Sexual slavery

Sexual slavery and sexual exploitation is attaching the right of ownership over one or more persons with
the intent of coercing or otherwise forcing them to engage in sexual activities.[1][2] This includes forced labor,
reducing a person to a servile status (including forced marriage) and sex trafficking persons, such as the sexual
trafficking of children.[1]

Sexual slavery may also involve single-owner sexual slavery; ritual slavery, sometimes associated with certain
religious practices, such as ritual servitude in Ghana, Togo and Benin; slavery for primarily non-sexual
purposes but where non-consensual sexual activity is common; or forced prostitution. Concubinage was a
traditional form of sexual slavery in many cultures, in which women spent their lives in sexual servitude. In
some cultures, concubines and their children had distinct rights and legitimate social positions.

The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action calls for an international effort to make people aware of
sexual slavery, sexual slavery is an abuse of human rights. The incidence of sexual slavery by country has been
studied and tabulated by UNESCO, with the cooperation of various international agencies.[3]

Contents
Definitions
Type
Commercial sexual exploitation of adults
Commercial sexual exploitation of children
Forced prostitution
Forced marriage
Crime against humanity
Bride kidnapping and raptio
During armed conflict and war
Historical cases
Ancient
Ancient Greece and Roman Empire
Asia
Arab slave trade
White slavery
Americas
During the Second World War
After World War II
During the Korean War
Present day
Africa
Americas
 Asia
Europe
See also
References
Cited sources
Further reading
External links

Definitions
The Rome Statute (1998) (which defines the crimes over which the International Criminal Court may have
jurisdiction) encompasses crimes against humanity (Article 7) which include "enslavement" (Article 7.1.c) and
"sexual enslavement" (Article 7.1.g) "when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed
against any civilian population". It also defines sexual enslavement as a war crime and a breach of the Geneva
Conventions when committed during an international armed conflict (Article 8.b.xxii) and indirectly in an
internal armed conflict under Article(8.c.ii), but the courts jurisdiction over war crimes is explicitly excluded
from including crimes committed during "situations of internal disturbances and tensions, such as riots,
isolated and sporadic acts of violence or other acts of a similar nature" (Article 8.d).[4]

The text of the Rome Statute does not explicitly define sexual enslavement, but does define enslavement as
"the exercise of any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership over a person and includes the
exercise of such power in the course of trafficking in persons, in particular women and children" (Article
7.2.c).[4][5]

In the commentary on the Rome Statute,[6] Mark Klamberg states:[7][8]

Sexual slavery is a particular form of enslavement which includes limitations on one's autonomy,
freedom of movement and power to decide matters relating to one's sexual activity. Thus, the
crime also includes forced marriages, domestic servitude or other forced labor that ultimately
involves forced sexual activity. In contrast to the crime of rape, which is a completed offence,
sexual slavery constitutes a continuing offence. ... Forms of sexual slavery can, for example, be
practices such as the detention of women in "rape camps" or "comfort stations", forced
temporary "marriages" to soldiers and other practices involving the treatment of women as
chattel, and as such, violations of the peremptory norm prohibiting slavery.

Type

Commercial sexual exploitation of adults

Commercial sexual exploitation of adults (often referred to as "sex trafficking")[9] is a type of human
trafficking involving the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of people, by coercive or
abusive means for the purpose of sexual exploitation. Commercial sexual exploitation is not the only form of
human trafficking and estimates vary as to the percentage of human trafficking which is for the purpose of
transporting someone into sexual slavery.

The BBC News cited a report by UNODC as listing the most common destinations for victims of human
trafficking in 2007 as Thailand, Japan, Israel, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Turkey and the US.
The report lists Thailand, China, Nigeria, Albania, Bulgaria, Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine as major sources of
trafficked persons.[10]

Commercial sexual exploitation of children

Commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) includes child prostitution (or child sex trafficking), child
sex tourism, child pornography, or other forms of transactional sex with children. The Youth Advocate
Program International (YAPI) describes CSEC as a form of coercion and violence against children and a
contemporary form of slavery.[11][12]

A declaration of the World Congress Against the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, held in
Stockholm in 1996, defined CSEC as, "sexual abuse by the adult and remuneration in cash or in kind to the
child or to a third person or persons. The child is treated as a sexual object and as a commercial object".[12]

Child prostitution
Child prostitution, or child sex trafficking, is a form of sexual slavery.[13] It is the commercial sexual
exploitation of children, in which a child performs the services of prostitution, usually for the financial benefit
of an adult.

