PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P.

Calimpitan

Differential Equation:
❖ A differential equation is an equation that involve one or more derivatives.
❖ The order of differential equation is determined by the highest order
derivative occur in the equation.
First-Order Differential Equation
❖ A first-order differential equation is an equation of the form:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦′ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
1. Separable Differential Equations
A first-order differential equation can be solved by integration if it is possible to
collect all 𝑦 terms with 𝑑𝑦 and all 𝑥 terms with 𝑑𝑥. That is if it is possible to write
the equation in the form:
ℎ(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
Then by integrating both sides of this equation

∫ ℎ(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

After completing the integrations, a general solution is obtain that define 𝑦 as a

function of 𝑥.
Example: Solve the differential equation:
𝑑𝑦
= (1 + 𝑦)𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑑𝑦
= (1 + 𝑦)𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = (1 + 𝑦)𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑦)
1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑦)
ln(1 + 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶 (Where 𝐶 represents the combined constants of
integration)
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

Example: Solve the differential equation:

𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Solution:
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(1 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 = (1 − 𝑥) 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑦
(1 − 𝑥) (1 − 𝑦 2 )
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥, 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑥
𝑤 = 1 − 𝑦 2 , 𝑑𝑤 = −2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1 1 1
− ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = (− ) ∫ 𝑑𝑤
𝑢 2 𝑤
1
− ln(𝑢) = (− ) ln(𝑤 ) + 𝐶
2
Replace 𝑢 and 𝑤
1
− ln(1 − 𝑥) = (− ) ln(1 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝐶
2
2 ln(1 − 𝑥) = ln(1 − 𝑦 2 ) + 𝐶
ln(1 − 𝑥)2 − ln(1 − 𝑦 2 ) = 𝐶
(1 − 𝑥)2
ln =𝐶
(1 − 𝑦 2 )
Homework: Solve the following differential equations:
𝑑𝑦
1. + 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥+3𝑦)
2. 𝑒 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑦
3. = (1 + 𝑦)√2𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 4𝑦
4. 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑒 𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑒 𝑑𝑦
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

2. Homogeneous Differential Equations

A first-order differential equation of the form:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
=𝐹( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
is called homogeneous.
Homogeneous equations can be transformed into an equation whose variables
𝑦
are separable by defining the new variable 𝑢 = 𝑥 . Then, 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑢 and
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
=𝑢+𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Substitution into the original differential equation and collecting terms with like
variables then gives the separable equation:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
=
𝐹 (𝑢) − 𝑢 𝑥
After solving this separable equation, the solution of the original equation is
𝑦
obtained when replace 𝑢 by 𝑥 .

Example: Solve the homogeneous differential equation:

(𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution:
Sub 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑢
and𝑑𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑢,
(𝑥 2 + 3(𝑥 𝑢)2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥 (𝑥 𝑢)(𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑢) = 0
[𝑥 2 (1 + 3 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 𝑢 (𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑢) = 0] ÷ 𝑥 2
(1 + 3 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2 𝑢 (𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑢) = 0
(1 + 3 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑥 − 2 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥 − 2 𝑢 𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 0
(1 + 3 𝑢2 − 2 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑢 𝑥 𝑑𝑢
(1 + 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑢 𝑥 𝑑𝑢
1 2𝑢
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑥 (1 + 𝑢2 )
Then by integrating:
ln 𝑥 = ln(1 + 𝑢2 ) + 𝐶
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan
𝑥
ln =𝐶
(1 + 𝑢2 )
𝑦
Replace 𝑢 by 𝑥 :
𝑥
ln =𝐶
𝑦 2
(1 + ( ) )
𝑥

𝑥3
ln ( 2 )=𝐶
𝑥 + 𝑦2
➢ This result can be further simplified as follow:
𝑥3
ln ( 2 2
) = ln 𝑒 𝐶
𝑥 +𝑦
Let𝑒 𝐶 = 𝐾, then
𝑥3
ln ( 2 ) = ln 𝐾
𝑥 + 𝑦2
Or
𝑥3
=𝐾
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2

Homework: Solve the homogeneous differential equations:

1. (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑥2
2. =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 )

3. Exact Differential Equations

An exact differential equation is an equation that can be written in the form:
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 0
and have the property that:
𝜕𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝑥 𝑦

∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑁(𝑎, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑘
𝑎 𝑏
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

Where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑘 are constant.

Example: Solve the differential equation (exact):
(2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2)𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution:
𝜕𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕(2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2)
= =0+3−0=3
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕(3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 1)
= =3−0+0=3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)
⇒ =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝑥 𝑦

∫ 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑁(𝑎, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑘
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦

∫(2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(3𝑎 − 4𝑦 + 1) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑘
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦
2 2
[𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑥 − 2𝑥] + [3𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 𝑦] = 𝑘
𝑎 𝑏

[(𝑥 2 + 3𝑦𝑥 − 2𝑥)-(𝑎2 + 3𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑎)] + [ (3𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 + 𝑦)-(3𝑎𝑏 − 2𝑏 2 + 𝑏 )] = 𝑘

𝑥 2 + 3𝑦𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 2 + 𝑦 − 𝐶 = 0

Homework: Solve the differential equation (exact):

2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0

4. Linear Differential Equations

A first-order linear differential equation is one that can be written in the standard
form:
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
The general solution:
𝑣 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

Where 𝑣 is the integrating factor:

∫ 𝑃 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑣=𝑒

Example: Solve the linear differential equation:

𝑑𝑦 3
− ( )𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Solution:
3
from the differential equation ∶ 𝑃(𝑥) = − (𝑥), 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥
∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
The integrating factor 𝑣 = 𝑒
3
∫ −(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
=𝑒
1
−3 ∫(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
=𝑒
−3
−3ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥 −3 1
=𝑒 =𝑒 =𝑥 = 3
𝑥

𝑣 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶

1 1
( 3) 𝑦 = ∫( 3) ∙ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥
1 1
( 3) 𝑦 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥
1 1
( 3 ) 𝑦 = − +𝐶
𝑥
𝑥
Or
3 1 2 3
𝑦 = 𝑥 (− + 𝐶) = −𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥
𝑥
Homework: Solve the linear differential equation:
𝑑𝑦 2
−𝑥 𝑦 =𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

GENERAL SOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

Determine whether each function is a solution of the differential equation 𝒚′′ − 𝒚 = 𝟎.
a. 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑥 b. 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝑥
Solution:
a. 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑥
❖ 𝑦 ′ = 𝐶𝑒 𝑥
❖ 𝑦 ′′ = 𝐶𝑒 𝑥
❖ 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 ′ = 0
❖ 𝐶𝑒 𝑥 − 𝐶𝑒 𝑥 = 0
❖ 0=0
❖ So, 𝒚 = 𝑪𝒆𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
b. 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝑥
❖ 𝑦 ′ = −𝐶𝑒 −𝑥
❖ 𝑦 ′′ = 𝐶𝑒 −𝑥
❖ 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 ′ = 0
❖ 𝐶𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝐶𝑒 −𝑥 = 0
❖ 0=0
❖ So, 𝒚 = 𝑪𝒆−𝒙 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
c. For the differential equation 𝑥𝑦 ′ − 3𝑦 = 0 verify that y= 𝐶𝑥 3 is a solution.
❖ y= 𝐶𝑥 3
❖ 𝑦 ′= 3𝐶𝑥 2
❖ 𝑥𝑦 ′ − 3𝑦 = 0
❖ 𝑥(3𝐶𝑥 2 ) − 3(𝐶𝑥 3 ) = 0
❖ 3𝐶𝑥 3 − 3𝐶𝑥 3 = 0
❖ 0=0
❖ So, y= 𝑪𝒙𝟑 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏.
3
d. For the differential equation 𝑦 ′ − 𝑥 𝑦 = 0 verify that y= 2𝑥 3 is a solution.

