Weeds of Vegetables and Other Cash Crops in The Philippines

i
WEEDS OF VEGETABLES
AND OTHER CASH CROPS
IN THE PHILIPPINES
Dindo King M. Donayre

Salvacion E. Santiago
Edwin C. Martin
Rizal G. Corales
Philippine Rice Research Institute
Science City of Muñoz, 3119 Nueva Ecija
Jeong Taek Lee

KOPIA Center, Philippines
PhilRice Compound
Science City of Muñoz, 3119 Nueva Ecija
Virender Kumar
Joel D. Janiya
International Rice Research Institute
College, Los Baños, 4030 Laguna
2019
© 2019 by Philippine Rice Research Institute
All rights reserved. No part of this booklet may be reproduced or translated in any form
without the written permission of the copyright owner, except for citations and references,
which shall be duly credited to this publication.
Published by:
Philippine Rice Research Institute
Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz
3119 Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Funded by:
Korea Program on International Agriculture (KOPIA)
PhilRice Compound, Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz
3119 Nueva Ecija, Philippines
ISBN: 978-621-8022-44-7
ISBN (pdf): 978-621-8022-45-4
Suggested citation:
Donayre DKM, SE Santiago, EC Martin, JT Lee, RG Corales, JD Janiya, and V Kumar. 2019.
Weeds of Vegetables and other Cash Crops in the Philippines. Philippine Rice Research
Institute, Maligaya, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. 141p
Contents
vii Foreword
viii Messages
x Preface
xi Guide to Weed Species Listed
xiii Rationale
1 Grasses
2 Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv.
4 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
6 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.)
8 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel.
10 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link
12 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.
14 Eragrostis tenella (L.) Roem. & Schult.
16 Panicum repens L.
18 Paspalum conjugatum Berg.
20 Polytrias amaura (Miq.) Kuntze.
22 Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W. D. Clayton
25 Sedges
26 Cyperus iria L.
28 Cyperus rotundus L.
30 Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl
33 Broadleaves
34 Ageratum conyzoides L.
36 Aeschynomene indica L.
38 Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC.
40 Amaranthus spinosus L.
42 Amaranthus viridis L.
44 Boerhavia erecta L.
46 Borreria laevis (Lam.) Griseb.
48 Borreria ocymoides (Burm. f.) DC.
50 Calopogonium mucunoides Desv.
52 Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
54 Centrosema pubescens Benth.
56 Cleome rutidosperma DC.
58 Cleome viscosa L.
60 Commelina benghalensis L.
62 Commelina diffusa Burm. f.
64 Corchorus aestuans L.
66 Corchorus olitorius L.
68 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.
70 Eclipta zippeliana Bl.
72 Euphorbia heterophylla L.
74 Euphorbia hirta L.
76 Euphorbia hypericifolia L.
78 Euphorbia prostrata Ait.
80 Gomphrena celosioides C. Mart.
82 Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam.
84 Heliotropium indicum L.
86 Ipomoea triloba L.
88 Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb.
90 Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urb.
92 Melochia concatenata L.
94 Merremia emarginata (Burm. F)
96 Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex Sauvalle
98 Mimosa pudica L.
100 Murdannia nodiflora (L.) Brenan
102 Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd.
104 Phyllanthus urinaria L.
106 Physalis angulata L.
108 Portulaca oleracea L.
110 Scoparia dulcis L.
112 Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC.
114 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl.
116 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.
118 Trianthema portulacastrum L.
121 Weed Management Options
130 Bibliography
131 References
135 Terminologies
139 Acknowledgments
vi
Foreword
Weeds are among the most unwanted pests in Philippine agriculture.
They compete against rice and rice-based crops for land and water
resources, including the nutrients and sunlight that are needed for
maximum growth. Weeds also escalate pest and disease incidence
as they can serve as alternate host. Ultimately, weeds, if not properly
managed, can reduce the yield of crops and quality of soil to grow food.
In this handbook, PhilRice, in collaboration with the Korea Program

on International Agriculture, presents the common weeds, their
characteristics, and known effects on rice-based crops in the Philippines.
We hope that through this product of research, the main players of the
agriculture industry – the farmers – will have basic knowledge on how to
handle the pest that bothers them every single cropping season. May it
serve its purpose for the betterment of the Filipino rice and rice-based
farmers.
We thank the people behind this material for continually advancing

their research-for-development agenda to make the agriculture industry
competitive.
Sailila E. Abdula, PhD

Acting Executive Director, PhilRice
vii
Message
Weeds cause higher rice yield loss (5-90%) than insect pests by
competing for nutrient, sunlight, and water. They can contaminate the
harvest aside from serving as habitat of rice black bugs, golden apple
snails, rats, etc.
Several strategies have been developed to address the weed problem:

culturally through crop rotation; mechanically through mowing or tillage;
biologically through the use of bio-agents such as insects, disease
organisms, herbivorous fish, snails, and even competitive plants; and
chemically through the application of herbicides.
Rice is most vulnerable to weed competition within 0-40 days after

sowing/transplanting. Hence, timely and appropriate weed management
can help the rice farmer save on costly expenses such as hiring labor
for manual weeding and purchasing herbicides. The information in this
booklet is most helpful to farmers who want to shift to a more sustainable
farming system and improve their overall competitiveness.
It is hoped that this booklet will help readers come to more deeply
appreciate the wisdom behind the integrated pest management
approach and how resilient the natural environment is.
Congratulations to the team for coming up with this handy compilation

on weeds.
Flordeliza H. Bordey, PhD

Deputy Executive Director for Research, PhilRice
viii
KOPIA is glad to again partner with PhilRice in serving the Filipino
farmers through the production of this handbook. From the first and
second editions of a related material on weeds in irrigated and rainfed
lowland ricefields, we move toward exploring the common weeds of
vegetables and other cash crops in the country.
We hope that the information shared here will improve the farmers’
decision-making skills in managing their crops; the extension workers to
enhance their knowledge in addressing the needs of our farmers; and
for the policymakers to continuously look at ways to help the agriculture
industry.
We are grateful to all those who took part in producing this handbook,
from the authors to all involved personnel. We also thank in advance the
end-users who will put this material into good use.
Jeong Taek Lee, PhD

Center Director, KOPIA Philippines
ix
Preface
I strongly believe that correct identification of weeds is a prerequisite
to the right selection and proper execution of weed control measures
that are effective, economical, environment-friendly, and acceptable to
farmers. Thus, this booklet was written to provide all farmers, extension
workers, researchers, students, professors, policymakers, and other
interested readers the list of weeds (11 grasses, 3 sedges, and 43
broadleaves) that are common in many vegetable areas particularly in
rice-based cropping regions in the Philippines. Images, distinguishing
characteristics, impacts on infested crops, and management options
were also included to raise the usefulness of the book.
In behalf of my co-authors, I am very thankful for the financial support

of the Korea Program on International Agriculture (KOPIA) and Rural
Development Administration (RDA) of Korea. Because of their trust and
generosity, our team has thus far developed and shared three books,
3 posters, 12 handouts, and a mobile app (in thousands of copies) all
over the country. I am also grateful for the support of the management
of PhilRice; managing and language editors, and layout artists of the
Development Communication Division; and support from our colleagues
at the Crop Protection Division.
I would like also to thank all farmers, barangay officials, and local
government units who accompanied and allowed us to take pictures of
different weeds in their rice-based farms. Mabuhay po kayo!