India's federal police said in 2009 that they believed around 1.2 million children in India to be involved in
prostitution.[14] A CBI statement said that studies and surveys sponsored by the Ministry of Women and Child
Development estimated about 40% of India's prostitutes to be children.[14]

Thailand’s Health System Research Institute reported that children in prostitution make up 40% of prostitutes
in Thailand.[15]

In some parts of the world, child prostitution is tolerated or ignored by the authorities. Reflecting an attitude
which prevails in many developing countries, a judge from Honduras said, on condition of anonymity: "If the
victim [the child prostitute] is older than 12, if he or she refuses to file a complaint and if the parents clearly
profit from their child's commerce, we tend to look the other way".[16]

Child sex tourism

Child sex tourism is a form child sex trafficking, and is mainly centered on buying and selling children into
sexual slavery.[17][18] It is when an adult travels to a foreign country for the purpose of engaging in
commercially facilitated child sexual abuse.[19] Child sex tourism results in both mental and physical
consequences for the exploited children, that may include "disease (including HIV/AIDS), drug addiction,
pregnancy, malnutrition, social ostracism, and possibly death", according to the State Department of the
United States.[19] Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil and Mexico have been identified as leading hotspots of
child sexual exploitation.[20]

Child pornography
Child pornography, sometimes referred to as 'child abuse images',[21][22][23] refers to images or films depicting
sexually explicit activities involving a child. As such, child pornography is often a visual record of child sexual
abuse.[24][25][26] Abuse of the child occurs during the sexual acts which are photographed in the production of
child pornography,[24][25][27][28] and the effects of the abuse on the child (and continuing into maturity) are
compounded by the wide distribution and lasting availability of the photographs of the abuse.[29][30][31]

Child sex trafficking often involves child pornography.[17] Children are commonly purchased and sold for
sexual purposes without the parents knowing. In these cases, children are often used to produce child
pornography, especially sadistic forms of child pornography where they may be tortured.[17]

Forced prostitution
Most, if not all, forms of forced prostitution may be viewed as a kind of sexual slavery.[32] The terms "forced
prostitution" and "enforced prostitution" appear in international and humanitarian conventions but have been
insufficiently understood and inconsistently applied. "Forced prostitution" generally refers to conditions of
control over a person who is coerced by another to engage in sexual activity.[33]

The issue of consent in prostitution is hotly debated. Opinion in places such as Europe has been divided over
the question of whether prostitution should be considered as a free choice or as inherently exploitative of
women.[34] The law in Sweden, Norway and Iceland – where it is illegal to pay for sex, but not to sell sexual
services – is based on the notion that all forms of prostitution are inherently exploitative, opposing the notion
that prostitution can be voluntary.[35] In contrast, prostitution is a recognized profession in countries such as
the Netherlands and Germany.
In 1949 the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of
the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (the 1949 Convention). The 1949 Convention supersedes a
number of earlier conventions that covered some aspects of forced prostitution. Signatories are charged with
three obligations under the 1949 Convention: prohibition of trafficking, specific administrative and
enforcement measures, and social measures aimed at trafficked persons. The 1949 Convention presents two
shifts in perspective of the trafficking problem in that it views prostitutes as victims of the procurers, and in
that it eschews the terms "white slave traffic" and "women," using for the first time race- and gender-neutral
language.[36] Article 1 of the 1949 Convention provides punishment for any person who "[p]rocures, entices or
leads away, for purposes of prostitution, another person" or "[e]xploits the prostitution of another person,
even with the consent of that person." To fall under the provisions of the 1949 Convention, the trafficking need
not cross international lines.[36]

Forced marriage
A forced marriage is a marriage where one or both participants are married, without their freely given
consent.[37] Forced marriage is a form of sexual slavery.[7][8] Causes for forced marriages include customs such
as bride price and dowry; poverty; the importance given to female premarital virginity; "family honor"; the fact
that marriage is considered in certain communities a social arrangement between the extended families of the
bride and groom; limited education and economic options; perceived protection of cultural or religious
traditions; assisting immigration.[38][39][40][41][42] Forced marriage is most common in parts of South Asia
and sub-Saharan Africa.[43]