❖ y= 2𝑥 3
❖ 𝑦 ′= 6𝑥 2
3
❖ 𝑦′ − 𝑥 𝑦 = 0
3
❖ 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 (2𝑥 3 ) = 0
❖ 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 2 = 0
❖ So, y= 2𝑥 3 is a solution
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

FINDING A PARTICULAR SOLUTION

1. For the differential equation 𝑥𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 0, verify that y=𝐶𝑥 2 is a solution. Then find the
particular solution determine by initial condition y=1 when x=4.
Solution:
❖ y=𝐶𝑥 2
❖ 𝑦 ′ = 2𝐶𝑥
❖ 𝑥𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 0
❖ 𝑥 (2𝐶𝑥 ) − 2(𝐶𝑥 2 ) = 0
❖ 2𝐶𝑥 2 − 2𝐶𝑥 2 = 0
❖ 0=0
Furthermore, the initial condition y=1 when x=4 yields
❖ y=𝐶𝑥 2 General solution
❖ 1=C(4)2 Substitute initial solution
❖ 1=16C
1
❖ =𝐶 Solve for C
16

and you can conclude that the particular solution is

𝑥2
y=16 Particular Solution

SEPARATION OF VARIABLES

𝒅𝒚 𝒙
1.Find the general solution of 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒚𝟐 +𝟏

Solution:
Begin by separating variables, then integrate each side.
𝒅𝒚 𝒙
❖ = Differential Equation
𝒅𝒙 𝒚𝟐 +𝟏
❖ (𝑦 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Separate Variables
❖ ∫(𝑦 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Integrate each side
𝑦3 𝑥2
❖ +𝑦= +𝐶 General Solution
3 2
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan
𝒅𝒚 𝒙
2.Find the general solution of 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒚

Solution: Begin by separating variables, then integrate each side.

𝒅𝒚 𝒙
❖ =𝒚 Differential Equation
𝒅𝒙
❖ 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 = 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 Separate Variables
❖ ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 = ∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 Integrate each side
𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐
❖ = +𝑪 Find antiderivative of each side
𝟐 𝟐
❖ 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪
𝟐
General Solution
𝒅𝒚
3. Find the general solution of 𝒆𝒚 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙.

Solution: Begin by separating variables, then integrate each side

𝒅𝒚
❖ 𝒆𝒚 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 Differential Equation
𝒚
❖ 𝒆 𝒅𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙 Separate Variables
❖ ∫ 𝒆𝒚 𝒅𝒚 = ∫ 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙 Integrate each side
❖ 𝒆𝒚 = 𝒙 𝟐 + 𝑪 Find antiderivative of each side
𝑩𝒚 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆, 𝒚𝒐𝒖 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒘𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍
❖ Solution as 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑥 2 + 𝐶 ) General Solution

𝟐
4. Solve the differential equation 𝒙𝒆𝒙 + 𝒚𝒚′ = 𝟎
Solution:
𝟐
❖ 𝒙𝒆𝒙 + 𝒚𝒚′ = 𝟎 Differential Equation
𝒅𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝟐
❖ 𝒚 𝒅𝒙 = −𝒙𝒆 Subtract 𝒙𝒆𝒙 from each side
𝟐
❖ ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 = ∫ −𝒙𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙 Separate Variables
𝒚𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
❖ = − 𝟐 𝒆𝒙 +C Find antiderivative of each side
𝟐
𝟐 𝒙𝟐
❖ 𝒚 = −𝒆 + C General Solution

SOLVING LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

1. Find the general solution of 𝒚′ + 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙
Solution : For this equation P(x) =1 and Q(x) =𝒆𝒙 so the integrating factor is

❖ 𝑢(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
❖ = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
❖ = 𝑒𝑥 Integrating Factor
This implies that the general solution is
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

1
𝑦= ∫ 𝑄(𝑥 )𝑢(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑢(𝑥)
1
=𝑒𝑥 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
1
=𝑒 −𝑥 (2 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶)
1
= 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶𝑒 −𝑥 General Solution

2. Find the general solution of 𝒙𝒚′ − 𝟐𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐. Assume x>0.

Solution: Begin by writing the equation in standard form.
2
𝑦 ′ + (− 𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑥 Standard form, 𝑦 ′ + 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)

In this form, you can see that P(x)=-2/x and Q(x)=x. So,
2
∫ 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
= -2 In x
= -In 𝑥 2
Which implies that the integrating factor is

𝑢(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2
=𝑒 −𝐼𝑛 𝑥
1
= 2
𝑒 𝐼𝑛 𝑥
1
= Integrating Factor
𝑥2

This implies that the general solution is

1
𝑦 = 𝑢(𝑥) ∫ 𝑄 (𝑥 )𝑢 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 Form of general solution

1 1
= ∫ 𝑥 (𝑥2 ) 𝑑𝑥 Substitute
1/𝑥 2

1
= 𝑥 2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Simplify

= 𝑥 2 ( 𝐼𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶) General Solution
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

I. Ordinary differential equations

A differential equation is an equation involving an unknown function and its derivatives. An

example is

𝑑𝑦
= 5𝑥 + 3
𝑑𝑥

A differential equations is an ordinary differential equation if the unknown function

depends on only one independent variable. If the unknown function depends on two or
more independent variables, the differential equation is a partial differential equation.

II. Order and Degree

The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative appearing in the
equation
The degree of a differential equation that can be written as a polynomial in the unknown
function and its derivatives is the power to which the highest –order derivative is raised.

III. Linear differential equations

An nth- order differential equation in the unknown function y and the independent variable
x is linear if it has the form

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑏𝑛 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛−1 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏0 (𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥 ) ( ∗)

The functions 𝑏𝑗 (𝑥 ) (𝑗 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑛) and 𝑔(𝑥) are presumed and depend only on the
variable 𝑥.differintial equations that cannot be put into the form (*) are nonlinear.

IV. Solutions
a. definition of solution

A solution of a differential equation in the unknown function y and the independent

variable x on the interval I is a function y(x) that satisfies the differential equation
identically for all x in I.

b. particular and general solutions

a particular solution of a differential equation is any one solution. The general solution
of a differential equation is the set of all solutions.
PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

c. Initial-value problems. Boundary value problems

A differential equation along with subsidiary conditions on the unknown function and its
derivatives, all given at the same value of the independent variable, constitutes an initial
problem. The subsidiary conditions are initial conditions. If the subsidiary conditions are
given at more than one value of the independent variable, the problem is boundary –value
problem and the conditions are boundary conditions.

A solution to an initial-value or boundary –value problem is a function y(x) that both solves
the differential equation and satisfies all given subsidiary conditions.

V. Classification of first-order differential equation

a. standard form and differential form

The standard form of a first-order differential equation is

𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) (4.1)

the function f(x,y) given in (4.1) can always be written as the quotient of two other functions
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
M(x,y) and -N(x,y). Thus, recalling that 𝑦 ′ = 𝑑𝑥, we can rewrite (4.1) as 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)
⁄−𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦) , which is equivalent to the differential form

M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy=0 (4.2)

b. exact equations

A differential equation M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy=0

Is exact if there is a function g(x,y) such that
dg(x,y)= M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy

test for exactness: if M(x,y) and N(x,y) are continuous functions and have continuous first
partial derivatives on some rectangle of then xy - plane then (4.2) is exact if and only if

𝜕𝑀(𝑥,𝑦) 𝜕𝑁(𝑥,𝑦)
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

c. separable equations

Consider a differential equation in differential form (4.2). if M(x,y) = A(x) ( a function only
of x ) and N(x,y) = B(y) ( a function only of y ), then

A(x) dx + B(y) dy = 0 (#)

The solution to (#) is

∫ 𝐴(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝐵(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

Where c represents an arbitrary constant.

d. homogeneous equation

A differential equation 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is homogeneous if

f(tx,ty) = f(x,y)

For every real number t.