Main author
x
Guide to weed species listed
Scientific name – universal name of a weed, e.g., Axonopus compressus,
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Eleusine indica
Local names – names used by rice farmers in different parts of the

Philippines
EPPO Code – formerly known as Bayer code; computer codes

developed for plants, pests (including pathogens) which are important in
agriculture and plant protection
Poaceae (Graminae) – family name
Life cycle – life span in the field
Means of propagation – method of reproduction
Distinguishing characteristics – morphological traits that immediately

describe the weed species
Importance – negative effects of weed species on the growth and

development of cultivated crops; biology and ecology are included in
this part; weed species lacking this part means that no information was
available
xi
xii
Weeds of Vegetables and other Cash Crops in the Philippines
Rationale
Rice-based farming system (RBFS) is a major production approach in both
irrigated and rainfed ecosystems in the Philippines. Rice is the major and
predominant crop in the irrigated ecosystem, grown two to three times
a year. In rainfed areas, rice is planted during the rainy season and, to
some extent, during the dry season (DS) under a favorable environment.
Some rainfed and irrigated lowland areas with supplemental irrigation
are planted to cash crops, root crops, and vegetables (onion, corn,
squash, tomato, mungbean, bitter gourd, hot pepper, water melon, and
yam bean) during the DS.
Livestock and fishery are also integrated into the RBFS for household
consumption and additional income. Many farm families depend on RBFS
for their entire livelihood. Enhancing RBFS through crop diversification
and intensification can sustainably help attain food and nutrition security
and higher income. RBFS, however, is also influenced by production
constraints related to climate change, natural resources degradation,
and pest occurrences. Thus, it is important to develop management
strategies to overcome these challenges to achieve higher productivity
and greater sustainability of income.
Weeds are one of the limiting factors of many vegetables and cash
crops farming systems. If not controlled properly, weeds will undeniably
reduce the quantity and quality of harvests by way of competition for
the sunlight, nutrients, and water that are needed for the growth and
development of cultivated plants. There are many methods to control
weeds. To achieve effective, economical, environmentally sound, and
socially acceptable weed control, knowledge on correct identification as
well as deep understanding on the biology and ecology of target weeds
are necessary.
xiii
internode
leaf
node
leafblade
leafsheath
xiv
Grasses
• Leaves are long and narrow, which usually arise alternately
in two rows from the nodes.
• Ligules and sometimes auricles are present.
• Leaf veins are in parallel while leaf sheaths are split

around the stem.
• Stems are called culms with well-defined nodes and internodes.
• Stems are round and hollow inside.
Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.)
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel.
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.
Eragrostis tenella (L.) Roem. & Schult.
Panicum repens L.
Paspalum conjugatum Berg.
Polytrias amaura (Miq.) Kuntze.
Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W. D. Clayton
1
Grasses
Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv.
Local name: kulape

EPPO Code: AXOCO
Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
Life cycle: creeping perennial

Means of propagation: seeds and stolons
Distinguishing characteristics: it has stems that are solid,

laterally compressed, creeping, and nodes that are rooting.
It also has leaf sheaths that are fine and hairy along the
outer margins; very short ligule; and lanceolate, flat, short,
broadly rounded-based leaf blade. Inflorescence bears two
to three long and slender spikelets.
Importance: A. compressus is difficult to control especially

when its stems had already formed and established thick,
dense mats in the soil.
2
3
Grasses
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Local names: bakbaka, bermuda grass, buku-buku,

galud-galud, kawad-kawad
EPPO Code: CYNDA

Means of propagation: primarily by rhizomes and
stolons, seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are branching,

spreading on the ground, and rooting at the nodes; leaves
are thin and long with white hairs around the ligules; each
inflorescence has three to four finger-like purple spikes.
Importance: C. dactylon is a C4 plant and is well-adapted

to moist and drier conditions. The weed can also withstand
prolonged submergence in the field. It can cause significant
yield loss when allowed to grow with cultivated crops at
high population. It is also difficult to control owing to its
perennial growth habit. The weed, on the other hand, is
easily affected by shading.
4
5
Grasses
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.)

Beauv.
Local names: kabit-kabit, sabong-sabungan, barangan

EPPO Code: DTTAE
Life cycle: annual, sometimes perennial

Means of propagation: seeds, sometimes through stolons
Distinguishing characteristics: basal stems are creeping,

rooting, and dichotomously branching; leaves have loose
sheaths; each inflorescence is digitately arranged appearing
like a starfish or bird’s foot.
Importance: D. aegyptium is a C4 plant that can produce

65,800 seeds per plant. Although the competitive ability of
the weed is not known, it has been observed growing with
many agronomic and vegetable crops in the country.
6
7
Grasses
Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel.
Local names: baludgangan, halos, saka-saka

EPPO Code: DIGAD

Means of propagation: primarily by rhizomes and
stolons, seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: smooth, flat, and creeping

stems are generally lying on the ground while the upper
parts are rising; leaves are thin and narrow-lanceolate in
shape; leaf sheaths are hairy; inflorescence is composed of
3-6 pseudo-spikes digitally arranged as pseudo-whorls at
the apical portion.
Importance: D. ciliaris is a C4 plant. A single plant can

produce an average of 1,700 seeds. Information on its
competitive ability against agronomic and vegetable crops,
however, is still not known. In rice, however, it can reduce
yield by as much as 62%.
8
9
Grasses
Echinochloa colona (L.) Link
Local names: dukayang, lau-lau, pulang puwit

EPPO Code: ECHCO
Life cycle: annual

Means of propagation: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems usually grow flat on

top of the soil surface while the uppermost portions grow
in upward position. Most stems are purple or reddish.
Spikelets are ovate to broad ovate, closely crowded in four
rows along one side of the branch, awnless or sometimes
with awn (less than 1mm).
Importance: E. colona is one of the top 10 weed species

in rice-based cropping systems. It is a C4 weed that can
produce more than 8,000 seeds/plant, which germinate
best at the soil surface over a wide range of moisture and
temperature levels. Allowing E. colona to compete all
throughout the growing season was reported to reduce
yield by 90% on rice and 53% for bushbean.
10
11
Grasses
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.
Local names: bakis-bakisan, bang-angan, bikad-bikad, bila-

bila, palagtiki, parangis, paragis, sabung-sabungan, sambali
EPPO Code: ELEIN
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: stems are flat, whitish at the

base and pale green toward the upper part; and smooth
or with long hairs on the edges. Leaves have sheaths that
are flat and moderately hairy at the collar; leaf blades flat,
linear-lanceolate, and hairy at the upper surface; ligule
membranous; long hairs at the junction of the blades and
sheaths. Auricles are absent. Inflorescences are digitate with
terminal whorls consisting of 3 to 6 spikes.
Importance: E. indica can produce as much as 50,000

seeds. Although reports on its competitive ability against
any crops in the Philippines are not known, documents in
other countries show that it can reduce yield of corn by 15%
when its population is at 133 plants/m2.
12
13
Grasses
Eragrostis tenella (L.) Roem. &

