
560 B.C., he lived the life of a prince, never knowing unhappiness. At the time of Prince Gautama's
birth, prophets predicted he would become either the greatest monarch on earth, or that he would
renounce the world and become a religious leader. Not wanting the latter, the prince's father kept him
in the palace among beautiful surroundings, never allowing him to see unpleasantness.

When Prince Gautama reached the age of thirty years, he went on a journey through the streets of
Kapilavastu. He saw, for the first time in his life, "the woes of man" and felt an enormous compassion
for all beings. Life was no longer all sweetness. One night upon hearing an inner cry for help against
human suffering, he bade his wife good bye and renounced the world he knew.

For six or seven years Gautama wandered throughout the land trying to find answers to human
suffering. One day he resolved to sit under a Bo tree until the answers came to him. While under the
Bo tree he entered a state of deep meditation and finally discovered the true secret of life and death,
and the knowledge that can be found only within oneself. Thereafter he became known as Buddha
— the Awakened One, the Blessed One.

As a result of his enlightenment, Buddha developed and spread a way of life encompassed in the
Four Noble Truths. He thought of himself as a teacher who did not want man to depend on gods, but
to find truth for himself. Some people were unable to understand this idea of no god and made
statues of Buddha to help them remember his teachings. In effect, they made a god of their
enlightened one.

Today Buddhists are divided into two large groups. One group regards Buddha as a man and
teacher. Known as Therevada or Hinayana Buddhists they practise in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
The other group regards Buddha as a diety. In this group we find Mahayana Buddhists practising in
China and other places, and Zen Buddhists who practise in Japan and Mongolia. The Lamaism
Buddhists, ruled by the Dali Lama, also fall into this category.

Mahayana Buddhism places more emphasis on compassion than on discipline. Therevada

Buddhism is the traditional form of the religion, and attaches a great deal of importance to the
brotherhood of monks and to the development of self-control and wisdom. Although Zen Buddhism is
one of the main schools within Mahayana it has similarities to Theravada, and yet distinct differences
from both. Zen is practised mostly in Japan.

The aim of Zen is to reach enlightenment not through intellectual endeavor but by way of an
intuitive moment in which the truth breaks through The Buddha's early followers were called monks
and they had to obey certain rules. They could not care for worldly things, had to spend their time
thinking and teaching, and had to set a good example for others to follow. Most important however was
their mission to go into all lands and preach Buddha's words. While Buddha taught in India, the monks
went to other parts of Asia.

When people began to accept the Buddha's teaching as their way of life, they began honoring him
with their own writings. They also saw Indian pictures and statues of Buddha which they copied.
Eventually different countries added their own art style; thus different "Buddha's" began emerging
throughout Asia.

Buddha is usually seen sitting or standing in a special way which is meaningful, the most
popular position, crossed-legged with half-closed eyes. This signifies Buddha's lack of interest in
the world around him. It shows him in deep thought or meditation which is the essence of
Buddhism.

By meditating, Buddhists throughout the world hope to achieve control over mind and body, which
will enable to escape the dominance of the physical world and achieve the permanent enlightenment
they seek.
 The Buddhist Ten
Commandments
1. DO NOT DESTROY LIFE.

2. DO NOT TAKE WHAT IS NOT GIVEN YOU.

3. DO NOT COMMIT ADULTERY.

4. TELL NO LIES AND DECEIVE NO ONE.

5. DO NOT BECOME INTOXICATED.

6. EAT TEMPERATELY AND NOT AT ALL IN THE AFTERNOON.

7. DO NOT WATCH DANCING, NOR LISTEN TO SINGING OR PLAYS.

8. WEAR NO GARLANDS, PERFUMES OR ANY ADORNMENTS.

9. SLEEP NOT IN LUXURIOUS BEDS.

10. ACCEPT NO GOLD OR SILVER.

Monastic Robes in Theravada Buddhism
Theravada Buddhism is not a religion of worship, but a form of Buddhism which adheres to a logical
and intensely individualistic code of ethics. There is nothing supernatural or mystical, and Buddha
is considered to be not a god but a teacher. (For an explanation of some of the different schools of
Buddhism, see the chapter on Daily Religious Observances — Meditation Buddhism 1.1.1 in the
Level Five programme, Module 2.)

The Monastery
Throughout Asia, the layout of Buddhist monasteries is similar. The monks live in small, simply
furnished, one-room huts or Kuits. There is a hall for lectures or sermons, and in the main room there
is a shrine with a large Buddha figure, facing east, for devotion. Surrounding the buildings are
gardens with trees, shrubs and walking paths. A wall encloses the compound, but rather than
isolating the monks, the wall separates the monks from the outside world and affords them peace.

Unlike Christian monasteries which are usually secluded and isolated from civilization, Buddhist
monasteries are built and provided for by lay people. These lay people are welcomed to enter and
visit, to make an act of devotion, or to just rest and chat under one of the trees in the gardens. Some
monasteries even have schoolrooms where children come to learn how to read and write.

Life of the Monk

Theravada monks and novices lead a strict and simple life. Their rooms usually contain a chair, a
sleeping mat, a water jug, a small shrine for private devotion, a place for their alms bowl, and
perhaps a few books. Novices observe ten basic moral rules. They refrain from: taking the life of any
living creature; stealing; sexual misconduct; lying; using alcohol and drugs that impair the senses;
eating after midday; attending shows with music or dancing; using any kind of scent, cosmetic or
personal adornment; sleeping on a raised and luxurious bed; or accepting gold or silver. Ordained
monks follow 227 rules.