Substitute y = xv

And the corresponding derivative

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
=𝑣+𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

After simplifying, the resulting differential equation will be one with variables ( v and x )
separable , which can be solve by the separable method.

e. linear equations

consider a differential equation in standard form . if f(x,y) can be written as

f(x,y) = - p(x)y + q(x) (**)

(that is, as a function of x times y, plus another function of x) the differential equation is
linear .

First – order linear differential equation can always be expressed as

𝑦 ′ + 𝑝 (𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑞 (𝑥 )
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

First Order Differential Equations

A differential equation is an equation involving one or more derivative

( x −1) dy
3

dx
+ 3xy = x is a first-order differential equation as the equation contains the first
derivative only.

d2y dy
2
+ 4 − 3 y = 0 is a second-order differential equation as the equation contains a second
dx dx
derivative.

dy
A first order linear differential equation takes the form + P ( x) y = f ( x)
dx
e.g.
dy
dx
+ 2 xy = e x ( P ( x ) = 2 x, f ( x ) = e x )

dy
dx
+ ( sin x ) y = x 2 ( P ( x ) = sin x, f ( x ) = x 2 )

We may need to perform some manipulation to get the equation in this form.
dy
e.g. x = y + 3x 2
dx
dy y + 3x 2
=
dx x
dy y
= + 3x
dx x
dy 1  −1 
− y = 3x  P ( x ) = , f ( x ) = 3x 
dx x  x 
The method we use to solve this type of differential equation is called the integrating factor
method.
The integrating factor is I ( x ) = e 
P ( x ) dx
.
The strategy for solving these comes from the following.
I ( x ) = e
P ( x ) dx

I ( x ) ) =  e 
P ( x ) dx 
d
dx
( d
dx 


= P ( x ) e
P ( x ) dx
(by the Chain Rule)
= P ( x) I ( x)
dy
We now take the equation + P ( x) y = f ( x) .
dx
If we multiply both sides of our equation by I ( x ) we have
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dy
I ( x) + I ( x) P ( x) y = I ( x) f ( x)
dx

The LHS is
d
dx
( I ( x ) y ) by the product rule as
d
dx
( I ( x ) y ) = ( I ( x ))  y + I ( x )
d
dx
dy
dx
dy
= P ( x) I ( x) y + I ( x)
dx

d
dx
( I ( x) y) = I ( x) f ( x)
Now we can integrate both sides of this equation.
 
  I ( x ) dx + I ( x ) P ( x ) y dx =  ( I ( x ) f ( x ) )dx
dy

d 
  dx ( I ( x ) y )  =  ( I ( x ) f ( x ) )dx
I ( x ) y =  ( I ( x ) f ( x ) )dx
This can now be solved for y .
This is why the integrating factor method works. It will be much clearer how it works by
example.

Examples

dy
① Find the general solution of + 2 y = e3 x
dx
Here P ( x ) = 2 so the integrating factor is e = e2 x .
2 dx

Multiply both sides of the differential equation by the integrating factor.

 dy 
e 2 x  + 2 y  = e 2 x e3 x
 dx 

( e y ) = e5 x
d 2x
dx
Now integrate both sides.  ( e2 x y )dx =  e5 x dx
d
dx
1
e 2 x y = e5 x + C
5
1
y = e3 x + Ce−2 x
5
1
The general solution is y = e3 x + Ce−2 x
5
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dy y
② Find the general solution of the differential equation + = 4 x2 .
dx x
1
1  dx
P ( x ) = so the integrating factor is e x = eln x = x .
x
Multiply both sides of the differential equation by the integrating factor.
 dy y 
x  +  = 4 x3
 dx x 
d
( xy ) = 4 x3
dx
d
 dx ( xy )dx =  4x dx
3
Integrate both sides.

xy = x 4 + C
C
y = x3 +
x
C
The general solution is y = x3 + .
x

dy xy + 4
③ Find the general solution of = .
dx x2
The equation must firstly be rearranged into the correct form.
dy
x2 = xy + 4
dx
dy 1 4
− y= 2
dx x x
−1
−1  dx 1
P ( x ) = so I.F.= e x = e− ln x = eln x =
−1

x x
Multiply both sides of the differential equation by the integrating factor.
1  dy 1  4
 − y =
x  dx x  x3
d 1  −3
 y  = 4x
dx  x 
d 1 
 dx  x y dx =  4 x dx
−3
Integrate both sides.

y
= −2 x −2 + C
x
−2
y = 2 + Cx
x
2
The general solution is y = Cx − .
x

dy
④ Find the general solution of the differential equation + 2 xy = 5x .
dx
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

P ( x ) = 2 x so the I.F. = e
2xdx
= ex .
2

Multiply both sides of the differential equation by the integrating factor.

2  dy 
e x  + 2 xy  = 5 xe x
2

 dx 
d x2
dx
( )
e y = 5xe x
2

Integrate both sides

d x2
( )
 dx e y dx =  5xe dx
x2
Let u = x 2 ,
du
dx
= 2x

5 5
e x y =  eu du du = 5xdx
2

2 2
5 2
ex y = ex + C
2

2
5 C
The general solution is y = + x2 .
2 e

Questions

Find the general solution of the following differential equations.

dy dy dy dy
① + 2y =1 ② − 2 y = 1− 2x ③ x − 2 y = 6x4 ④ − 4 xy = 10 x
dx dx dx dx

Particular Solutions of Differential Equations

If we are given initial conditions for x and y we can find the particular solution of a differential
equation.
Examples
dy 3
① Find the unique solution of the differential equation x 2 − x + x 2 y = 0 if when
dx
x = 1 , y = 1.

dy
Rearrange into correct form −x+ y =0
dx
dy
+y=x
dx
P ( x ) = 1 so I.F. = e
1dx
= ex
Multiply both sides of the differential equation by the integrating factor.
 dy 
e x  + y  = xe x
 dx 
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

d x
dx
( e y ) = xe x

u=x v ' = ex
 dx ( e y ) dx =  xe dx
d x x
Integrate both sides
u' =1 v = ex
e x y = xe x −  e x dx
e x y = xe x − e x + C
y = x − 1 + Ce− x
Apply the initial conditions 1 = 1 − 1 + Ce−1
C =e
y = x − 1 + ee− x
So the unique solution is y = x − 1 + e1− x

dy
② Find the particular solution of the differential equation x − y = x 2 given that x = 1
dx
when y = 0 .

dy y
Rearrange into correct form − =x
dx x
−1
−1  1
P ( x) =
dx −1
so I.F. = e x = e− ln x = eln x =
x x
Multiply both sides of the differential equation by the integrating factor.
1  dy y 
 −  =1
x  dx x 
d 1 
 y =1
dx  x 
d 1 
Integrate both sides  dx  x y dx =  1dx
1
y = x+C
x
y = x 2 + Cx
Apply the initial conditions 0 = 12 + C
C = −1
So the particular solution is y = x − x .
2

Questions

Find the particular solutions of the following differential equations.

dy
① − 3y = x given x = 0 when y = 1
dx
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dy
② + y tan x = sec x given y ( 0 ) = 1
dx
dy −3 3
③ = y + e x given x = 3 when y = 5e
dx x 2
dy
④ − y cos x = 2 xesin x given y = 0 when x = 
dx
First Order Differential Equations
A differential equation is an equation involving one or more derivative

( x −1) dy
3

dx
+ 3xy = x is a first-order differential equation as the equation contains the first
derivative only.

d2y dy
2
+ 4 − 3 y = 0 is a second-order differential equation as the equation contains a second
dx dx
derivative.

First-order Differential Equations With Variables Separable

If a first-order differential equation can be written in the form

f ( y ) dy = g ( x ) dx

where f ( y ) is a function of y only and g ( x ) is a function of x only we say that we have

separated the variables x and y .