Schult.
Local names: bakinuk, kaliraurau, balisbis, pagay-billit,

pulpulut, sigsigid
EPPO Code: ERAAM
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: E. tenella is small and has

very slender stem. It has leaves that are linear; oblong
panicles; solitary branches; pale, long, and pedicel
spikelets.
Importance: E. tenella is a C4 plant that can produce more

than 140,000 seeds per plant. Together with other weed
species, it can cause yield loss to cultivated plants. The
weed has been reported susceptible to tungro and rice
grassy stunt viruses; and nematode such as Meloidogyne
spp.
14
15
Grasses
Panicum repens L.
Local names: tagik-tagik, buwag-buwag, murag bermuda,

maralaya, luy-a-luy-a, sabilau, luya-luyahan
EPPO Code: PANRE

Means of propagation: seeds and rootstocks
Distinguishing characteristics: stem is erect and rooting

at the hairless nodes. Leaves are linear-lanceolate, flat, and
slightly hairy. Inflorescence has an open panicle, slender and
erect branches, oval to elliptic spikelets, and slender stalks.
Importance: It is difficult to control when its stems and

roots had already formed and established thick, dense mats
in the soil.
16
17
Grasses
Paspalum conjugatum Berg.
Local names: kauat-kauat, lakatan, maligoy, pad-pad,

kolokawayan, bantotan, kulape, laau-laau, carabao grass
EPPO Code: PASCO

Means of propagation: seeds, stolons
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are long-creeping,

reddish-purple, have flattened runners, and hairy nodes.
Leaves are flat, linear-lanceolate, hairy at the blades
and sheaths. Leaf sheaths are flat, membranous, and
with a collar of fine hairs below the blade. Ligules are
membranous, truncate, and fringed with ring of hairs at the
back. Inflorescences have obtuse spikelets, and two terminal
spike-like, slender branches.

in the soil.
18
19
Grasses
Polytrias amaura (Miq.) Kuntze

Syn: Polytrias praemorsa Hackel
Local name: karpet grass

EPPO Code: POBAM

Means of propagation: seeds, stolons
Distinguishing characteristics: P. amaura has nodes that are

rooting; hairy sheaths; narrow leaf blades; and distinctive
brownish, hairy inflorescence with slender awns appressed
to the spikelets.

in the soil.
20
21
Grasses
Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.)

W. D. Clayton
Local names: aguingay, bugang, sagisi, dupawan, gaho

EPPO Code: ROOEX
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it has an erect growth. Its

stems are hairy; leaves are flat, linear-lanceolate in shape
with itchy hairs covering the leaf blades and sheaths.
Inflorescence has smooth, cylindrical, and solitary spikes
that break up when mature.
Importance: R. cochinchinensis is commonly called itchgrass

in English. It is a C4 weed that can produce 2,000 seeds per
plant. It is a very competitive weed against any agronomic
and vegetable crops owing to its rapid growth, tillering
capacity, and formation of numerous adventitious roots.
Studies have shown that 50 and 142 plants/m² of it were
enough to reduce yield of corn by 50 and 71%, respectively.
22
23
24
Sedges
• Leaves are also long and narrow but do not have
ligules and auricles.
• Leaf veins are also parallel but the leaf sheaths are
continuous around the stem.
• Stems are triangular in shape and have no nodes and internodes.
Cyperus iria L.
Cyperus rotundus L.
Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl
25
Sedges
Cyperus iria L.
Local names: payong-payong, siraw-siraw, taga-taga

EPPO Code: CYPIR
Family: Cyperaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: its stems are smooth

and triangular; linear-lanceolate leaves; umbel-shaped
inflorescence; and numerous, spreading, erect spikelets that
are yellow to yellow-brown.
Importance: C. iria is a C4 weed that can produce 3,000

seeds per plant; mainly a weed of rice but also of other
crops especially those that are planted under rice-based
cropping systems such as onion, corn, tomato, chilli pepper,
etc. Under rice cropping systems, the weed can establish
quickly in the field soon after rice plants are transplanted or
direct-seeded. When not controlled, it can reduce yield of
rice by as much as 40%.
26
27
Sedges
Cyperus rotundus L.
Local names: barsanga, mutha, sudsud

EPPO Code: CYPRO
Family: Cyperaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: erect with smooth unbranched

three-sided stem, dark green leaves, and flowers in red-brown
spikelets. It has extensive underground parts called the basal
bulb, rhizomes, tubers, and roots which permit rapid production
of multiple young sprouts in the soil.
Importance: C. rotundus, a C4 plant, has been considered

as the world’s worst weed. It is a problem to many cultivated
crops due to its prolific behavior in the soil, persistence in harsh
environments, and competitive ability. Full competition of C.
rotundus has been reported to reduce yields of different crops
from 6 to 100%; of upland rice by 42%.
28
29
Sedges
Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Vahl
Local names: bungot-bungot, buntot-pusa, gumi,

siraw-siraw, sirisibayas, sumpana-balik
EPPO Code: FIMMI
Family: Cyperaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: erect with flattened stems

that bear 2-4 unequal bracts that are shorter than the
inflorescence. Leaves are linear, flat, soft, and overlapping
in two rows. Spikelets are numerous, globose to ovoid in
shape, and brown to brown-orange.
Importance: F. miliacea, a C4 weed, can produce more than

40,000 seeds per plant. It is mainly a weed of rice but it has
been also observed growing and infesting rice-based crops.
30
31
32
Broadleaves
• Members belong to many families.
• Leaves are fully expanded with netted veins for dicots,
and parallel veins for monocots.
• Leaves, flowers, stems, and branches are broadly arranged in
various shapes, colors, and structures.
Ageratum conyzoides L. Euphorbia prostrata Ait.

Aeschynomene indica L. Gomphrena celosioides C. Mart.
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC. Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam.
Amaranthus spinosus L. Heliotropium indicum L.
Amaranthus viridis L. Ipomoea triloba L.
Boerhavia erecta L. Macroptilium atropurpureum (DC.) Urb.
Borreria laevis (Lam.) Griseb. Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urb.
Borreria ocymoides (Burm. f.) DC. Melochia concatenata L.
Calopogonium mucunoides Desv. Merremia emarginata (Burm. F)
Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex Sauvalle
Centrosema pubescens Benth. Mimosa pudica L.
Cleome rutidosperma DC. Murdannia nodiflora (L.) Brenan
Cleome viscosa L. Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd.
Commelina benghalensis L. Phyllanthus urinaria L.
Commelina diffusa Burm. f. Physalis angulata L.
Corchorus aestuans L. Portulaca oleracea L.
Corchorus olitorius L. Scoparia dulcis L.
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC.
Eclipta zippeliana Bl. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl.
Euphorbia heterophylla L. Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.
Euphorbia hirta L. Trianthema portulacastrum L.
Euphorbia hypericifolia L.
33
Broadleaves
Ageratum conyzoides L.
Local names: asipukpuk, bahu-bahu, kulong-kogong babae,

kanding-kanding, bangbangsit, damong mabaho
EPPO Code: AGECO
Family: Asteraceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: an erect, branched,

aromatic, hairy, slender annual herb that grows up to 60
cm tall. Leaves are ovate, crenate, acute, 5-13 cm long.
Inflorescence has small heads, dense terminal corymb, and
numerous white, purple or pale blue flowers.
Importance: A. conyzoides is a short-lived weed completing

its life cycle in less than 2 months. It is highly adaptive to
extreme conditions and can easily colonize cultivated areas.
Out of 40,000 seeds produced by a mature plant, 20,000
may germinate immediately after shedding. It is one of the
major weeds of upland rice and rice-based crops in the
country. Full competition of the weed at 1:1 to 1:3 crop-
weed ratio has been reported to reduce height, number of
leaves and tillers, shoot and root weights of upland rice.
34
35
Broadleaves
Aeschynomene indica L.
Local name: makahiyang-lalaki