The daily life of a monk is simple. He makes his alms round and returns to the monastery for an
early morning meal, followed by devotion. After devotion he may spend his time studying or teaching
until the mid-day meal. After twelve o'clock a monk must fast and may drink only water or tea (without milk
or sugar). During the afternoon, he spends his time studying scriptures, attending meetings, talking to
lay people, and meditating. In the evening the monks gather together for another session of
devotion.

A monk has few possessions. Among them are a square cloth or siton, another cloth to strain
drinking water (so that he won't unknowingly harm a living creature), a washcloth, some towels, and a
bed covering. His robes consist of three large rectangles of cloth: one for the upper body, another for the
lower body and a third to drape over the left shoulder. A monk also owns an alms bowl that is used
to beg for food. Giving food to a monk is considered to be an act of merit making, and the donor
thanks the monk for accepting it. Buddhists believe it is better to give than to receive. If a monk were to
thank a donor, he would be robbing the donor of his due merit.

When a young man enters a monastery he may stay until he is old enough to become a fully
ordained monk, or he may go back to ordinary lay life. Ordination is a great social event and the
young man's relations and friends attend the ceremony, which is conducted by an abbot. When
ordained, a monk may choose to leave the Sangha (community of monks) or stay for many years,
even a lifetime...
 PUJA IN A BUDDHIST HOME
In Mahayana Buddhism, each home has a shrine with a picture or statue of Buddha dominating it, as
well as a tablet listing the names of all the people in that household who have died. Every day, the
people who are devoutly religious go before this shrine for meditation.

This is the Mitsugusoku or "set of three" arrangement.

Stages of Puja
Stage 1:
Enter room barefooted. Bow down before shrine. Recite words from the holy books. Say words of
praise to Buddha.

Stage 2:
Give offerings of flowers, rice, sweets. Light candle. Burn incense.

Stage 3:
Meditate.

Significant Elements of the Puja

The Statue of Buddha honours the Buddha who found enlightenment.
Rice, sweets and fruit are offered as gifts in praise and thanksgiving to the Buddha.
Petals are picked from the flowers and dropped into a bowl of water as a reminder of how fragile life
is.
Candles are lit in the hope that all present may find enlightenment.
Incense is offered, not only to create a pleasant smell, but also to symbolize the act of purifying one's
mind.
Zen Buddhists drink tea to help keep the mind alert during meditation. Besides the daily ritual of
puja, Buddhists say "grace" before and after they eat their meals.

* Zen Buddhism is a branch of Mahayana Buddhism which is dominant in Japan.

 Meditation in Buddhism
List each item on the line below and tell why it is part of the puja ritual.

Buddhist Home Shrine

1

6
Dress and Adornment
The monks wear saffron coloured robes. Saffron, an intense, brillant red-yellow (not orange), is considered to
be a sacred colour and is honoured as a symbol of humility. It is worn for as long as the monk is working
towards enlightenment, perhaps for the full length of his life. When a monk achieves a state of awareness, his
saffron robe is replaced by a white one. White is the symbol of holiness. The monks shave their heads because
Buddha taught that vanity is destructive, and hair is considered to be a distracting adornment. Shaving the
head also symbolizes a separation from the material world. Buddha gave up all his wordly possessions, his
wife, his family, his treasures, to become a wandering monk. Shaving the head honours this sacrifice Buddha
made hundreds of years ago.

Getting New Robes

At the end of the rainy season in October a robe-giving ceremony is conducted. The first of these
KATHINS is attended by the king who enters the temple followed by a number of attendants carrying the
folded robes. The monks begin their chants in the ancient language of Pali. As the ritual moves to its
climax a hush descends over the people in the temple. The new robes are then distributed in an
atmosphere of profound respect.

Rules of the Robe

Members of the monastic order are guided by certain rules which must be kept while ever they wear the
saffron robe. Monks must stand at a respectable distance whenever they speak to people, especially when
they are accepting alms. They usually stand at arm's length. Monks should avoid touching women, even their
own mother and sisters. When they drink water or take a shower, the monks must strain the water through
pieces of cloth so that they will not cause injury to a tiny creature which might be floating in the water.

Monks must shave their heads and their eyebrows twice a month. They must confess their wrongdoings to
their fellow monks and accept the penance they receive.

Keeping the rules of the robe involves self-discipline which demonstrates respect for the great Buddha and
brings honour to all who wear the saffron robe.

Leaving the Monastery

Monks are free to return to secular life at any time. A ceremony is conducted for such occasions during
which the departing monk confesses his shortcomings to the brotherhood and exchanges his saffron robes
for white ones. He then goes outside to be anointed and doused with pots of holy water. After the
ceremony, he puts on civilian clothes and returns to secular life.
 A Buddhist Monk in Thailand "Happiness
is my Duty"
The boy was the son of a farmer who grew staple crops, mainly rice, in his fields near Bangkok, Thailand. At
the age of seven he started school at the village temple. He learned to read and write under the guidance
of the temple monks who gave education to the local children until they reached the age of thirteen. After
that, the youngster joined the family to work in the fields.