The general solution of the differential equation is then found by integrating each side with
respect to the appropriate variable.

 f ( y ) dy =  g ( x ) dx

Examples

dy
① = x3 − x
dx
dy = ( x 3 − x ) dx

 dy =  ( x − x ) dx
3

x4 x2
y= − +C This is the general solution where C is an arbitrary constant.
4 2
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dy x 2
② =
dx y
y dy = x 2 dx

 y dy =  x dx
2

y 2 x3
= +C
2 3
3 y = 2 x2 + C
2

When solving differential equations it is convenient for C to denote the ‘total’ constant so far
in each line of working, although strictly speaking a different letter should be used for each
new constant.

③ dy ④ dy 1
e4 y −x=5 =
dx dx 16 + 4 x 2
dy 1
e4 y = x+5 dy = dx
dx 16 + 4 x 2
e4 y dy = ( x + 5)dx 1
 dy =  16 + 4 x 2 dx
e dy =  ( x + 5)dx
4y
1
y= dx
1 4y 1 2
e = x + 5x + C 4(4 + x 2 )
4 2 1 1
e = 2 x 2 + 20 x + C
4y y=  2 dx
4 2 + x2
4 y = ln(2 x 2 + 20 x + C ) 11  x 
y =  tan −1    + C
1
y = ln(2 x 2 + 20 x + C )
42  2 
4 1 x
y = tan −1   + C
8 2
⑤
dy
dx
= 3x 9 − y 2 ⑥ (1 + x2 ) y 2 dy
dx
=1

dy dx
= 3 x dx y 2 dy =
9 − y2 1 + x2
dx
 y dy =  1 + x 2
2
dy
 9 − y2
=  3 x dx
1 3
y = tan −1 x + C
 y  3x
2
sin −1   = +C 3
3 2 y 3 = 3 tan −1 x + C
y  3x 2 
= sin  +C
3  2 
 3x 2 
y = 3sin  +C
Questions  2 
Find the general solution of these differential equations.
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dy x dy x + 2 dy cos x dy 4 x dy
① = ② = ③ = ④ = ⑤ x + 4y =0
dx y 2 dx y dx y dx e y dx

= x ( 4 + y2 )
dy dy 1 dy dy
⑥ e4 y = x 2 ( x + 1) ⑦ y = ⑧ = 4x 1 − y2 ⑨
dx dx x dx dx

Sometimes the rules of log and exponential functions are needed to simplify general solutions
of differential equations.
ln a + ln b = ln ( ab )
a
ln a − ln b = ln  
b
n ln a = ln a n
e( a + b ) = e a eb
Examples

dy dy y − 2
⑦ = 3y ⑧ =
dx dx x + 3
dy dy dx
= 3dx =
y y −2 x+3
dy dy dx
 y =  3dx  y −2 =  x+3
ln y = 3x + C Take exp of both sides ln ( y − 2 ) = ln ( x + 3) + C
y = e(3x +C ) y − 2 = ( x + 3 ) eC
y = e3x eC where A = eC y − 2 = A ( x + 3) where A = eC
y = Ae3x y = A ( x + 3) + 2

⑨ dy = y
dx 2 x + 1
dy dx
=
y 2x +1
dy dx
 y =  2x +1
1
ln y = ln ( 2 x + 1) + C
2
1
ln y = ln ( 2 x + 1) 2 + C
Questions
= general
Find ythe 2 x + 1 solution
eC of each differential equation, expressing y explicitly in terms of x .
y = A 2 x + 1 dy
dy + 1= e
wherey A C
dy dy y − 1 dy
① = 2y ② = ③ = 3x 2 ( y + 1) ④ = ⑤ = x ( y + 1)
dx dx x + 2 dx dx 2 x − 1 dx
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

Differential Equations Involving Partial Fractions

dy 1
① Using partial fractions, find the general solution of the differential equation =
dx x( x − 1)
Partial fractions 1 A B
= +
x( x − 1) x x − 1
1 = A ( x − 1) +Bx
dy 1 Let x = 0, A = −1 Let x = 1, B = 1
=
dx x( x − 1)
dy 1 1
= −
dx x −1 x
 1 1
 dy =   x − 1 − x dx
y = ln x − 1 − ln x + C
x −1
y = ln +C
dy
② Find the general solution of the differential equation x ( x + 1) = y ( 3x + 1)
x
dx
dy
x ( x + 1) = y ( 3x + 4 )
dx
dy 3x + 4 Partial fractions
= dx
y x ( x + 1) 3x + 4 A B
= +
dy 3x + 4 x ( x + 1) x x + 1
 y =  x ( x + 1) dx
3x + 4 = A ( x + 1) + Bx
4 1  Let x = 0, 4 = A Let x = −1, B = −1
ln y =   −  dx
 x x +1  3x + 4 4 1
ln y = 4 ln x − ln x + 1 + C = −
x ( x + 1) x x + 1
ln y = ln x − ln x + 1 + C
4

x4
ln y = ln
Questions +C
x +
2x +1 1
① Express 4 in partial fractions and hence find the general solution of the
 x x ( x +C1)
y= e
 x +1  dy
differential
4
equation x ( x + 1) = y ( 2 x + 1) expressing y explicitly in terms of x .
Ax dx
y= where A = eC
x +1
2x
② Express 2 in partial fractions and hence find the general solution of the differential
x −1
dy 2 xy
equation = expressing y explicitly in terms of x .
dx x 2 − 1

dy xy
③ Find the general solution of the differential equation = expressing y
dx ( x + 2 ) ( x + 1)
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

explicitly in terms of x .

Particular Solutions of Differential Equations

If we are given initial conditions for x and y we can find the particular solution of a differential
equation.
Examples
dy
① Find the particular solution of the differential equation y
3
= 3x 2 − 1 given that y = 2 when
dx
x =1.
dy
y3 = 3x 2 − 1
dx
y dy = ( 3x 2 − 1) dx
3

 y dy =  ( 3x − 1) dx
3 2

1 4 3
y = x − x+C
4
y 4 = 4 x3 − 4 x + C
y = 2 when x = 1  24 = 4 13 − 4 1 + C
is theCparticular
= 16 solution.

y 4 = 4 x 3 − 4 x + 16
dy (3 x+2)
② Find the particular solution of the differential equation =e given that y = e 2
dx
when x = 0 .

dy
= e( 3 x + 2 )
dx
dy = e( 3 x + 2) dx
(3 x + 2)
 dy =  e dx
1
y = e( 3 x + 2 ) + C
Apply3the initial conditions 1
e2 = e2 + C
3
2
C = e2
3
1 2
 y = e( 3 x + 2 ) + e 2
3 3
is the particular solution.
1
(
y = e(3 x + 2) + 2e 2
3
) dy 2
③ Find the particular solution of the differential equation = 4 xy 2 given that y =
dx 3
when x = 2 .
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dy
= 4 xy 2
dx
dy
= 4 x dx
y2
dy
 y 2 =  4 x dx
1
− = 2x2 + C
y
1
y=
C − 2 x2
Apply the initial conditions
2 1
=
3 C − 2 ( 2 )2
2 1
=
3 C −8  y=
1
2C − 16 = 3 19
− 2 x2
19 2
C= 2 x + 3 dy + 1 = y given that
y=
④ Find the particular solution of the2 differential equation ( is )the particular solution.
19 − 4 x 2 dx
y = 5 when x = −1 .
dy
( x + 3) + 1 = y
dx
dy
( x + 3) = y − 1
dx
dy dx
=
y −1 x + 3
dy dx
 y −1 =  x + 3
ln ( y − 1) = ln ( x + 3) + C
y − 1 = ( x + 3) eC
y − 1 = A ( x + 3) where a = eC
=A
Apply ythe ( x + 3conditions
initial ) +1
Particular solution isy = 2 ( x +5 3=) A
+ (12 ) + 1
y = 2 x + 7A = 2

2
⑤ (a) Express in partial fractions.
y ( y + 2)
PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dy
(b) Hence find the particular solution of the differential equation 2 x = y ( y + 2 ) given
dx
that y = 2 when x = 1 .