EPPO Code: AESIN
Family: Fabaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: erect and robust, and can

grow up to 1 m tall. Stems are branching and woody at the
base. Leaves are even-pinnately arranged with numerous
leaflets that are linear or oblong. Flowers are light yellow.
Pods are linear oblong, straight or curved, and composed of
4-8 joints with ridge-like appearance.
36
37
Broadleaves
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.) DC.
Local names: banig-usa, mani-manihan, maramani

EPPO Code: ALZVA
Family: Papilionaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: has ascending erect growth.

Stems are branched, stout, and hairless; leaves are ovoid,
usually cordate at the base, round at the tip with spines,
hairy at the lower surface; flowers are usually red with two
basal yellow stripes; and pods are yellowish.
38
39
Broadleaves
Amaranthus spinosus L.
Local names: alayon, ayang lalaki, ayantoto, baoan,

bayambang, harum, gitingiting, kalitis, kalunay, kuantong,
kudiapa, kulitis, taikada, uray
EPPO Code: AMASP
Family: Amaranthaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: stems are branched, pale

green, with pairs of slender sharp-pointed spines along
the axils of the leaves and branches. Leaves are simple,
alternate, ovate to broadly lanceolate, and narrow at the
base to a petiole. Inflorescences have spikes that are closely
packed in clusters of small, green flowers.
Importance: A. spinosus is a C4 weed that can produce

117,000 seeds/plant. Its competitive ability against rice
and rice-based crops has yet to be reported. It is reputed
as an alternative host of Meloidogyne graminicola and M.
incognita that cause root galls to cultivated crops.
40
41
Broadleaves
Amaranthus viridis L.
Local names: alom-alom, ayang babae, halom, kilitis,

kalunay, kudiapa, kulitis, uray babae
EPPO Code: AMAVI
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: stems are multi-branched,

slender, fleshy and reddish, and have no spines along
the axils of the leaves and branches. Leaves are simple,
alternate, broadly ovate, and indented with a short bristle.
Inflorescences have flowers that are green or greenish-
white, in axillary clusters, and dense-flowered spikes.
Importance: A. viridis is a C4 weed that can produce 7,000

seeds/plant. The weed is reported as an alternative host of
Meloidogyne graminicola and M. incognita that cause root
galls.
42
43
Broadleaves
Boerhavia erecta L.
Local name: paanbalisbis

EPPO Code: BOEER
Family: Nyctaginaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it has an erect or decumbent

growth habit that reaches up to 1 meter. Stems are often
viscid while leaves have variable sizes and shapes from
ovate to oblong-lanceolate. Inflorescence is an axillary
panicle, branched, and leafy at the base. Flowers are white
or pale pink, and funnel-shaped.
44
45
Broadleaves
Borreria laevis (Lam.) Griseb.

Syn: Spermacoce laevis Lam.
Local name: akupao

EPPO Code: BOILA
Family: Rubiaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it has a spreading or

ascending growth habit that can reach up to 60 cm. Its
stems are slender, branched, wiry, slightly hairy, angular, and
purplish all over. Its leaves are oppositely arranged, oblong
to oval-lanceolate in shape, and narrowed at the base to a
short petiole. Flowers are white, tubular, and clustered in
leaf axils.
46
47
Broadleaves
Borreria ocymoides (Burm. f.) DC.

Syn: Spermacoce ocymoides N. Burm.
Local names: landrina, siksik-parang

EPPO Code: BOIOC
Family: Rubiaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it has an erect to decumbent

growth habit. Stems are slender, branched, glabrous, and
4-angled. Leaves are oppositely arranged, ovate to elliptical
or oblong, with short stalk. Flowers are numerous, small,
crowded, and white.
48
49
Broadleaves
Calopogonium mucunoides Desv.
Local names: balatong-aso, iping-iping, nipay-nipay,

kalopogonium, mungo-mungo
EPPO Code: CLOMU
Family: Pallionaceae (Leguminosae)

Means of propagation: seeds and cuttings
Distinguishing characteristics: it is a creeping, trailing, and

fast-growing vine. It has stems that are covered with dense,
numerous, brown hairs; leaves are hairy, petiolate, diamond-
shaped, and divided into three leaflets. Flowers are few,
clustered at thickened nodes, purple to blue. Pods are
linear, straight or curved, densely covered with brown hairs.
Importance: Difficult to control when its stems and roots

had already formed and established thick, dense mats on
the soil surface.
50
51
Broadleaves
Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
Local names: lubo-lobohan, alalayon, bangkolon,

parol-parolan, paltu-paltukan, paria-aso, paspalya
EPPO Code: CRIHA
Family: Sapindaceae

Means of propagation: seeds and cuttings
Distinguishing characteristics: a climbing herb; has long

stems that are slightly hairy; alternating leaves with slender
petioles; leaflets that are biternate, ovate to lanceolate, and
serrate at the margins and sometimes lobes. Flowers are
white and very small while fruits are lantern-shaped.

roots had already established thick, dense mats in the soil.
52
53
Broadleaves
Centrosema pubescens Benth.
Local names: bagon-bagon, balagon, balbalaten,

dilang-butiki
EPPO Code: COSPU
Family: Papilionaceae (Leguminosae)
Life cycle: simple perennial

Means of reproduction: seeds and cuttings
Distinguishing characteristics: a climbing and trailing herb

that has slender, pubescent stems; trifoliate (3), ovate to
oblong leaves; bright or pale lilac, with numerous dark
violet-striped flowers; straight or twisted pods; and red-
brown to brown seeds with black streaks.
Importance: Difficult to control manually when its stems

had already multiplied and formed thick, dense canopies.
54
55
Broadleaves
Cleome rutidosperma DC.
Local names: apoy-apoyan, bala-balanoyan, tantandok,

sili-silihan
EPPO Code: CLERT
Family: Cleomaceae
Life cycle: annual

Means of reproduction: seeds
Distinguishing characteristics: stems are green to purple,

and angular with thin, firm hairs. Leaves have long petioles;
three ovate to oblong-lanceolate and ciliate leaflets; center
leaflet is larger than the other two. Inflorescences have
flowers that are solitary at the upper leaves; slender stalks;
and lilac to pink petals. The weed has green, thin, long
capsules that split into two valves.
56
57
Broadleaves
Cleome viscosa L.
Local names: apoy-apoyan, bala-balanoyan, hulaya, kabau,

lampotaki, tantandok, sili-silihan
EPPO Code: CLEVI
Family: Cleomaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: stems are green, cylindrical,

and with hairs; leaves have long petioles and three oblong
to obovate-oblong leaflets; yellow and solitary flowers. The
weed also has green and long capsules that split into two
valves.
58
59
Broadleaves
Commelina benghalensis L.
Local names: alikbangon, gatilang, kulasi