This boy, however, at the age of thirteen, chose to become a novice at a neighbouring village temple
where he would be able to continue his studies. When he arrived at his new home, the first thing he did was
to exchange his farm clothes for a yellow robe, the familiar uniform of the Buddhist novice, and to undergo a
ritual whereby his hair and eyebrows were shaved from his head. The transformation was emotionally
upsetting and the fasting which completed the initiation ritual was an added discomfort. But the boy survived
and went on to learn and practise the duties of the novice and eventually come to terms with his new life.

The most difficult aspect of wearing the robe was the separation the boy had with his family and friends. He
was no longer able to play as before or to touch his mother and feel her comforting touch on himself. He had
to behave very respectfully and responsibly, always thinking carefully about the way he spoke and acted.

In the morning the boy went around the village collecting alms in his copper bowl. He watered the
garden, he read his books, and he studied the life and the words of Lord Buddha.

The works of Buddha are written in the language of Pali, so the boy had to learn the Pali tongue. At the age
of sixteen, instead of entering military service, the boy moved to Bangkok, to the great temple, to
undertake the study of Pali. He studied Pali for seven years.

The boy became a man. At the age of twenty-one, he asked to be permitted to enter the temple as a
monk and was thus ordained in the presence of the other monks. He did not take any vows. A monk in the
Buddhist tradition is not obliged to remain a monk for the rest of his life. In fact, most monks leave after a few
months. Only ten percent of the monks stay in their robes for a lifetime.

The Buddhist monk chooses when he will leave the monastery environment and return to secular living.
Perhaps he has learned all he wishes to learn; perhaps he has difficulty keeping the two hundred and twenty-
seven Rules and the harsh discipline they demand; perhaps he would simply like to go home to find a wife
and raise a family. When a novice is ordained as a monk, he accepts the responsibility of choosing how long
he will remain a monk.

The novice, when ordained, must decide how he will spend his time as a monk. Will he study or will he
practise meditation? Most monks prefer to study.

Buddhism is not as much a religion as it is a teaching. Buddhists do not have priests; they have only
students who are in search of the truth. This search for truth is done in such a disciplined, ritualized
manner that it goes beyond ordinary schooling and takes on a sacred aspect. A Buddhist scholar is held in
highest esteem in Thailand.

After his ordination, the boy, now a man, continued his study of the Pali language and eventually
became a teacher of Pali. He also taught about Lord Buddha in various girls' schools, gave some sermons on
the radio station, preached in the temple on Sunday, and answered many questions which were sent by letter to
the temple.
 Buddhist education is the main function of the religious temples. There are three stages of education. First
is the Dharma which lasts three years. Children study the story of Lord Buddha and learn about the two
hundred and twenty-seven Rules. The Dharma is taught in the Thai language. Then comes the study of the
Pali language and courses on the writings of Lord Buddha in that language. This stage of instruction
lasts nine years. Finally, the student enters the university to complete his schooling with four years of
study in modern education.

Buddhists do not pray as most religious people do. They have no god to whom they ask protection or
guidance. Buddha was not a god to his followers. Buddha was an enlightened person, such a wise, spiritual
being that he was able to counsel people on how to live their lives in the best manner possible. His teachings
have remained a source of inspiration to those who seek the pathway to the truth.

Buddhists do not try to change the world. They try to show a way to live peacefully in the world and to
find inner peace. When people see the monks walking among them and realize how calm and kind and good
they are, they are drawn to them and are moved enough to imitate their behaviour. The Buddhist monks do
not tell people how to behave. They show people how to behave by giving them an example to follow.

Life in the monastery is very hard. Each monk has his own room with a bathroom attached. He sleeps on a
mat on the floor. At six o'clock he gets up and goes out among the villagers collecting alms. He never asks for
anything. He just holds his copper bowl and accepts anything that is dropped inside. He then eats his first meal
and attends to his work. Lunch is taken before noon. There will be no more food for the rest of the day. In the
afternoon, work continues.

The monk owns three robes, three small pouches for contributions of money he receives, and two pairs
of sandals. He has two fans, one for everyday use and another for special occasions. He also has an
umbrella and various notebooks and books. Poverty is part of the monk's existence. While ever he wears
the robe, he may not drive a car or be alone with a woman. Remember, he takes the robe willingly and leaves
the robe when he wishes to do so. The gift he receives for life in a monastery is peace, to some, the most
precious gift in the world.

The boy, who became a monk, kept his robes throughout his life. The monetary contributions he
received were accumulated over the years until he was able to have a solid brick schoolhouse built in his
own village. In this way, he enriched his people by giving the children a start on their own pathways towards
the truth.

Reference: Adapted from "Happiness is My Duty"

from Buddhism (Asian Thought) in the Asian Studies Inquiry Program ©
1969 with permission of Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. Original
script by Danielle Hunebelle © 1963.
 The Significance of the Saffron Robe
I was __________ years old when I started wearing the robe.
I wear a robe to show that
Things that I have given up to become a novice:

The colour saffron symbolizes

Things that I do because I live in a Buddhist monastery:

How I feel about my life as a novice:

I will stop wearing my saffron robe when

Buddhism — Reincarnation
Buddhists, like Hindus, believe in reincarnation. However Buddhists
view reincarnation differently. Hindus believe in a permanent,
unchanging spirit or soul (atman) that is really our true self.
Buddhists deny the existence of any permanent, stable, un-
changing reality. Hindus believe that their true self, atman, is
reborn into another body. Buddhists speak of reincarnation as
a continuous stream of energy that is basically one's karma. The
body dies but our mental forces do not stop with death. Our
thoughts and actions now influence our future thoughts and actions
and this process is ongoing continuously.
One Buddhist scholar compares their belief in reincarnation to
a series of billiard balls in close contact: if another ball is rolled
against the last stationary ball, the moving ball will stop dead and
the foremost stationary ball will move on. The first moving ball
remains behind, such as when the body dies, but it is undeniably
the movement of that ball, its momentum, its karma, and not any
newly created movement which is reborn in the foremost ball.
Buddhist rebirth is the endless transmission of such an impulse
through an endless series of forms. Salvation in Buddhism is the
understanding that the forms, the billiard balls, are compound
structures subject to decay.and that nothing is transmitted but on
impluse, dependent on the heaping up of the past. In this life one
thought-moment conditions the next thought-moment and the last
thought-moment in this life conditions the first thought-moment in
the so called next-life.
 The Twin Verses

The following passages have been taken from early scriptures of Buddhism. It consists of a text
traditionally believed to have originated with the Buddha.

All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up
of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought, pain follows him, as the wheel follows
the foot of the ox that draws the carriage.

All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up
of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with pure thought, happiness follows him, like a shadow that
never leaves him.

"He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me" — in those who harbor such
thoughts hatred will never cease.

"He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me" — in those who do not harbor such
thoughts hatred will cease.

For hatred does not cease by hatred at any time; hatred ceases by love — this is an eternal law.
The world does not know that we must all come to an end here; but those who know it, their
quarrels cease at once.

He who lives without looking for pleasures, his sense well-controlled, immoderate in his food,
idle, and weak, Mara will certainly overthrow him, as the wind throws down a weak tree.

He who lives without looking for pleasure, his sense well-controlled, moderate in his food,
faithful, and strong, him Mara1 will certainly not overthrow, any more than the wind throws down a
rocky mountain.

He who wishes to put on the yellow robe2 without having cleansed himself from sin, who
disregards also temperance and truth, is unworthy of the yellow robe.

But he who has cleansed himself from sin, is well-grounded in all virtues, and endowed also with
temperance and truth: he is indeed worthy of the yellow robe.

They who imagine truth in untruth, and see untruth in truth, never arrive at truth, but follow vain
desires.

They who know truth in truth, and untruth in untruth, arrive at truth and follow true desires.

As rain breaks through an ill-thatched house, passion will break through an unreflecting mind.

As rain does not break through a well-thatched house, passion will not break through a well-
reflecting mind.

1. The great tempter.

2. The garb of the Buddhist monk.
 The evildoer mourns in this world, and he mourns in the next; he mourns in both. He mourns and
suffers when he sees the evil result of his own acts.

The virtuous man delights in this world, and he delights in the next; he delights in both. He
delights and rejoices, when he sees the purity of his own work.

The evildoer suffers in this world, and he suffers in the next; he suffers in both. He suffers when
he thinks of the evil he has done; he suffers even more when going on the evil path.

The virtuous man is happy in this world, and he is happy in the next; he is happy in both. He is
happy when he thinks of the good he has done; he is still more happy when advancing on the good
path.

The thoughtless man, even if he can recite a large portion of the law3, but is not a doer of it, has
no share in the religious life, but is like a cowherd counting the cows of others.

The follower of the law, even if he can recite only a small portion of it but, having forsaken
passion and hatred and foolishness, possesses true knowledge and serenity of mind; he, attached to
nothing in this world or that to come, has indeed a share in the religious life.

From: The Teachings of the Compassionate Buddha,

Edited by E.A. Burtt, New York. Mentor,
1955, pp. 52-54. Used by permission.

•3. The dhamma, or doctrine

 Buddhism and the Concept of God

Buddhism is sometimes referred to as an atheistic religion or the "religion that has no God."
Frequently these descriptions denote a disparaging attitude toward Buddhism in the same way as
"godless" is used as a "smear word". To describe Buddhism by stating what it does hot have, i.e. a
belief in God, seems already to be a prejudical approach to a way of living that has made contibu-
tions to the comprehension of man and the universe.
Atheism is often associated with a materialistic doctrine of believing in only what the senses can
perceive. Buddhism does not relate to this belief and agrees with the teachings of other religions
that true and lasting happiness cannot be found in this world. However the Buddha adds that
fulfilment cannot be found either in "another world" in the presence of a deity. The following
quotation by Walpola Rahula explains the Buddhist view of the origin of the ideas of God and the
soul:

"Two ideas are psychologically deep-rooted in man: self-protection and self-preservation.

For self-protection man has created God, on whom he depends for his own protection, safety
and security, just as a child depends on its parent. For self-preservation man has conceived
the idea of an immortal Soul or Atman, which will live eternally. In his ignorance, weakness,
fear, and desire, man needs two things to console himself. Hence he clings to them deeply
and fanatically."

Buddhism attributes to the person alone the ability to realize perfect happiness, called Nirvana
(Nibbana in Pali). We will consider this concept further on in the programme. The important point to be
made here is that Buddhism believes that the individual can attain this state of Nirvana and that no
form of deity is involved in the means or the end. Buddhism does not go through lengths to prove God
does not exist. It considers the question irrelevant speculation to begin with. To the question, "Then
who made the earth?", the Buddhist replies, "Who made God?"