(a) 2 A B
= +
y ( y + 2) y y + 2
2 = A ( y + 2 ) + By
Let y = 0, A = 1 Let y = −2, B = −1
2 1 1
= −
y ( y + 2) y y + 2
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan
dy
(b) 2 x = y ( y + 2)
dx
2dy dx
=
y ( y + 2) x
2dy dx
 y ( y + 2) =  x
1 1  dx
  y − y + 2  dy =  x
ln y − ln ( y + 2 ) = ln x + C
 y 
ln   = ln x + C
 y+2
y
= xeC
y+2
y
= Ax where A = eC
y+2
y = Axy + 2 Ax
y − Axy = 2 Ax
y (1 − Ax ) = 2 Ax

y=
2 Ax 2 A (1)
Apply initial conditions2 =
1 − Ax 1 − A (1)
2 − 2A = 2A
1
A=
2
1
2  x
y=  
2
1
1−   x
2
x
y=
2− x
2
is the particular solution.
2x
y=
2− x

Questions

① Find the particular solution of each differential equation, expressing y explicitly in terms
of x .
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dy dy
(a) y 2 = 2 x2 + 1 y = 1 when x = 1 (b) x = y+2 y = 7 when x = 3
dx dx

dy dy 
(c) ( x + 4 ) +3= y y = 13 when x = 1 (d) e y + sin x = 0 y = 0 when x =
dx dx 2

dy dy 1
(e) − 2 xy = 0 y = 3 when x = 0 (f) x + y2 = 0 ( x  0) y= when x = 1
dx dx 2

1
② (a) Express in partial fractions.
y ( y + 1)
dy y ( y + 1)
(b) Hence solve the differential equation = given that y = 4 when x = 2 ,
dx x
expressing y explicitly in terms of x .

2
③ (a) Express in partial fractions.
y −1
2

dy
(b) Hence solve the differential equation 2 x + 1 = y 2 given that y = −3 when x = 1 ,
dx
expressing y explicitly in terms of x .

dy x 2 + 1
④ The gradient of the tangent to a curve is given by = 2 , y  0.
dx y
The point P ( −1,1) lies on the curve.

(a) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at P .

(b) Solve the differential equation to find the equation of the curve in the form y = f ( x ) .

dy y
⑤ The gradient of the tangent to a curve is given by = .
dx x ( x + 1)
The point P ( 3, 6 ) lies on the curve.

(a) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at P .

(b) Solve the differential equation to find the equation of the curve in the form y = f ( x ) .

VI. second- order linear homogeneous differential equations with

constant coefficients
a. the characteristic equation
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

Corresponding to the differential equation

𝑦 ′′ + 𝑎1 𝑦 ′ + 𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑜 (1)

In which 𝑎1 and 𝑎0 are constants, is the algebraic equation

𝜆2 + 𝑎1 𝜆 + 𝑎0 =0 (2)

Which is obtained from (1) by replacing𝑦 ′′ , 𝑦 ′, and 𝑦 by 𝜆2 , 𝜆 and 𝜆0 = 1, 𝑟𝑒spectively.

Equation (2) is called the characteristic equation of (1).

b. solution in terms of the characteristic roots

the solution of (10 is obtained directly from the roots of (3). There are three cases to
consider.

Case 1. λ1 and 𝝀𝟐 both real and distinct. Two linearly independent solutions are 𝑒 𝜆1 𝑥 and
𝑒 𝜆2 𝑥 , and the general solution is

y=𝑐1𝑒 𝜆1 𝑥 + 𝑐2𝑒 𝜆2 𝑥

Case 2. λ1 = a + ib, a complex number . since a1 and a0 in (1) and (2) are assumed real,
the roots of (2) must appear in conjugate pairs; thus, the other roots is λ2 = a – ib. two
linearly independent solutions are 𝑒 (𝑎+𝑖𝑏)𝑥 and 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑖𝑏)𝑥 , the general solution is

y= 𝑑1 𝑒 (𝑎+𝑖𝑏)𝑥 + 𝑑2 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑖𝑏)𝑥

Case 3. λ1 = λ2 . Two linearly independent solutions are 𝑒 𝜆1 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑒 𝜆2 𝑥 , and the

general solution is

y=𝑐1 𝑒 𝜆1 𝑥 + 𝑐2𝑥𝑒 𝜆2 𝑥

Second Order Linear Differential Equations

A second order differential equation takes the form

d2y dy
a 2 + b + cy = f ( x ) where a, b and c are constants and a  0 .
dx dx
There are 2 different cases.
If f ( x ) = 0 , this is a homogenous equation.
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

If f ( x )  0 , this is a non-homogenous equation.

Homogenous Equations

As these equations involve a second derivative the general solution will contain two arbitrary
constants.
The method we use to find the general solution is to consider a solution of the form y = Aemx
for some values of m (to be calculated) and A (to be calculated if given initial conditions).

y = Aemx
dy
= mAemx
dx
d2y
2
= m2 Aemx
dx
d2y dy
Substitute these into a 2
+ b + cy = 0
dx dx
am Ae + bmAemx + cAemx = 0 divide through by Aemx to get
2 mx

am2 + bm + c = 0
This is known as the auxiliary equation. It can be factorised to solve for m .
There are 3 possible cases when solving the auxiliary equation-

b2 − 4ac  0 two real distinct roots

b2 − 4ac = 0 repeated real roots
b2 − 4ac  0 complex roots.
Example - two real distinct roots
d2y dy
Find the general solution of the differential equation 2
− 4 + 3y = 0 .
dx dx
The auxiliary equation is m2 − 4m + 3 = 0
( m − 1)( m − 3) = 0
m = 1 or m = 3
The general solution is y = Ae x + Be3 x

Example - real repeated roots

If the roots are equal we must consider y = Aemx as one solution and y = Bxemx as the other.
d2y dy
Find the general solution of the differential equation 2
− 4 + 4y = 0 .
dx dx
The auxiliary equation is m2 − 4m + 4 = 0
( m − 2) =0
2

m = 2 (twice)
The general solution is y = Ae + Bxe2 x .
2x
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

Example - complex roots

If the roots are complex we will need to use the quadratic formula and the roots will be in the
form p  qi . The general solution is given by y = e px ( A cos qx + B sin qx ) .

d2y dy
Find the general solution of the differential equation 2
+ 2 + 5y = 0 .
dx dx
The auxiliary equation is m2 + 2m + 5 = 0 .
−2  22 − 4 1 5
m=
2
−2  −16
m=
2
1
m = −1  16i 2
2
m = −1  2i
The general solution is y = e− x ( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) .

Questions

Find the general solutions of the following differential equations.

d 2 y dy d2y dy d2y dy
① − − 6y = 0 ② + 6 + 9y = 0 ③ + 4 + 13 y = 0
dx 2 dx dx 2
dx dx 2
dx
d2y dy 2
d y dy d y2
dy
④ 2
+ 6 + 5y = 0 ⑤ 2 − 2 + 17 y = 0 ⑥ 2 2 + 5 = 3y
dx dx dx dx dx dx

Particular Solutions to Second Order Differential Equations

In a similar way to before we can apply initial conditions to find the values of the constants A
and B . We have to differentiate the general solution to be able to do this.