EPPO Code: COMDI
Family: Commelinaceae

Means of reproduction: seeds and vegetative fragments
Distinguishing characteristics: fleshy stems are creeping to

ascending. Leaves are wide in the center, elliptic-ovate and
alternately arranged. Petals of the flowers are three to four,
and are blue. Petals have different sizes (two to three are
large, while one is small).
60
61
Broadleaves
Commelina diffusa Burm. f.
Local names: alikbangon, gatilang, kulasi

EPPO Code: COMBE

Means of reproduction: seeds and vegetative fragments
Distinguishing characteristics: fleshy stems are creeping

to ascending, heavily branched, and rooting at the nodes.
Leaves are narrow, alternately arranged, lanceolate to
broadly lanceolate-shaped, and with stem-clasping sheath.
Petals of the flowers are three (two large and 1 small), and
are blue.
Importance: C. diffusa has been reported to reduce the

number of leaves, chlorophyll content as well as nitrogen,
phosphorus and iron contents of grains when allowed to
compete with bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). On drilled-
seeded rice planted at 215 to 270 plants/m2, it also reduced
yield by 18% when allowed to compete all throughout the
crop’s growing season at 22 plants/m2.
62
63
Broadleaves
Corchorus aestuans L.
Local name: salsaluyot

EPPO Code: CRGAE
Family: Tiliaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect plant with

woody stem and grows smaller than C. olitorius. It has
leaves that are ovate or ovate-oblong, finely toothed with
rounded base. Flowers are yellow; capsules have 6 to 8
wings, elongated, and trifid beaks.
64
65
Broadleaves
Corchorus olitorius L.
Local names: saluyot, tagabang, tugabang

EPPO Code: CRGOL
Family: Tiliaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect plant with

woody stem. It has leaves that are ovate or ovate-
lanceolate, margins serrated, toothed, with clusters of small
leaves near the axils. Flowers are yellow and its ten-ribbed
capsules are elongated and entirely beaked.
66
67
Broadleaves
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.
Local names: higis-manok, tultulisan, tinta-tinta

EPPO Code: ECLAL
Family: Asteraceae (Compositae)
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: a C3 weed; its stems are

fleshy, reddish, hairy, and rooting at the nodes. Leaves are
dark green and oppositely arranged, and are linear-oblong
to lanceolate, with distinct toothed margins. Flower heads
measuring 1-cm-diameter bear small white flowers (florets).
68
69
Broadleaves
Eclipta zippeliana Bl.
Local names: higis-manok, tultulisan, tinta-tinta

EPPO Code: ECLPZ
Family: Asteraceae (Compositae)
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: a C3 weed; has the same

morphological characteristics as E. prostrata except that its
leaves are light green, oblong-obovate to lanceolate, has
margins that are coarsely spinulose-toothed. In addition,
stems and leaves are much covered with many hairs.
70
71
Broadleaves
Euphorbia heterophylla L.
Local name: kanaka

EPPO Code: EPHHL
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it has an erect growth habit;

stems are hollow with milky sap, single or branched, hairy
or sometimes no hairs; leaves are alternately arranged,
petiolate, ovate to elliptic; flowers are grouped in a
cyathium consisting of several male flowers and one female
enclosed in a cup with a funnel-shaped gland on one side.
72
73
Broadleaves
Euphorbia hirta L.
Syn: Chamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp.
Local names: banbanilag, botonis, bolobotonis, boto-

botonis, butobutonisan, gatas-gatas, maragatas, pansi-
pansi, patik-patik, piliak, soro-soro, tairas, tawa-tawa, teta
EPPO Code: EPHHI
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it has a creeping or

ascending growth habit that can reach up to 50 cm tall.
It has stems that are semi-erect, reddish with yellowish
hairs, much branched, and produce white milky sap when
snapped intentionally. It has leaves that are oppositely
arranged, elliptic-oblong to oblong-lanceolate, with a
pointed tip, toothed, and with purple blotches in the
middle. Inflorescences are numerous, dense, axillary, short-
stalked without petals.
74
75
Broadleaves
Euphorbia hypericifolia L.
Syn: Chamaesyce hypericifolia (L.) Millsp.
Local name: gatas-gatas

EPPO Code: EPHHY
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it has erect, thin, branched,

and reddish stems. Young stems are glabrous or sometimes
with hairs that become thin when mature. Stems produce
white milky sap when snapped. Leaves have short petioles,
oblong to wide lanceolate with an acute tip.
76
77
Broadleaves
Euphorbia prostrata Ait.

Syn: Chamaesyce prostrata (Ait.) Small
Local names: kaliskis, maragatas

EPPO Code: EPHPT
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it has a spreading, branched,

nearly glabrous appearance. It has reddish stems lined
with hairs on the upper surface; dark green to reddish,
oppositely arranged, oblong to obovate leaves with short
stalk and fine-toothed margins; greenish, minute flowers
with short stalks in groups of 2 or 3 in the leaf axils.
78
79
Broadleaves
Gomphrena celosioides C. Mart.

Syn: Gomphrena decumbens Jacq
Local names: botonsilyong-gapang, malauray

EPPO Code: GOMCE
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: G. celosioides has a

creeping or ascending growth habit. Its stems are multi-
branched from the base; leaves are oppositely arranged,
hairy on the blades, ovate-shaped with a shiny surface, and
short petioles. Flowers are terminal bearing white florets in
dense clusters.
80
81
Broadleaves
Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam.
Local names: dalumbang, kaddok-na-kalinga, palarapdap,

pisak, pisek
EPPO Code: HYOFR
Family: Rubiaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it has erect or spreading

growth; its leaves are linear-oblonceolate to linear-oblong
and are gradually narrow to the apex. Stems are branched
and slender; inflorescence has 2-8 small flowered umbels.
82
83
Broadleaves
Heliotropium indicum L.
Local names: ar-aritos, bahu-baho, buntot-leon, elepante,

kambra-kambra, higad-higaran
EPPO Code: HEOIN
Family: Heliotropiaceae (Boraginaceae)
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it has an erect and branched

growth habit. It has a stem that is covered with hairs; leaves
that are ovate to oblong-ovate with rough surfaces; and
flowers that are positioned on one side with lavender to
white corolla.
84
85
Broadleaves
Ipomoea triloba L.
Local names: aurora, bangbangau, kamkamote, koskusipa,

kupit-kupit, halobagbug, muti-muti
EPPO Code: IPOTR
Family: Convolvulaceae

Distinguishing characteristics: it is a vine that has slender,

twining or crawling stems. Its leaves are broadly ovate,
entire or somewhat 3-lobed, acuminate with broadly
cordate base. Flowers have pink to purple corolla.