Buddhism believes no god is needed to judge actions or to reward or punish. The effect of one's
act is its own reward or punishment. Good acts produce good effects and bad acts produce bad
effects. Buddhists believe that the weakness in believing that God rewards or punishes our deeds is
that when a society believes less in a Supreme Judge there is a decrease in motivation for moral
conduct.

- by Spencer Boudreau
 Nirvana

When all suffering ceases because of a complete

void of desire one reaches Nirvana. Since it is
different from any existence that can be precisely
described, it is not easy to understand this final,
ultimate state. Certain mental states and strict
ethical exhortations help one to achieve this state
(i.e.the eightfold path) but just what exactly
remains is simply described as a continuous
stream of energy. Ideas of a personal self, spirit or
eternal soul are all considered illusions in
Buddhism. It also does not involve existence with a
supreme being, since traditional Buddhism denies
the role of God in salvation. "You are the Buddha"
is a famous phrase of Buddhism indicating that the
direction for one's life must come from within.
Willed acts need not be judged and rewarded or
punished by any being since the effects of these
acts will be sufficient reward punishment.
Once one escapes the cycle of reincarnation
complete composure remains. Walpola Rahula, a
Buddhist monk, uses the following words to
describe Nirvana: "absence of desire," "truth,"
"bliss," "beyond," "freedom," "protection," "oppo-
site shore," "peace,"and "tranquility." Huston Smith
comments that even though we do not have a
precise idea of what Nirvana is in Buddhism, we can
however conclude that if increased freedom for the
spirit brings a fullness of being, absolute freedom
should bring absolute fullness.
This figure of the Teaching,Buddha (5th century A.D.) in the familiar "lotus posture" used in Asian
meditation, his hands in the mudra known as turning the wheel of the law", is a masterpiece from
Sarnath near Benares, a famous site in the early annals of Buddhism since it was the scene of the
Buddha's first sermon. Artists from this noted sanctuary and pilgrimage center created some of the
most beautiful of all Buddha figures, destined to shed their stylistic influence on many distant parts
of the Asian world. Although only 5 feet 3 inches in height — including pedestal and halo — the
figure has, along with an intrinsic grace and balanced symmetry, the superb monumentally of the
best art of the Gupta period (320-600 A.D.), generally considered the golden age of Indian art.
 'Meditation' or Mental Culture:
Bhavana
The Buddha said: 'O bhikkhus, there are two
kinds of illness. What are those two? Physical
illness and mental illness. There seem to be
people who enjoy freedom from physical illness
even for a year or two ... even for a hundred
years or more. But, O bhikkhus, rare in this
world are those who enjoy freedom from mental
illness even for one moment, except those who
are free from mental defilements' (i.e., except
arahants).
The Buddha's teaching, particularly his way
of 'meditation', aims at producing a state of
perfect mental health, equilibrium and tranquil-
ity. It is unfortunate that hardly any other
section of the Buddha's teaching is so much
misunderstood as 'meditation', both by Bud-
dhists and non-Buddhists. The moment the
word 'meditation' is mentioned, one thinks of
an escape from the daily activities of life;
assuming a particular posture, like a statue in
some cave or cell in a monastery, in some
remote place cut off from society; and musing
on, or being absorbed in, some kind of mystic
or mysterious thought or trance. True Buddhist
'meditation' does not mean this kind of escape
at all. The Buddha's teaching on this subject
was so wrongly, or so little understood, that in
later times the way of 'meditation' deteriorated
and degenerated into a kind of ritual or cere-
mony almost technical in its routine.
Most people are interested in meditation or
yoga in order to gain some spiritual or mystic
powers like the 'third eye', which others do not
possess. There was some time ago a Buddhist
nun in India who was trying to develop a power
to see through her ears, while she was still in
the possession of the 'power' of perfect eye-
sight! This kind of idea is nothing but 'spiritual
perversion'. It is always a question of desire,
'thirst' for power.
The word meditation is a very poor substitute
for the original term bhavana, which means
'culture' or 'development', i.e., mental culture
or mental development. The Buddhist bhāvanā,
properly speaking, is mental culture in the full
sense of the term. It aims at cleansing the mind
of impurities and disturbances, such as lustful
desires, hatred, ill-will, indolence, worries and
restlessness, sceptical doubts, and cultivating
such qualities as concentration, awareness,
intelligence, will, energy, the analytical faculty,
confidence, joy, tranquility, leading finally to
the attainment of highest wisdom which sees
the nature of things as they are, and realizes the
Ultimate Truth, Nirvana.
There are two forms of meditation. One is
the development of mental concentration
(samatha or samādhi), of one-pointedness of
mind (cittekaggata, Skt. cittaikagrata), by vari-
ous methods prescribed in the texts, leading up
to the highest mystic states such as 'the Sphere
of Nothingness' or 'the Sphere of Neither-
Perception-nor-Non-Perception'. All these
mystic states, according to the Buddha, are
mind-created, mind-produced, conditioned
(samkhata). They have nothing to do with
Reality, Truth, Nirvana. This form of meditation
existed before the Buddha. Hence it is not
purely Buddhist, but it is not excluded from the
field of Buddhist meditation. However it is not
essential for the realization of Nirvana. The
Buddha himself, before his Enlightenment,
studied these yogic practices under different
teachers and attained to the highest mystic
states; but he was not satisfied with them,
because they did not give complete liberation,
they did not give insight into the Ultimate
Reality. He considered these mystic states only
as 'happy living in this existence' (ditthadham-
masukhavihāra), or 'peaceful living' (santavi-
hāra), and nothing more.
Believers, when you rise to pray wash your faces and your hands as far as the elbow, and wipe your
heads and your feet to the ankle. If you are polluted cleanse yourselves. But if you are sick or
travelling the road; or if, when you have just relieved yourselves or had intercourse with women, you
can find no water, take some clean sand and rub your hands and faces with it. Allah does not wish to
burden you; He seeks only to purify you and to perfect His favour to you, so that you may give
thanks. (Qur'an V:6)