Crime against humanity

The Rome Statute Explanatory Memorandum, which defines the jurisdiction of the International Criminal
Court, recognizes rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, forced sterilization, "or any other
form of sexual violence of comparable gravity" as crime against humanity if the action is part of a widespread
or systematic practice.[44][45] Sexual slavery was first recognized as a crime against humanity when the
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia issued arrest warrants based on the Geneva
Conventions and Violations of the Laws or Customs of War. Specifically, it was recognised that Muslim women
in Foča (southeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina) were subjected to systematic and widespread gang rape,
torture and sexual enslavement by Bosnian Serb soldiers, policemen, and members of paramilitary groups
after the takeover of the city in April 1992.[46] The indictment was of major legal significance and was the first
time that sexual assaults were investigated for the purpose of prosecution under the rubric of torture and
enslavement as a crime against humanity.[46] The indictment was confirmed by a 2001 verdict by the
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia that rape and sexual enslavement are crimes against
humanity. This ruling challenged the widespread acceptance of rape and sexual enslavement of women as an
intrinsic part of war.[47] The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia found three Bosnian
Serb men guilty of rape of Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) women and girls – some as young as 12 and 15 years of
age – in Foča, eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. The charges were brought as crimes against humanity and war
crimes. Furthermore, two of the men were found guilty of the crime against humanity of sexual enslavement
for holding women and girls captive in a number of de facto detention centers. Many of the women had
subsequently disappeared.[47]

In areas controlled by Islamic militants, non-Muslim women are enslaved in occupied territories. Many
Islamists see the abolition of slavery as forced upon Muslims by the West and want to revive the practice of
slavery.[48][49][50] (See: Slavery in 21st-century Islamism). In areas controlled by Catholic priests, clerical
abuse of nuns, including sexual slavery, has been acknowledged by the Pope.[51][52]

Bride kidnapping and raptio

Bride kidnapping, also known as marriage by abduction or
marriage by captive, is a form of forced marriage practised in some
traditional cultures. Bride kidnapping has reportedly occurred in
countries spanning Central Asia, the Caucasus region, parts of
Africa, and among the Hmong in southeast Asia, the Tzeltal in
Mexico, and the Romani in Europe. Though the motivations behind
bride kidnapping vary by region, the cultures with traditions of
marriage by abduction are generally patriarchal with a strong social
stigma against sex or pregnancy outside marriage and illegitimate The Rape of the Sabine Women, by
births.[53][54] In most cases, however, the men who resort to Nicolas Poussin, Rome, 1637–38
capturing a wife are often of lower social status, whether because of (Louvre Museum)
poverty, disease, poor character or criminality. In some cases, the
couple collude together to elope under the guise of a bride
kidnapping, presenting their parents with a fait accompli.[53][55] These men are sometimes deterred from
legitimately seeking a wife because of the payment the woman's family expects, the bride price (not to be
confused with a dowry, paid by the woman's family).[53][56]

Bride kidnapping is distinguished from raptio in that the former

The Mongol invasion of Hungary.
The Mongols, with captured women,
are on the left, the Hungarians, with
one saved woman, on the right.
refers to the abduction of one woman by one man (and/or his
friends and relatives), and is often a widespread and ongoing
practice. The latter refers to the large-scale abduction of women by
groups of men, most frequently in a time of war (see also war rape).
The Latin term raptio refers to abduction of women, either for
marriage (by kidnapping or elopement) or enslavement
(particularly sexual slavery). In Roman Catholic canon law, raptio
refers to the legal prohibition of matrimony if the bride was
abducted forcibly (Canon 1089 CIC).
The practice of raptio is surmised to have existed since anthropological antiquity. In Neolithic Europe,
excavation of a Linear Pottery culture site at Asparn-Schletz, Austria, unearthed the remains of numerous slain
victims. Among them, young adult females and children were clearly under-represented, suggesting that
perhaps the attackers had killed the men but abducted the young females.[57]

During armed conflict and war

Rape and sexual violence have accompanied warfare in virtually every known historical era.[58] Before the 19th
century, military circles supported the notion that all persons, including unarmed women and children, were
still the enemy, with the belligerent (nation or person engaged in conflict) having conquering rights over
them.[59] "To the victor goes the spoils" has been a war cry for centuries and women were included as part of
the spoils of war.[60] Institutionalised sexual slavery and enforced prostitution have been documented in a
number of wars, most notably the Second World War (See #During the Second World War) and in the War in
Bosnia.

Historical cases

Ancient

Ancient Greece and Roman Empire

Employing female and occasionally male slaves for prostitution was common in the Hellenistic and Roman
world. Ample references exist in literature, law, military reports and art. A prostitute (slave or free) existed
outside the moral codex restricting sexuality in Greco-Roman society and enjoyed little legal protection. See
ancient Rome's law on rape as an example. Male intercourse with a slave was not considered adultery by either
society.