had already multiplied and formed thick, dense mats.
86
87
Broadleaves
Macroptilium atropurpureum
(DC.) Urb.
Syn: Phaseolus atropurpureus Moc. et Sesse ex DC.
Local names: bala-balatong, mala-sitaw

EPPO Code: PHSAT

Distinguishing characteristics: it is a vine that has slender,

twining or crawling stems. Its young stems are pubescent
with white hairs and sometimes form nodal roots under
ideal conditions. Mature stems, on the other hand, are
fibrous at the base. Its leaves are alternately arranged,
ternately palmate with obovate leaflets and rotundate or
obtuse tips. The lower part of leaves is greenish-white. Long
peduncles arise from axils bearing raceme with several dark
purple and papilionaceous flowers. Pods are straight and
linear-cylindrical containing 12-15 seeds.

had already multiplied and formed thick, dense mats.
88
89
Broadleaves
Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urb.

Syn: Phaseolus lathyroides L.
Local name: bala-balatong

EPPO Code: PHSLY
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: an erect legume that has

branchy and woody stems. Leaves are three (trifoliate) and
are ovate to lanceolate. Flowers are red-purple. The weed
also has green (young) to brown (mature), long and slender
pods that bear seeds.
90
91
Broadleaves
Melochia concatenata L.
Local names: bankalanan, kaliñgan, marasaluyot

EPPO Code: MEOCO
Family: Sterculiaceae

Distinguishing characteristics: stems are erect or

spreading, and branched with scattered stellate hairs. It
has leaves that are oblong to ovate, long, acute, broad
base, and rounded or cordate. Inflorescences are terminal
or axillary heads with the flowers somewhat crowded,
intermixed with linear bracteoles; petals are obovate,
white, sometimes pink or pale purple. Fruits are depressed-
globose capsules.
Importance: M. concatenata is an alternate host of plant

parasitic nematodes such as Pratylenchus and Rotylenchus.
92
93
Broadleaves
Merremia emarginata (Burm. F)

Hallier f
Local name: kupit-kupit

EPPO Code: MRREM
Family: Convolvulaceae
Life cycle: annual

Means of reproduction: vegetative parts
Distinguishing characteristics: a slender, twining, sparsely

hairy to glabrescent weed. Stems are reddish and rooting at
the nodes; leaves are kidney to heart-shaped, often wider
than long, and irregularly toothed. Flowers have yellow
corolla, and rounded sepals with few to many white weak
hairs.

had already multiplied and formed thick, dense mats on the
soil.
94
95
Broadleaves
Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright ex

Sauvalle
Local names: aroma, kapit-kabag, kipi-kipi, makahiya,

makahiyang-lalaki
EPPO Code: MIMIN
Family: Mimosaceae
Life cycle: perennial

Distinguishing characteristics: it is a spreading shrub that

turns woody when mature. It has angular stems that are
densely covered by numerous reflexed spines. Leaves are
alternate, petioled, and bi-pinnate; pinnae have 4-8 pairs;
leaflets are oblong-linear in many pairs. Petals of the flowers
are pink to purple, while pods are linear-oblong.
96
97
Broadleaves
Mimosa pudica L.
Local names: bain-bain, hibi-hibi, huya-huya, kipi-kipi,

makahiya, makahiyang-babae
EPPO Code: MIMPU
Family: Mimosaceae

Distinguishing characteristics: M. pudica is a branched,

low or erect-trailing shrub. It has reddish-brown stems that
are covered by less numerous spines. Leaves close when
touched, digitately arranged at the end of each petiole;
leaflets are narrowly oblong. Petals of the flowers are pink
to purple while pods are flat, slightly curved, and numerous.
98
99
Broadleaves
Murdannia nodiflora (L.) Brenan
Local names: kulasi, kulkulasi, alikbangon

EPPO Code: MUDNU

Means of reproduction: seeds and vegetative parts
Distinguishing characteristics: has branched and creeping

stems. Its leaves are long, narrow, and lanceolate. Its flowers
are small and purple. Flower-stolons are long, measuring 3
to 7 cm.
100
101
Broadleaves
Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd.
Local names: kuru-kalunggai, malakirum-kirum, ngingihel,

sampa-sampalukan, san pedro, sursampalok, talikod,
taltalikod, turutalikod
EPPO Code: PYLDE

Means of reproduction: seeds and vegetative parts
Distinguishing characteristics: P. debilis is an erect, slender,

branched, and glabrous herb. Its leaves are numerous,
arranged in vertical ranks, oblong to elliptic-oblong,
and shortly petioled. It has anthers that are dehiscing
horizontally; distinct pedicelled flowers; and smooth
capsules. This weed has been called P. niruri and P. amarus
in other literatures. However, the two are American species
with limited areas of distribution. The correct name of the
Asian species is P. debilis.
102
103
Broadleaves
Phyllanthus urinaria L.
Local names: apoy-apoyan, ibaiba-an, lurulaioan,

minuh-minuh, payog, sursampalok, tabi, takum-takum,
talindanon, turutalikod
EPPO Code: PYLUR
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: P. urinaria is an erect,

slender, branched, and glabrous herb but is smaller than
P. debilis. It also has leaves that are numerous, arranged
in vertical ranks, oblong to elliptic-oblong, and shortly
petioled; has reddish stem and branches. It has anthers that
are dehiscing vertically; flowers that have no pedicels or
some shortly pedicelled; and rough capsules.
104
105
Broadleaves
Physalis angulata L.
Local names: asisiu, kugut, potokan, sisiu,

tutulakak, tino-tino
EPPO Code: PHYAN
Family: Solanaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: an erect and branched

weed. It has ovate to oblong leaves and pale yellowish
flowers. Fruits are oblong to ovoid.
106
107
Broadleaves
Portulaca oleracea L.
Local names: alusiman, kantataba, ngalug, olasiman

EPPO Code: POROL
Family: Portulacaceae

Means of reproduction: seeds and stem cuttings
Distinguishing characteristics: an herb with prostrate or

spreading growth. It has stems that are branched, succulent,
smooth, and reddish. Its leaves are fleshy, alternately
arranged, obtuse, oblong-obovate, sessile, and base is
cuneate. Flowers are yellow with 5 petals.
108
109
Broadleaves
Scoparia dulcis L.
Local names: kabug, isisa, mala-anis, saang-kabayo,

sampalokan, tachin-karnero
EPPO Code: SCFDU
Family: Scrophulariaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect, much-

branched herb that can grow as tall as 80 cm. Its leaves are
opposite and whorled; lanceolate to elliptic in shape; and
toothed margins. Flowers are numerous, small, and in pairs
with slender, short pedicels.
110
111
Broadleaves
Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC.