Recite your prayers at sunset, at nightfall, and at dawn: the dawn prayer has its witnesses. Pray
during the night as well, an additional duty for the fulfillment of which your Lord may exalt you to an
honourable station. (Qur'an XVII:78,79)

Believers, when you are summoned to Friday prayers hasten to the remembrance of Allah and cease
your trading. That would be best for you, if you but knew it. Then, when the prayers are ended,
disperse and go in quest of Allah's bounty. Remember Allah always, so that you may prosper.
(Qur'an LXII:9-10)

Read the following brief description of the observance of Friday in Pakistan.

On Fridays males are expected to attend the mosque at noon to take part in communal prayer and
hear the weekly sermon (khutbah). However, Friday is not considered the equivalent of the Sabbath
and the ordinary business holiday for government offices, banks, and the larger stores in Pakistan is
Sunday. In practice, many places are also closed on Friday afternoons: the less Westernized shops
in the bazaars and some of the universities are closed all day Friday and open for all or part of
Sunday. (Wilber, Pakistan, p. 89)

1. What is the purpose and significance of the cleansing rite as a preparation for prayer?

2. What do these instructions concerning prayer reveal about the Islamic concept of the
relationship between Allah and man?

3. In what way is the performance of the prayer rite different on Fridays than on the other days
of the week? Discuss the validity of Wilber's claim that "Friday is not considered the equal of
the Sabbath."

— From: The Many Faces of Religion: An Inquiry Approach.

