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cytoplasm
Czarina Ronquillo
▪ CELL WALL – rigid structure outside the plasma
CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS membrane
No nucleus Plasma
membrane
▪
▪ CELL WALL – outer layer that maintains cell’s shape
and protects cell from mechanical damage; made of
cellulose, other polysaccharides and protein
▪ PLASMODESMATA – cytoplasmic channels through
cell walls that connect cytoplasms of adjacent cells
▪ CHLOROPLAST – photosynthetic organelle; converts
energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar
molecules
▪ CENTRAL VACUOLE – prominent organelle in older
plant cells; functions include storage, breakdown of
waste products, and hydrolysis of macromolecules;
enlargement of the vacuole is a major mechanism of
plant growth
❖ PLASMA MEMBRANE ➢
➢ A selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen,
nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell
❖ RIBOSOMES - THE PROTEIN FACTORIES
➢ Metabolic requirements set upper limits on the size of cells
➢ complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein
➢ Carry out protein synthesis in two locations:
▪ Cytosol (free ribosomes)
▪ Outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear
envelope(bound ribosomes)
➢
➢ The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical.
➢ As a cell increases in size, its volume grows proportionately ➢
more than its surface area.
❖ ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
❖ EUKARYOTIC CELLS
➢ CONSISTS OF
➢ has internal membranes that divide the cell into
▪ Nuclear envelope
compartments - the organelles
➢ ▪ Endoplasmic reticulum
The basic fabric of biological membranes is a double layer of
phospholipids and other lipids ▪ golgi apparatus
➢ Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles ▪ Lysosomes
❖ NUCLEUS ▪ Vacuoles
➢ information center or control center of the cell ▪ Plasma membrane
➢ Contains most of the cell’s genes ➢ These components are either continuous or connected via
➢ transfer by VESICLES
Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make
proteins ➢
➢ The NUCLEAR ENVELOPE encloses the
nucleus,separating it from the cytoplasm
▪ Phospholipids are made by enzymes of the rough ER
and also inserted into the membrane
▪ Synthesis, modification, and packaging of Secretory
Proteins
• It is threaded into the cavity of the rough ER.
• As in enters the , the new protein folds into it’s
three dimensional shape.
• Short chains of sugars are often linked to the
polypeptide, making the molecule a glycoprotein.
• When the molecule is ready for export from the
ER, it is packaged on a transport vesicle.
• This vesicle buds off from the ER membrane.
❖ GOLGI APPARATUS
❖ ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ➢ Consists of flattened membraneous sacs called CISTERNAE
➢ THE GOLGI APPARATUS
▪ Modifies products of the ER
▪ Manufactures certain macromolecules
▪ Sorts and packages materials into
➢
➢ SMOOTH ER
▪ Lacks ribosomes
▪ synthesizes lipids
▪ Metabolizes carbohydrates
▪ Detoxifies drugs and poisons
▪ Stores calcium ions ▪
LIVER CELLS - with large amounts of smooth ER, with ▪
▪
enzymes that help process drugs, alcohol, and other ➢ MANUFACTURER AND SHIPPER OF THE CELL
harmful substances
➢ CIS GOLGI - receives
▪ PHENOBARBITAL AND BARBITURATES - examples
of drugs detoxified by these enzymes ➢ TRANS GOLGI - transports
➢
➢ ❖ ORIGINS OF MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS
➢ Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria
▪ Enveloped by a double membrane
▪ Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
▪ Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells
➢ THESE SIMILARITIES LED TO ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY
➢ The endosymbiotic theory suggests that an early ancestor of
eukaryotes engulfed an oxygen- using non photosynthetic
prokaryotic cell
➢ The engulfed cell formed a rlationship with the host cell,
becoming an endosymbiont
❖ CHLOROPLASTS
➢ The endosymbionts evolved into mitochondria
➢ Capture light energy
➢ At least one of these cells may have then taken up a
➢ Chloroplasts contain the green pigment CHLOROPHYLL, as
photosynthetic prokaryote, which evolved into a chloroplast
well as enzymes and other molecules that function in
photosynthesis
➢ Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of
plants and in algae
➢
➢ Chloroplasts structure includes:
▪ Thylakoids, membraneous sacs, stacked to form a
GRANUM
▪ STROMA, the internal fluid
➢ The chloroplasts is one of a group of plant organelles called