Examples

d2y dy
① Find the particular solution of 2
− 3 + 2 y = 0 given that when x = 0 , y = 0 and
dx dx
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dy
= 2.
dx

Auxiliary equation is m2 − 3m + 2 = 0 .
( m − 1)( m − 2 ) = 0
m = 1 or m = 2
General solution is y = Ae x + Be2 x .

Apply initial conditions : y = Ae x + Be2 x → 0 = A + B

dy
= Ae x + 2Be2 x → 2 = A + 2B  A = −2, B = 2
dx

Particular solution is y = 2e 2 x − 2e x

d2y dy
② Find the particular solution of 2
− 10 + 25 y = 0 given that when x = 0 , y = 1 and
dx dx
dy
= 2.
dx

Auxiliary equation is m2 − 10m + 25 = 0

( m − 5) =0
2

m = 5 (twice)
General solution is y = Ae + Bxe5 x .
5x

Apply initial conditions: y = Ae5 x + Bxe5 x →1 = A

dy
= 5 Ae5 x + Be5 x + 5Bxe5 x → 2 = 5+ B
dx
B = −3
Particular solution is y = e − 3xe .
5x 5x

d2y dy
③ Find the particular solution of the differential equation 4 2
+ 4 + 9 y = 0 given that
dx dx
dy
when x = 0 , y = 6 and = 1.
dx

Auxiliary equation is 4m2 + 4m + 9 = 0

−4  42 − 4  4  9
m=
8
−1 1
m=  −128
2 8
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

−1
m=  2i
2
−x
General solution is y = e 2
( A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x )
−x

(
Apply initial conditions: y = e 2 A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x ) → 6 = e0 ( A cos 0 + B sin 0 )
A=6
−x
−x
dy −e
( A cos ) ( )
2
= 2 x + B sin 2 x + e 2 − 2 A sin 2 x + 2 B cos 2 x
dx 2
−1
→ 1 = ( 6 + B ( 0)) + ( − 2 A ( 0) + 2B )
2
1 = −3 + 2B
4
B= =2 2
2
−x
Particular solution is y = e 2
( 6cos 2 x + 2 2 sin 2 x )
Questions

Find the particular solution of the following differential equations.

d2y dy dy
① 2 2 + 5 − 3 y = 0 given that when x = 0 , y = 1 and =3
dx dx dx

d2y dy dy
② 2
+ 4 + 13 y = 0 given that when x = 0 , y = 2 and =0
dx dx dx

d2y dy
③ 4 2 − 20 + 25 y = 0 given that when x = 0 , y = 2 and when x = 2 , y = 3e5
dx dx

d2y dy
④ 16 2
− 9 y = 0 given that when x = 0 , y = 1 and =3
dx dx

d 2 y dy dy
⑤ 2
− + y = 0 given that when x = 0 , y = 1 and =4
dx dx dx

Non-Homogenous Equations
When we are dealing with a non-homogenous equation we initially deal with it as if it were
homogenous.
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

We set the RHS=0 to obtain the auxiliary equation which we then solve for m . We then use
these values of m to obtain the complementary function.
To deal with the RHS we need something called a particular integral which should take the
form (or similar form) to the RHS.
Finally-
general solution = complementary function + particular integral
Some examples will make this clearer.

Examples

d 2 y dy
① Find the general solution of the differential equation + − 2 y = 4e2 x .
dx 2 dx

d 2 y dy
The corresponding homogenous equation is + − 2y = 0 .
dx 2 dx
The auxiliary equation is m2 + m − 2 = 0
( m − 1)( m + 2 ) = 0
m = 1 or m = −2
The complementary function is y = Ae x + Be−2 x .
The particular integral is of the form y = ke 2 x .
dy
= 2ke2 x
dx
d2y
2
= 4ke2 x
dx
d 2 y dy
Substitute these into the differential equation 2
+ − 2 y = 4e2 x
dx dx
4ke + 2ke − 2ke2 x = 4e2 x
2x 2x

4ke2 x = 4e2 x
k =1
So the particular integral is y = e2 x .

The general solution is y = Ae x + Be−2 x + e2 x .

d2y dy
② Find the general solution of the differential equation 2
− 3 + 2 y = 2x .
dx dx

d2y dy
The corresponding homogenous equation is 2
− 3 + 2y = 0 .
dx dx
The auxiliary equation is m − 3m + 2 = 0
2

( m − 1)( m − 2 ) = 0
m = 1 or m = 2
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

The complementary function is y = Ae2x + Be x

The particular integral is of the form y = ax + b
dy
=a
dx
d2y
=0
dx 2
d2y dy
Substitute these into the differential equation 2
− 3 + 2 y = 2x
dx dx
0 − 3a + 2 ( ax + b ) = 2 x
2ax + 2b − 3a = 2 x
Equating coeffiecients: 2a = 2, 2b − 3a = 0
a =1 2b − 3 = 0
3
b=
2
3
So the particular integral is y = x + .
2
3
The general solution is y = Ae2 x + Be x + x + .
2
d2y dy
③ Find the general solution of the differential equation 2
− 5 + 4 y = 8x2 + 3 .
dx dx

d2y dy
The corresponding homogenous equation is 2
−5 + 4y = 0
dx dx
The auxiliary equation is m2 − 5m + 4 = 0
( m − 1)( m − 4 ) = 0
m = 1 or m = 4
The complementary function is y = Ae4x + Be x .
The particular integral is of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c
dy
= 2ax + b
dx
d2y
= 2a
dx 2
d2y dy
Substitute these into the differential equation 2
− 5 + 4 y = 8x2 + 3
dx dx
2a − 5 ( 2ax + b ) + 4 ( ax + bx + c ) = 8 x 2 + 3
2

4ax 2 + ( 4b − 10a ) x + ( 2a − 5b + 4c ) = 8 x 2 + 3
Equating coefficients: 4a = 8 4b − 10a = 0 2a − 5b + 4c = 3
a=2 4b = 20 4 − 25 + 4c = 3
b=5 c=6
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

So the particular integral is y = 2 x 2 + 5 x + 6 .

The general solution is y = Ae4 x + Be x + 2 x 2 + 5 x + 6

d2y dy
④ Find the general solution of the differential equation 2
+ 2 + 2 y = 5sin 2 x
dx dx

d2y dy
The corresponding homogenous equation is 2
+ 2 + 2y = 0 .
dx dx
The auxiliary equation is m2 + 2m + 2 = 0
−2  22 − 4 1 2
m=
2
1
m = −1  4i 2
2
m = −1  i

The complementary function is y = e− x ( A cos x + B sin x )

The particular integral is of the form y = p sin 2 x + q cos 2 x

dy
= 2 p cos 2 x − 2q sin 2 x
dx
d2y
= −4 p sin 2 x − 4q cos 2 x
dx 2
d2y dy
Substitute these into the differential equation 2
+ 2 + 2 y = 5sin 2 x
dx dx
−4 p sin 2 x − 4q cos 2 x + 2 ( 2 p cos 2 x − 2q sin 2 x ) + 2 ( p sin 2 x + q cos 2 x ) = 5sin 2 x
( −4q − 2 p ) sin 2 x + ( 4 p − 2q ) cos 2 x = 5sin 2 x
Equating coefficients: 4 p − 2q = 0 −4q − 2 p = 5
2q = 4 p −2 ( 4 p ) − 2 p = 5
−10 p = 5
−1
p = , q = −1
2
−1
So the particular integral is y = sin 2 x − cos 2 x
2
−1
The general solution is y = e− x ( A cos x + B sin x ) sin 2 x − cos 2 x
2

d2y dy
⑤ Find the general solution of the differential equation 2
− 3 + 2 y = e4 x + cos x .
dx dx
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

d2y dy
The corresponding homogenous equation is 2
− 3 + 2y = 0 .
dx dx
The auxiliary equation is m2 − 3m + 2 = 0 .
( m − 1)( m − 2 ) = 0
m = 1 or m = 2
The complementary function is y = Ae2x + Be x .
The particular integral is of the form y = ae4 x + p cos x + q sin x
dy
= 4ae4 x − p sin x + q cos x
dx
2
d y
= 16ae4 x − p cos x − q sin x
dx 2
d2y dy
Substitute these into the differential equation 2
− 3 + 2 y = e4 x + cos x
dx dx
16ae − p cos x − q sin x − 3 ( 4ae − p sin x + q cos x ) + 2 ( ae + p cos x + q sin x ) = e 4 x + cos x
4x 4x 4x