Dicks, Mennill and Santor. © 1973 by Ginn and Company.
Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
 He therefore discovered the other form of
'meditation' known as vipassana (Skt. ripasyanā
or ridarsanā), 'Insight' into the nature of
things, leading to the complete liberation of
mind, to the realization of the Ultimate Truth,
Nirvana. This is essentially Buddhist
'meditation', Buddhist mental culture. It is an
analytical method based on mindfulness,
awareness, vigilance, observation.
It is impossible to do justice to such a vast
subject in a few pages. However an attempt is
made here to give a very brief and rough idea of
the true Buddhist 'meditation', mental culture
or mental development, in a practical way.
The most important discourse ever given by
the Buddha on mental development ('medita-
tion') is called the Satipatthāna-sutta The
Setting-up of Mindfulness' (No. 22 of the Digha-
nikāya, or No. 10 of the Majjhima-nikāya).
This discourse is so highly venerated in
tradition that it is regularly recited not only in
Buddhist monasteries, but also in Buddhist
homes with members of the family sitting
round and listening with deep devotion. Very
often bhikkhus recite this sutta by the bed-
side of a dying man to purify his last thoughts.
The ways of 'meditation' given in this dis-
course are not cut off from life, nor do they
avoid life; on the contrary, they are all con-
nected with our life, our daily activities, our
sorrows and joys, our words and thoughts, our
moral and intellectual occupations.
The discourse is divided into four main
sections: the first section deals with our body
(kāya), the second with our feelings and sensa-
tions (vedanā), the third with the mind (citta),
and the fourth with various moral and intellec-
tual subjects (dhamma).
It should be clearly borne in mind that
whatever the form of 'meditation' may be, the
essential thing is mindfulness or awareness
(sati), attention or observation (anupassanā).
One of the most well-known, popular and
practical examples of 'meditation' connected
with the body is called The Mindfulness or
Awareness of in-and-out breathing' (ānāpā-
nasati). It is for this 'meditation' only that a
particular and definite posture is prescribed in
the text. For other forms of 'meditation' given
in this sutta, you may sit, stand, walk, or lie
down, as you like. But, for cultivating
mindfulness of in-and-out breathing, one
should sit, according to the text, 'cross-
legged, keeping the body erect and
mindfulness alert'. But sitting cross-legged is
not practical and easy for people of all
countries, particularly for Westerners. There-
fore, those who find it difficult to sit cross-
legged, may sit on a chair, 'keeping the body
erect and mindfulness alert'. It is very necessary
for this exercise that the meditator should sit
erect, but not stiff; his hands placed comfortably on
his lap. Thus seated, you may close your eyes,
or you may gaze at the tip of your nose, as it may
be convenient to you.
You breathe in and out all day and night, but
you are never mindful of it, you never for a
second concentrate your mind on it. Now you
are going to do just this. Breathe in and out as
usual, without any effort or strain. Now, bring
your mind to concentrate on your breathing-in
and breathing-out; let your mind watch and
observe your breathing in and out; let your
mind be aware and vigilant of your breathing in
and out. When you breathe, you sometimes
take deep breaths, sometimes not. This does not
matter at all. Breathe normally and naturally. The
only thing is that when you take deep breaths
you should be aware that they are deep breaths,
and so on. In other words, your mind should be
so fully concentrated on your breathing that you
are aware of its movements and changes.
Forget all other things, your surroundings, your
environment; do not raise your eyes and look at
anything. Try to do this for five or ten minutes.
At the beginning you will find it extremely
difficult to bring your mind to concentrate on
your breathing. You will be astonished how
your mind runs away. It does not stay. You
begin to think of various things. You hear
sounds outside. Your mind is disturbed and
distracted. You may be dismayed and disap-
pointed. But if you continue to practise this
exercise twice daily, morning and evening, for
about five or ten minutes at a time, you will
gradually, by and by, begin to concentrate your
mind on your breathing. After a certain period,
you will experience just that split second when
your mind is fully concentrated on your breathing,
when you will not hear even sounds nearby, when
no external world exists for you. This slight
moment is such a tremendous experience for you,
full of joy, happiness and tranquility, that you
would like to continue it. But still you cannot. Yet
if you go on practising this regularly, you may
repeat the experience again and again for longer
and longer periods. That is the moment when you
lose yourself completely in your mindfulness of
breathing. As long as you are conscious of
yourself you can never concentrate on anything.
This exercise of mindfulness of breathing,
which is one of the simplest and easiest prac-
tices, is meant to develop concentration leading
up to very high mystic attainments (dhyāna).
Besides, the power of concentration is essential
for any kind of deep understanding, penetra-
tion, insight into the nature of things, including
the realization of Nirvana.
Apart from all this, this exercise on breathing
gives you immediate results. It is good for your
physical health, for relaxation, sound sleep,
and for efficiency in your daily work. It makes
you calm and tranquil. Even at moments when
you are nervous or excited, if you practise this
for a couple of minutes, you will see for
yourself that you become immediately quiet
and at peace. You feel as if you have awakened
after a good rest.
Another very important, practical, and useful
form of 'meditation' (mental development) is to
be aware and mindful of whatever you do,
physically or verbally, during the daily routine
of work in your life, private, public or profes-
sional. Whether you walk, stand, sit, lie down,
or sleep, whether you stretch or bend your
limbs, whether you look around, whether you
put on your clothes, whether you talk or keep
silence, whether you eat or drink, even whether
you answer the calls of nature — in these and
other activities, you should be fully aware and
mindfull of the act you perform at the moment.
That is to say, that you should live in the
present moment, in the present action. This
does not mean that you should not think of the
past or the future at all. On the contrary, you
think of them in relation to the present moment,
the present action, when and where it is rele-
vant.
People do not generally live in their actions,
in the present moment. They live in the past or
in the future. Though they seem to be doing
something now, here, they live somewhere else
in their thoughts, in their imaginary problems
and worries, usually in the memories of the
past or in desires and speculations about the
future. Therefore they do not live in, nor do
they enjoy, what they do at the moment. So
they are unhappy and discontented with the
present moment, with the work at hand, and
naturally they cannot give themselves fully to
what they appear to be doing.
Sometimes you see a man in a restaurant
reading while eating — a very common sight.
He gives you the impression of being a very
busy man, with no time even for eating. You
wonder whether he eats or reads. One may say
that he does both. In fact, he does neither, he
enjoys neither. He is strained, and disturbed in
mind, and he does not enjoy what he does at
the moment, does not live his life in the present
moment, but unconsciously and foolishly tries
to escape from life. (This does not mean,
however, that one should not talk with a friend
while having lunch or dinner.)
You cannot escape life however you may try.
As long as you live, whether in a town or in a
cave, you have to face it and live it. Real life is
the present moment — not the memories of the
past which is dead and gone, nor the dreams of