Syn: Acmella paniculata (de Condolle) Jansen
Local name: (not known)

EPPO Code: SPLPA
Family: Asteraceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect herb that

can grow as tall as 40 cm. Its stems are soft, reddish, and
branching. It has leaves that are oppositely arranged, ovate
lanceolate-shaped with wavy margins. Flowers are bright
yellow and usually solitary.
112
113
Broadleaves
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis
(L.) Vahl.
Local names: albaka, bolomaros, garem-garem, kanding-

kandingan, limbagat, sentemiento
EPPO Code: STCJA
Family: Verbenaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect or spreading

herb with stems that are four-angled, branched, and woody
at the base. It has leaves that are oppositely arranged,
elliptic to oblong ovate-shaped, serrate margins, short
pedicels, and prominent veins. Its inflorescence has terminal
green spikes; toothed narrow calyx; lavender to blue
flowers; and corolla with 5 petals.
114
115
Broadleaves
Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.
Local names: bukarkag nga kahoy, fantakuen, kanding-

kanding, kalintunhod, tuhod-manok
EPPO Code: SYDNO
Family: Asteraceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it is an erect, branched,

glabrous or hairy plant. It has leaves that are oppositely
arranged, ovate lanceolate to elliptic ovate-shaped, acute,
and finely toothed. Its inflorescence has sessile, axillary or
terminal heads; and yellow flowers.
Importance: S. nodiflora is a host of many plant

parasitic nematodes such as Meloidogyne, Pratylenchus,
Rotylenchus, and Xiphinema.
116
117
Broadleaves
Trianthema portulacastrum L.
Local names: alusiman, ayam, kantataba,

tabtabukol, toston
EPPO Code: TRTPO
Family: Aizoaceae
Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: it is a succulent and

prostrate herb that has flat, fleshy, and green or purplish
stems. Its leaves are opposite in unequal pairs, ovate to
almost round, glabrous, with slightly wavy margins. Flowers
usually are white or pale pink to purple.
Importance: T. potulacastrum, a C4 weed, has the ability

to produce seeds at 6,940 per plant. Growing with other
weeds had been reported to reduce yield of onion by
as much as 90%. It also reduced by 50 to 60% yield of
mungbean when left untreated in the field.
118
119
120
Weed management
options
No single weed management technique is effective against all
types of weeds. Therefore, it is important to use two or more
techniques to achieve better weed control that is cost-effective,
environment-friendly, and acceptable to farmers. Practice
integrated weed management.
Use high-quality seeds

Practice thorough land preparation
Practice field sanitation
Do mulching
Do manual and mechanical weeding
Enhance natural weed control by
beneficial organisms
Use herbicides
121
Weed Management Options
Use high-quality seeds

Using high-quality seeds that are clean helps prevent entries of
seeds and other asexual parts of the weeds into the field. High-
quality seeds also ensure high germination rate and better growth
of healthy seedlings.
122
Practice thorough land preparation
This technique helps suppress growth of weeds by burying them
in the soil or exposing their seeds and other asexual parts under
the heat of the sun, which eventually kills them by desiccation.
Thorough land preparation also helps destroy weeds by separating
their shoots and roots; and encouraging the germination or
sprouting of their dormant seeds and asexual propagules buried in
the soil.
Recommended steps for the stale seedbed technique:

• Plow and harrow the field during fallow period
• Enhance/allow germination of weed seeds and other asexual
parts by light irrigation or after rainfall
• Destroy germinating seeds and asexual parts through
another round of harrowing, up to 3 times. Pre-plant herbicides
can also be used to eliminate or suppress growing weeds.
123
Practice field sanitation

Cleaning the seedling nurseries, irrigation canals, field bunds, and
areas in-between plots helps prevent growth of volunteer weeds
that would later infest the crops, and shed more seeds and asexual
propagules in the field. Cleaning the tools and equipment that had
been used also helps prevent further contamination and entries of
weed propagules in the field.
124
Do mulching
Mulching using rice straw or any plastic cover helps suppress
growth by covering and depriving the weeds from accessing
sunlight that they need for germination and sprouting. This
technique also helps retain moisture needed by cultivated crops.
125
Do manual and
mechanical weeding
Manual is basically handweeding or use of small hand tools such
as sickles or bolos. This technique is very effective and efficient
in removing weeds that grow within rows and hills of growing
crops. It is also effective in preventing the spread of resistant weed
biotypes by uprooting the whole weed plant or removing the
inflorescence that carries the weed seeds. Mechanical weeding, on
the other hand, involves bigger tools and is best accomplished by
inter-row cultivation (off-barring) or hilling-up using an animal- or
tractor-drawn mechanical weeder. Growth of weeds is suppressed
by cutting, trampling, burying, or exposing weeds under the heat
of the sun.
126
Enhance natural weed control
by beneficial organisms
This technique capitalizes on the use of biological control agents
against weeds such as insects and microorganisms. It helps
minimize the time, effort, and money of farmers spent for weed
control. This option, however, requires correct identification, and
knowledge on the biology and ecology of host-specific beneficial
organisms to effectively control the target weeds. Examples of
such organisms are Spoladea recurvalis (insect) foraging on the
leaves of Trianthema portulacastrum, and Puccinia philippinensis
(fungus) infecting the leaves of Cyperus rotundus.
127
128
Use herbicides
Herbicide application is the last recourse when other techniques
cannot control the target weeds. Proper use of herbicides,
however, is strictly advised because incorrect usage will endanger
the health of the user as well as the people, domesticated animals,
and the environment surrounding him. Prolonged and continuous
use of the same kind, incorrect dosage, and wrong timing will also
result in herbicide-resistant weeds.
Reminders on the use of herbicides:

• Read, understand, and follow instructions written on the
bottle/box of the herbicide.
• Always wear protective equipment. Use appropriate cover for
head, eyes, nose, mouth, and hands. Wear hat, sunglasses, face
mask, long-sleeved shirts, long pants, gloves, and field boots.
• Avoid mixing herbicides when the direction of the wind is
going toward you.
• Wash contaminated clothes separately after use.
• Never use the mouth to blow or sip clogged nozzles.
• Wash thoroughly the knapsack sprayer using clean water.
• Wash hands and other parts of the body after cleaning the
sprayer.
129
Bibliography
AICAF. 1996. Weeds in the Tropics. Association for International
Cooperation of Agriculture and Forestry, Japan. 304p.
CABI. 2018. Invasive species compendium. https://www.cabi.org/

isc/
EPPO. 2018. EPPO Global Database (available online). https://

gd.eppo.int
Galinato MI, K Moody, and CM Piggin. 1999. Upland Rice Weeds

of South and Southeast Asia. International Rice Research Institute,
College, Laguna. 156p.
Koo SJ, DV Chin, YW Kwon, and HA Cung. 2005. Common Weeds

in Vietnam. 2nd Edition. Khang Thai Printing, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam. 488p.
Moody K, CE Munroe, RT Lubigan, EC Paller Jr, PM Barcial,