6ae4 x + ( p − 3q ) cos x + ( 3 p + q ) sin x = e 4 x + cos x

Equating coefficients: 6a = 1 3p + q = 0 p − 3q = 1
1
a= q = −3 p p + 9p =1
6
1 −3
p= , q=
10 10
1 1 3
So the particular integral is y = e4 x + cos x − sin x .
6 10 10
1 1 3
The general solution is y = Ae2 x + Be x + e4 x + cos x − sin x
6 10 10

Questions

Find the general solution of each of the following

d 2 y dy
① + − 6 y = sin x
dx 2 dx

d2y dy
② 2
+ 2 + 3 y = 22e2 x
dx dx

d2y dy
③ 2
+ 2 + 3 y = 9 x 2 − 3x
dx dx

d 2 y dy
④ + − 12 y = x
dx 2 dx
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

When the ‘Normal’ Particular Integral is in the Complementary Function

The particular integral cannot have the same form as either term of the complementary
function. If it is, we should multiply the particular integral by x .
If this is also part of the complementary function (e.g. in the case of a repeated root) we should
multiply the particular integral by x 2 .

Examples

d2y dy
① Find the general solution of the equation 2
− 5 + 6 y = 8e2 x .
dx dx

d2y dy
The corresponding homogenous equation is 2
− 5 + 6y = 0
dx dx
The auxiliary equation is m − 5m + 6 = 0
2

( m − 2 )( m − 3) = 0
m = 2 or m = 3
The complementary function is y = Ae2 x + Be3 x
For the particular integral we cannot use y = ke 2 x as this is already part of the
complementary function so we use y = kxe2x .
dy
= ke2 x + 2kxe2 x
dx
d2y
dx 2 (
= 2ke2 x + 2 ke2 x + 2kxe2 x )
= 4ke2 x + 4kxe2 x
d2y dy
Substitute these into the differential equation 2
− 5 + 6 y = 8e2 x .
dx dx
4ke2 x + 4kxe2 x − 5 ( ke2 x + 2kxe2 x ) + 6kxe2 x = 8e2 x
−ke2 x = 8e2 x
k = −8
So the particular integral is y = −8 xe2 x .
The general solution is y = Ae2 x + Be3 x − 8xe2 x .

NB If you pick the wrong particular integral a contradiction will occur at some stage in the
calculation and this should flag it up.

d2y dy
② Find the general solution of the differential equation 2
− 8 + 16 y = 6e4 x .
dx dx
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

d2y dy
The corresponding homogenous equation is 2
− 8 + 16 y = 0 .
dx dx

The auxiliary equation is m2 − 8m + 16 = 0 .

( m − 4) =0
2

m = 4 (twice)
The complementary function is y = Ae4 x + Bxe4 x .
For the particular integral we cannot use y = ke 4 x or y = kxe4x as these are both already
in the complementary function so use y = kx 2 e 4 x .
dy
= 2kxe4 x + 4kx 2e4 x
dx
2
d y
2
= 2ke4 x + 8kxe4 x + 8kxe4 x + 16kx 2e4 x
dx
= 2ke4 x + 16kxe4 x + 16kx 2e4 x
d2y dy
Substitute these into the differential equation 2
− 8 + 16 y = 6e4 x .
dx dx
2ke 4 x + 16kxe4 x + 16kx 2 e4 x − 8 ( 2kxe4 x + 4kx 2 e4 x ) + 16kx 2 e4 x = 6e4 x
2ke4 x = 6e4 x
2k = 6
k =3
So the particular integral is y = 3x 2e4 x .
The general solution is y = Ae4 x + Bxe4 x + 3x 2e4 x .

d2y
③ Find the general solution of the differential equation 4 2 + 36 y = sin 3x .
dx

d2y
The corresponding homogenous equation is 4 + 36 y = 0 .
dx 2
The auxiliary equation is 4m2 + 36 = 0 .
m2 = −9
m = 3i
The complementary function is y = e0 ( A cos 3x + B sin 3x )
y = A cos3x + B sin 3x
For the particular integral try y = x ( p cos 3x + q sin 3x ) .
dy
= p cos3x + q sin 3x + x ( −3 p sin 3x + 3q cos3x )
dx
d2y
= −6 p sin 3x + 6q cos3x − 9 xp cos3x − 9 xq sin 3x
dx 2
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

d2y
Substitute these into the equation 4 + 36 y = sin 3x .
dx 2
4 ( −6 p sin 3x + 6q cos 3x − 9 xp cos 3 x − 9 xq sin 3x ) + 36 x ( p cos 3 x + q sin 3x ) = sin 3x
−24 p sin 3x + 24q cos3x = sin 3x
Equating terms: −24 p = 1 24q = 0
−1
p= q=0
24
−x
So the particular integral is y = cos3x .
24
−x
The general solution is y = A cos3x + B sin 3x cos3x .
24

① Find the solution of the following differential equation:

dy y
+ = x, x0
dx x

② Find the general solution of the following differential equation:

d2y dy
2
+ 2 − 3 y = 6x −1
dx dx

Find the general solution of the differential equation

d2y dy
2
+ 2 + 5 y = 4cos x
dx dx
Hence determine the solution which satisfies y ( 0 ) = 0 and y ' ( 0 ) = 1 .

Solve the differential equation

d2y dy
2
− 4 + 4 y = ex
dx dx
dy
given that y = 2 and = 1 , when x = 0 .
dx

dy
(a) A mathematical biologist believes that the differential equation x − 3 y = x 4 models a
dx
process. Find the general solution of the differential equation.

Given that y = 2 when x = 1 , find the particular solution , expressing y in terms of x .

(b) The biologist subsequently decides that a better model is given by the equation
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dy
y − 3x = x 4 .
dx
Given that y = 2 when x = 1 , obtain y in terms of x .

Obtain the general solution of the differential equation

d2y dy
2
− 3 + 2 y = 20sin x
dx dx
dy
Hence find the particular solution for which y = 0 and = 0 when x = 0 .
dx

Solve the differential equation

d2y dy
2
+ 2 + 2y = 0
dx dx
dy
given that when x = 0 , y = 0 and = 2.
dx
d2y dy
Obtain the general solution of the equation 2
+ 6 + 9 y = e2 x
dx dx

Obtain the general solution of the differential equation

d2y dy
2
− 3 + 2 y = 2 x2
dx dx
1 dy
Given that y = and = 1 , when x = 0 , find the particular solution.
2 dx

(a) Solve the differential equation

dy
( x + 1) − 3 y = ( x + 1)
4

dx
given that y = 16 when x = 1 , expressing the answer in the form y = f ( x ) .
(b) Hence find the area enclosed by the graphs of y = f ( x ) , y = (1 − x ) and the x -axis.
4

Obtain the general solution of the equation

d2y dy
2
+ 4 + 5y = 0 .
dx dx

Hence obtain the solution for which y = 3 when x = 0 and y = e − when x = .
2
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

Find the general solution of the differential equation

d 2 y dy
2
− − 2 y = e x + 12
dx dx

−3 dy 1
Find the particular solution for which y = and = when x = 0 .
2 dx 2

1
(a) Express in partial fractions.
( x − 1)( x + 2 )
2

(b) Obtain the general solution of the differential equation

dy x −1
( x − 1) − y =
( x + 2)
2
dx
expressing your answer in the form y = f ( x ) .