PLASTIDS
❖ PEROXISOMES
➢ specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single
membrane
➢ Produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water
➢ ➢ Perform reactions with many different functions
❖ MITOCHONDRIA ➢ How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is still
unknown
➢ have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane
folded into CRISTAE
❖
➢ CYTOSKELETON
▪ Creates two compartments : INTERMEMBRANE ➢ Framework of the cell
SPACE AND MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX
➢ Network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
▪ Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix ➢ It organizes the cell’s structure and activities, anchoring
many organelles
▪ Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that
synthesize ATP ➢ It is composed of three types of molecular structures
▪ MICROFILAMENTS - also called ACTIN FILAMENTS
are the thinnest components
▪ MICROTUBULES - thickest
▪ INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS – fibers with diameters in
a middle range
▪
➢ The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain its
shape
➢ It interacts with motor proteins to produce cell motility
➢ Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along tracks provided by
the cytoskeleton
➢
❖ MICROFILAMENTS
➢ They form a CORTEX just inside the plasma membrane to
help support the cell’s shape
➢ Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of microvilli of
intestinal cells
➢ Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the
protein MYOSIN in addition to actin
➢ Cells crawl along a surface by extending PSEUDOPODIA
(cellular extensions) and moving toward them
➢ CYTOPLASMIC STREAMING is a circular flow of cytoplasm
within cells, driven by actin-myosin interactions
➢
➢ Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the
protein myosin in addition to actin
➢ Cells crawl along a surface by extending pseudopodia
(cellular extensions) and moving toward them
➢ Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of cytoplasm within
cells, driven by actin-myosin interactions
❖ CENTROSOMES AND CENTRIOLES
➢ In animal cells, microtubules grow out from
a centrosome near the nucleus
➢ In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles,
each with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring
➢
❖ INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
➢ Intermediate filaments are more permanent cytoskeleton
fixtures than the other two classes
➢ They support cell shape and fix organelles
in place
❖ CILIA FLAGELLA
➢ Microtubules control the beating of FLAGELLA AND CILIA,
micro-tubule containing extensions that project from some
cells ➢
➢ Many unicellular eukaryotes are propelled through water by ❖ EXTRA CELLELULAR COMPONENTS AND CONNECTIONS
cilia or flagella BETWEEN CELLS HELP COORDINATE CELLULAR ACTIVITIES
➢ Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns ➢ Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external
to the plasma membrane
➢ These extracellular materials and structures are involved in a ➢ ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma
great many cellular functions membrane called integrins
❖ CELL WALL
➢ The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes
plant cells from animal cells
➢ Prokaryotes, fungi, and some unicellular eukaryotes also
have cell walls
➢ The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and
prevents excessive uptake of water
➢ Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in
other polysaccharides and protein
➢ Plant cell walls may have multiple layers:
▪ Primary cell wall: Relatively thin and flexible
➢
▪ Middle lamella: Thin layer between primary walls of
adjacent cells ❖ CELL JUNCTIONS
▪ Secondary cell wall (in some cells): Added between ➢ Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often
the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical
contact
❖ PLASMODESMATA
➢ Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls
➢ Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and
sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell
➢
➢
❖ EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM) OF ANIMAL CELLS
➢ Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate
extracellular matrix (ECM)
➢ The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as collagen,
proteoglycans, and fibronectin
❖ SUMMARY
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REFERENCES
• Powerpoint
• Lecture notes from discussion of Ms. Mojica
• BIOLOGY A GLOBAL APPROACH VOL 1