LE Fabro, JD Janiya, GL Magsino. 2014. Major Weeds of the
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134
Terminologies
Acute – distinctly and sharply pointed out, but not drawn out
Alternate – arranged at different levels on opposite sides

along an axis
Annual – a weed or group of weeds that completes the life cycle

from seed to seed in less than one year or in one growing season
Ascending – curving upwards
Auricle – claw-like or ear-like appendage
Awn – a bristle-like appendage
Axil – the angle between a leaf or a branch and the stem

from which it arises
Bristle – stiff hair
Bulb – a modified underground bud
C3 plants – group of plants or weeds that employ a photosynthetic

pathway where a 3-carbon compound is the first stable product.
Weeds belonging to this group prefer environments where
temperature and sunlight intensity are moderate, and water
supply is plenty. C3 weeds, however, cannot tolerate very high
temperatures since they are prone to the wasteful biochemical
process called photorespiration. Thus, most of them are dominant
in ricefields that are under submerged conditions.
C4 plants – group of plants or weeds that employ a more efficient

photosynthetic pathway in which a 4-carbon compound is the
first stable product. Weeds under this group have physiological
adaptations that allow them to thrive in very hot and drier areas
(dry land or rainfed conditions), and where concentrations of
carbon dioxide are limited.
135
Terminologies
Calyx – the outer ring of a flower made up of separate or joined

sepals; usually green and leaf-like
Capsule – a dry, dehiscent fruit composed of two or more carpels,

having many seeds, and usually opening at maturity by valves or
teeth
Ciliate – bearing a fringe of hairs on the margins
Collar – the junction of root and shoot
Cordate – heart-shaped
Corolla – the ring of usually showy flower structures inside the

calyx made up of separate or joined petals
Creeping perennials – weeds that reproduce by seeds and

vegetative organs such as stolons (creeping above-ground stems),
rhizomes (creeping below-ground stems), tubers, aerial bulblets,
and bulbs
Cyathium – an inflorescence that is reduced

to look like a single flower
Digitate – a compound structure whose members arise and

diverge from the same point; like the fingers of the hand
Elliptical – oval-shaped
Entire – with an even margin
Glabrous – smooth, without hairs
Globose – almost spherical
Herb – any plant that is not woody
Inflorescence – the arrangement of the flowers on a plant
Lanceolate – lance-shaped, several times longer than wide;

widest toward the base and tapering at both ends
136
Ligule – a thin membranous appendage at the junction
of the leaf sheath and the blade in grasses
Linear – long and narrow with parallel edges
Node – the joint of a stem from which leaves or branches arise
Oblong – longer than broad, with nearly parallel sides
Obovate - ovate, but the widest part is toward the apex
Oval – broadly elliptical
Ovate – egg-shaped, widest toward the base
Ovoid – ovate or oval-solid
Pedicel – the stalk of each individual flower
Perennial – weeds or group of weeds that complete their life cycle

in more than a year
Petal – one of the divisions of a flower
Petiole – the leaf stalk
Pinnate – a compound leaf having the leaflets or segments

arranged on either side of a common axis
Pod – a dry, dehiscent, usually elongated fruit
Raceme – a more or less conical inflorescence with flowers arising

laterally from a common axis, the youngest toward the tip
Rhizome – an underground stem with bud and scales
Sessile – without a stalk
Serrate – a toothed margin where the teeth are pointed and

project forwards (saw-toothed)
Simple – not divided, single

137
Terminologies
Simple perennials – weeds that spread through seeds and by

vegetative propagations. They may regenerate vegetatively into a
new plant if their shoots are injured or cut off from the
mother plant
Spike – an unbranched elongated inflorescence

with sessile or nearly sessile flowers
Spikelet – a secondary spike of one or more flowers

surrounded by bracts
Spinulose – having small spines
Stalk – any lengthened support of an organ
Stellate – with star-shaped hairs
Stolon – a modified above-ground stem creeping and

rooting at the nodes
Terminal – at the end of a branch or a stem
Truncate – cut-off more or less squarely at the end
Tuber – a short thickened underground stem
Tubular – cylindrical and hollow
Umbel – an inflorescence in which a number of divergent flowers

arise from the same point
Viscid – sticky
Whorl – a ring of similar organs arising from a node
138
Acknowledgments
The authors sincerely thank the Korea Program on International
Agriculture (KOPIA) for the financial support and production of this
booklet. Thank you also to the managing, language, and technical
editors; layout and graphic artist. Huge gratitude is also extended
to all Filipino farmers who allowed the authors to take photos in
their fields.
Technical Reviewer
Roel R. Suralta
Photographers
Salvacion E. Santiago
Layout artist
Anna Marie F. Bautista
Language Editor
Constante T. Briones
Editorial Advisers
Sailila E. Abdula
Jeong Taek Lee
Flordeliza H. Bordey
139
Notes
140
141
142

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i

Dindo King M. Donayre

Jeong Taek Lee

121 Weed Management Options

In this handbook, PhilRice, in collaboration with the Korea Program

We thank the people behind this material for continually advancing

Sailila E. Abdula, PhD

Several strategies have been developed to address the weed problem:

Rice is most vulnerable to weed competition within 0-40 days after

Congratulations to the team for coming up with this handy compilation

Flordeliza H. Bordey, PhD

Jeong Taek Lee, PhD

In behalf of my co-authors, I am very thankful for the financial support

Dindo King M. Donayre

Local names – names used by rice farmers in different parts of the

EPPO Code – formerly known as Bayer code; computer codes

Poaceae (Graminae) – family name

Life cycle – life span in the field

Means of propagation – method of reproduction

Distinguishing characteristics – morphological traits that immediately

Importance – negative effects of weed species on the growth and

• Ligules and sometimes auricles are present.

• Leaf veins are in parallel while leaf sheaths are split

• Stems are called culms with well-defined nodes and internodes.

• Stems are round and hollow inside.

Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv.

Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv.

Local name: kulape

Life cycle: creeping perennial

Distinguishing characteristics: it has stems that are solid,

Importance: A. compressus is difficult to control especially

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Local names: bakbaka, bermuda grass, buku-buku,

Life cycle: creeping perennial

Distinguishing characteristics: stems are branching,

Importance: C. dactylon is a C4 plant and is well-adapted

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.)

Local names: kabit-kabit, sabong-sabungan, barangan

Life cycle: annual, sometimes perennial

Distinguishing characteristics: basal stems are creeping,

Importance: D. aegyptium is a C4 plant that can produce

Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel.

Local names: baludgangan, halos, saka-saka

Life cycle: creeping perennial

Distinguishing characteristics: smooth, flat, and creeping

Importance: D. ciliaris is a C4 plant. A single plant can

Echinochloa colona (L.) Link

Local names: dukayang, lau-lau, pulang puwit

Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: stems usually grow flat on

Importance: E. colona is one of the top 10 weed species

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.

Local names: bakis-bakisan, bang-angan, bikad-bikad, bila-

Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: stems are flat, whitish at the

Importance: E. indica can produce as much as 50,000

Eragrostis tenella (L.) Roem. &

Local names: bakinuk, kaliraurau, balisbis, pagay-billit,

Life cycle: annual

Distinguishing characteristics: E. tenella is small and has

Importance: E. tenella is a C4 plant that can produce more

Local names: tagik-tagik, buwag-buwag, murag bermuda,

Life cycle: creeping perennial