the future which is not yet born. One who lives
in the present moment lives the real life, and he
is happiest.
When asked why his disciples, who lived a
simple and quiet life with only one meal a day,
were so radiant, the Buddha replied: They do
not repent the past, nor do they brood over the
future. They live in the present. Therefore they
are radiant. By brooding over the future and
repenting the past, fools dry up like green
reeds cut down (in the sun).
Mindfulness, or awareness, does not mean
that you should think and be conscious 'I am
doing this' or 'I am doing that'. No. Just the
contrary. The moment you think 'I am doing
this', you become self-conscious, and then you
do not live in the action, but you live in the idea 'I
am', and consequently your work too is spoilt.
You should forget yourself completely, and
lose yourself in what you do. The moment a
speaker becomes self-conscious and thinks 'I
am addressing an audience', his speech is
disturbed and his trend of thought broken. But
when he forgets himself in his speech, in his
subject, then he is at his best, he speaks well
and explains things clearly. All great work —
artistic, poetic, intellectual or spiritual — is
produced at those moments when its creators
are lost completely in their actions, when they
forget themselves altogether, and are free from
self-consciousness.
This mindfulness or awareness with regard
to our activities, taught by the Buddha, is to live
in the present moment, to live in the present
action. (This is also the Zen way which is based
primarily on this teaching.) Here in this form of
meditation, you haven't got to perform any
particular action in order to develop mindful-
ness, but you have only to be mindful and
aware of whatever you may do. You haven't got
to spend one second of your precious time on
this particular 'meditation': you have only to
cultivate mindfulness and awareness always,
day and night, with regard to all activities in
your usual daily life. These two forms of 'medi-
tation' discussed above are connected with our
body.
Then there is a way of practising mental
development ('meditation') with regard to all
our sensations or feelings, whether happy,
unhappy or neutral. Let us take only one
example. You experience an unhappy, sorrowful
sensation. In this state your mind is cloudy,
hazy, not clear, it is depressed. In some cases,
you do not even see clearly why you have that
unhappy feeling. First of all, you should learn
not to be unhappy about your unhappy feeling,
not to be worried about your worries. But try to
see clearly why there is a sensation or a feeling
of unhappiness, or worry, or sorrow. Try to
examine how it arises, its cause, how it disap-
pears, its cessation. Try to examine it as if you
are observing it from outside, without any
subjective reaction, as a scientist observes
some object. Here, too, you should not look at
it as 'my feeling' or 'my sensation' subjectively,
but only look at it as 'a feeling' or 'a sensation'
objectively. You should forget again the false
idea of 'I'. When you see its nature, how it arises
and disappears, your mind grows dispassionate
towards that sensation, and becomes detached
and free. It is the same with regard to all
sensations or feelings.
Now let us discuss the form of 'meditation'
with regard to our minds. You should be fully
aware of the fact whenever your mind is pas-
sionate or detached, whenever it is overpow-
ered by hatred, ill-will, jealousy, or is full of
love, compassion, whenever it is deluded or
has a clear and right understanding, and so on
and so forth. We must admit that very often we
are afraid or ashamed to look at our own minds.
So we prefer to avoid it. One should be bold
and sincere and look at one's own mind as one
looks at one's face in a mirror.
Here is no attitude of criticizing or judging,
or discriminating between right and wrong, or
good and bad. It is simply observing, watching,
examining. You are not a judge, but a scientist.
When you observe your mind, and see its true
nature clearly, you become dispassionate with
regard to its emotions, sentiments and states.
Thus you become detached and free, so that
you may see things as they are.
Let us take one example. Say you are really
angry, overpowered by anger, ill-will, hatred. It
is curious, and paradoxical, that the man who is
in anger is not really aware, not mindful that he is
angry. The moment he becomes aware and
mindful of that state of his mind, the moment he
sees his anger, it becomes, as if it were, shy and
ashamed, and begins to subside. You should
examine its nature, how it arises, how it disap-
pears. Here again it should be remembered
that you should not think 'I am angry', or of 'my
anger'. You should only be aware and mindful
of the state of an angry mind. You are only
observing and examining an angry mind objec-
tively. This should be the attitude with regard to
all sentiments, emotions, and states of mind.
Then there is a form of 'meditation' on
ethical, spiritual and intellectual subjects. All
our studies, reading, discussions, conversation
and deliberations on such subjects are included
in this 'meditation'. To read this book, and to
think deeply about the subjects discussed in it,
is a form of meditation. We have seen earlier
that the conversation between Khemaka and
the group of monks was a form of meditation
which led to the realization of Nirvana.
So, according to this form of meditation, you
may study, think, and deliberate on the Five
Hindrances (Nivarana), namely:
1. lustful desires (kāmacchanda),
2. ill-will, hatred or anger (vyāpāda),
3. torpor and languor (thima-middha),
4. restlessness and worry (uddhacca-
kukkucca),
5. sceptical doubts (vicikicchā).
These five are considered as hindrances to
any kind of clear understanding, as a matter of
fact, to any kind of progress. When one is over-
powered by them and when one does not know
how to get rid of them, then one cannot
understand right and wrong, or good and bad.
One may also 'meditate' on the Seven Factors
of Enlightenment (Bojjhanga). They are:
1. Mindfulness (sati), i.e., to be aware and
mindful in all activities and movements
both physical and mental, as we discussed
above.
2. Investigation and research into the vari
ous problems of doctrine (dhamma-
vicaya). Included here are all our reli
gious, ethical and philosophical studies,
reading, researches, discussions, conver
sation, even attending lectures relating to
such doctrinal subjects.
3. Energy (viriya), to work with determina
tion till the end.
4. Joy (piti), the quality quite contrary to the
pessimistic, gloomy or melancholic atti
tude of mind.
 5. Relaxation (passaddhi) of both body and
mind. One should not be stiff physically
or mentally.
6. Concentration (samādhi), as discussed
above.
7. Equanimity (upekkhā), i.e., to be able to
face life in all its vicissitudes with calm of
mind, tranquillity, without disturbance.
To cultivate these qualities the most essential
thing is a genuine wish, will, or inclination.
Many other material and spiritual conditions
conducive to the development of each quality
are described in the texts.
One may also 'meditate' on such subjects as
the Five Aggregates investigating the question
'What is a being?' or 'What is it that is called ?',
or on the Four Noble Truths, as we discussed
above. Study and investigation of those sub-
jects constitute this fourth form of meditation,
which leads to the realization of Ultimate Truth.
Apart from those we have discussed here,
there are many other subjects of meditation,
traditionally forty in number, among which
mention should be made particularly of the
four Sublime States: (Brahma-ribāra): (1) ex-
tending unlimited, universal love and good-will
(mettā) to all living beings without any kind of
discrimination, 'just as a mother loves her only
child'; (2) compassion (karunā) for all living
beings who are suffering, in trouble and afflic-
tion; (3) sympathetic joy (muditā) in others'
success, welfare and happiness; and (4) equa-
nimity (upekkhā) in all vicissitudes of life.
— From: What the Buddha Taught by Walpola Rahula.
Copyright© 1974 by W. Rahula. Reprinted by permission
of the author.