Solve the differential equation

d2y dy dy
2
− 6 + 9 y = 4e3 x , given that y = 1 and = −1 when x = 0 .
dx dx dx

Find the solution y = f ( x) to the differential equation

d2y dy dy
4 2 − 4 + y = 0, given that y = 4 and = 3 when x = 0 .
dx dx dx

Solve the second order differential equation

d2y dy
2
+ 2 + 10 y = 3e2 x
dx dx
dy
given that when x = 0 , y = 1 and = 0.
dx

Solve the differential equation

d2y dy
2
+ 5 + 6 y = 12 x 2 + 2 x − 5
dx dx
dy
given y = −6 and = 3, when x = 0.
dx
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

VII. nth –order linear homogeneous differential equations with

constant coefficients

The differential equation of the nth-order is

𝑦 (𝑛) + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑦 ′ +𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑜 (*)

Where 𝑎𝑗 ( j= o,1,2,…,n-1) is a constant . the characteristic equation associated with (*)

is

𝜆𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝜆 + 𝑎0 =0

It is obtained from (*) by replacing 𝑦 (𝑗) by 𝜆𝑗 ( j= o,1,2,…,n-1) .

In theory it is always possible to factor the characteristic equation , but in practice this can
be extremely difficult , especially for differential equations of high order.in such cases, one
must often use numerical techniques to approximate the roots or develop other methods of
solution.

VIII. Linear differential equations with variable coefficients

We are interested in the second -order linear homogeneous equation

𝑏2 (𝑥)𝑦 ′′ + 𝑏1 (𝑥)𝑦 ′ + 𝑏0 (𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑜 (*1)

Dividing by 𝑏2 (𝑥), we can rewrite (*1) as

𝑦 ′′ + 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 ′ + 𝑄(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑜 (*2)

𝑏1 (𝑥) 𝑏0 (𝑥)
Where P(x) = and Q(x) = , and it is assumed that P(x) and Q(x) are
𝑏2 (𝑥) 𝑏2 (𝑥)

not both constants.

a. analytic functions

A function f(x) is analytic at 𝑥0 if its Taylor series about 𝑥0 ,

∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛
∑
𝑛!
𝑛=0

Converges to f(x) in some neighbourhood of 𝑥0 .

 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

b. ordinary points and singular points

The point 𝑥0 is an ordinary point of the differential equation (*2) if both P(x) and Q(x) are
analytic at 𝑥0 . If either of these functions is not analytic at 𝑥0 , then 𝑥0 is a singular point of
(*2).

The point 𝑥0 is regular singular point of (*2) if (1) 𝑥0 is a singular point of (*2) and (2)
both functions (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑃 (𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 Q(x) are analytic at 𝑥0 . Singular points which are
not regular are called irregular.

Theorem: if 𝑥0 is an ordinary point of (*2) , then the general solution in an interval

containing 𝑥0 is

∑∞ 𝑛
𝒏=𝟎 𝒂𝒏 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) = 𝑎0 𝑦1 (𝑥 ) + 𝑎1 𝑦2 (𝑥 )

Where 𝑎0 and 𝑎1 are arbitrary constants and 𝑦1 (𝑥 ) and 𝑦2 (𝑥 ) are linearly

independent functions analytic at 𝑥0.

Differential Equations As Mathematical Models

Examples
① In a culture of bacteria, the rate of increase of bacteria at any given time is proportional
to the number of bacteria present at that time. If x denotes the number of bacteria
present after t days, the growth of bacteria in the culture is given by a differential
equation of the form
dx
= kx where k is a constant.
dt
(a) Find the general solution of this differential equation, expressing x as a function of t .
(b) Given that there are 350 bacteria present initially and that there are 1700 bacteria
after 4 days, find the number of bacteria present after 1 week.

dx
(a) The rate of increase of the bacteria is . The number of bacteria present is x .
dt
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dx dx
As is proportional to x we write this as = kx where k is a constant.
dt dt
dx
= kx
dt
dx
= k dt
x
dx
 x =  k dt
ln x = kt + C
x = e( kt +C )
x = e kt eC is the general solution.
x = Ae ktinitial conditions t: = 0, x = 350
(b) Apply  350 = Aek 0
350 = Ae0
A = 350
t = 4, x = 1700  1700 = Aek 4
1700 = 350e4 k
 1700 
e4 k =  
 350 
 1700 
4k = ln  
 350 
1  170003951t
k =x =ln
So the particular solution is e 
350
4  350 
When t = 7, x = 350e039517
k = 0  3951
x = 350e27657
x = 5562
So after 1 week there will be 5562 bacteria present.

② The mass m (grams) of a radioactive substance at time t (years) decreases at a rate

which is proportional to the mass at that time.
The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time taken for half of the mass to decay.
The original mass of a radioactive substance is 700 grams and after 8 years it has
decayed to 550 grams.
Calculate the half-life of this radioactive substance.

dm
The rate of increase of the mass is . The mass is m .
dt
dm dm
As is proportional to m we write this as = −km . This time k is negative because
dt dt
the mass is decreasing.
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

dm
= −km
dt
dm
= −k dt
m
dm
 m =  −k dt
ln m = −kt + C
m = e( − kt +C )
m = e − kt eC is the general solution.
Ae − kt conditions : t = 0, m = 700  700 = Ae− k 0
m =initial
Apply
700 = Ae0
t = 8, m = 550  550 = Ae − k 8 A=700
550 = 700 e −8 k
550
e −8 k =
700
 550 
− 8k = ln  
 700 
−1  550  t
So the particular solution isk =m = 700 ln e−003015
 .
8  700 
To find the half-life, make km==0350 03015
and solve the equation for t .

350 = 700e−003015t
1
e −003015t =
2
1
−0  03015t = ln  
2
t  23
So it will take approximately 23 years for half of the mass of the radioactive substance to decay.

③ Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate at which an object cools is proportional to
the difference between its temperature and the temperature of the surrounding
environment.
When an object cools surrounded by air at a temperature of 25C , the cooling of the
object is given by a differential equation of the form

dT
= −k (T − 25)
dt
where TC is the temperature of the object after t minutes of cooling and k is a
constant.
 PM102 (Differential Equations) Compilation of Solutions by Juffrey P. Calimpitan

(a) Find the general solution of this differential equation, expressing T as a function of t.
(b) Given that a cup of liquid cools from 110C to 80C after 10 minutes in a room whose
air temperature is 25C , find the
(i) the temperature of the liquid after another 15 minutes
(ii) the time taken for the liquid to fall to 40C .
dT
= −k (T − 25 )
dt
dT
= −k dt
T − 25
dT
 T − 25 =  −k dt
ln (T − 25 ) = −kt + C
T − 25 = e − kt +C
T − 25 = e − kt eC
− kt
T −t25
(b) When = Ae
= 0, T = 110where = e=C 25 + Ae − k 0
 A110
T = 25 + Ae − kt is the general
110 = 25 +A
solution.
A = 85
When t = 10, T = 80  80 = 25 + Ae− k 10
80 = 25 + 85e−10 k
55 = 85e−10 k
55
e−10 k =
85
 11 
− 10k = ln  
 17 
−1  11 
k= ln  
10  17 
So T = 25 + 85e−00435t
k = 0  0435
(i) When t = 25, T = 25 + 85e−0043525
T = 53.6C

(ii) When T = 40, 40 = 25 + 85e −00435t

15 = 85e −00435t
15
e −00435t =
85
 15 
− 0  0435t = ln  
 85 
−1  15 
t= ln  
0  0435  85 
t = 39  9
It will take 39∙9 minutes for the liquid to cool to 40℃.