Asia
During the Chinese domination of Vietnam, Vietnamese girls were sold as sex slaves to the Chinese.[61] A large
trade developed where the native girls of Vietnam were enslaved and brought north to the
Chinese.[62][63][64][65][66][67] Southern Yue girls were sexually eroticized in Chinese literature and in poems
written by Chinese who were exiled to the south.[68]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Portuguese visitors and their South Asian lascar (and sometimes African)
crewmembers often engaged in slavery in Japan, where they bought or captured young Japanese women and
girls, who were either used as sexual slaves on their ships or taken to Macau and other Portuguese colonies in
Southeast Asia, the Americas,[69] and India.[70] For example, in Goa, a Portuguese colony in India, there was a
community of Japanese slaves and traders during the late 16th and 17th centuries.[69][70]
During the 1662 Siege of Fort Zeelandia in which Chinese Ming
loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the
Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan, the Chinese
took Dutch women and children prisoner. The Dutch missionary
Antonius Hambroek, two of his daughters, and his wife were
among the Dutch prisoners of war with Koxinga. Koxinga sent
Hambroek to Fort Zeelandia demanding he persuade them to
surrender or else Hambroek would be killed when he returned.
Kisaeng, women from outcast or
Hambroek returned to the Fort, where two of his other daughters
slave families who were trained to
were. He urged the Fort not to surrender, and returned to
provide entertainment, conversation,
Koxinga's camp. He was then executed by decapitation, and in and sexual services to men of the
addition to this, a rumor was spreading among the Chinese that the upper class.
Dutch were encouraging the native Taiwan aboriginals to kill
Chinese, so Koxinga ordered the mass execution of Dutch male
prisoners in retaliation, in addition to a few women and children also being killed. The surviving Dutch women
and children were then turned into slaves. Koxinga took Hambroek's teenage daughter as a
concubine,[71][72][73] and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives, the daily journal
of the Dutch fort recorded that "the best were preserved for the use of the commanders, and then sold to the
common soldiers. Happy was she that fell to the lot of an unmarried man, being thereby freed from vexations
by the Chinese women, who are very jealous of their husbands."[74] In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were
still captives of the Chinese.[75] Some Dutch physical looks like auburn and red hair among people in regions of
south Taiwan are a consequence of this episode of Dutch women becoming concubines to the Chinese
commanders.[74] The Chinese took Dutch women as slave concubines and wives and they were never freed: in
1684 some were reported to be living, in Quemoy a Dutch merchant was contacted with an arrangement to
release the prisoners which was proposed by a son of Koxinga's but it came to nothing.[76] The Chinese officers
used the Dutch women they received as concubines.[74][77][78] The Dutch women were used for sexual pleasure
by Koxinga's commanders.[79] This event of Dutch women being distributed to the Chinese soldiers and
commanders was recorded in the daily journal of the fort.[74] A teenage daughter of the Dutch missionary
Anthonius Hambroek became a concubine to Koxinga, she was described by the Dutch commander Caeuw as
"a very sweet and pleasing maiden".[80][81] Dutch language accounts record this incident of Chinese taking
Dutch women as concubines and the date of Hambroek's daughter[82][83][84][85]

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a network of Chinese prostitutes trafficked to cities like
Singapore, and a separate network of Japanese prostitutes being trafficked across Asia, in countries such as
China, Japan, Korea, Singapore and British India, in what was then known as the ’Yellow Slave Traffic’. There
was also a network of prostitutes from continental Europe being trafficked to India, Ceylon, Singapore, China
and Japan at around the same time, in what was then known as the ’White Slave Traffic’.[86] Karayuki-san (唐
行きさん, literally "Ms. Gone-to-China" but actually meaning Ms. Gone Abroad") were Japanese girls and
women in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who were trafficked from poverty stricken agricultural
prefectures in Japan to destinations in East Asia, Southeast Asia, Siberia (Russian Far East), Manchuria, and
British India to serve as prostitutes and sexually serviced men from a variety of races, including Chinese,
Europeans, native Southeast Asians, and others. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a network of
Japanese prostitutes being trafficked across Asia, in countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Singapore and
British India, in what was then known as the ’Yellow Slave Traffic’.[86] The main destinations of karayuki-san
included China (particularly Shanghai), Hong Kong, the Philippines, Borneo, Sumatra,[87] Thailand,
Indonesia, and the western USA (in particular San Francisco). They were often sent to Western colonies in
Asia where there was a strong demand from Western military personnel and Chinese men.[88] The experience
of Japanese prostitutes in China was written about in a book by a Japanese woman, Tomoko
Yamazaki.[89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99] Japanese girls were easily trafficked abroad since Korean and
Chinese ports did not require Japanese citizens to use passports and the Japanese government realized that
money earned by the karayuki-san helped the Japanese economy since it was being remitted,[100][101] and the
Chinese boycott of Japanese products in 1919 led to reliance on revenue from the karayuki-san.[102] Since the
Japanese viewed non-westerners as inferior, the karayuki-san Japanese women felt humiliated since they
mainly sexually served Chinese men or native Southeast Asians.[103][104] Borneo natives, Malaysians, Chinese,
Japanese, French, American, British and men from every race utilized the Japanese prostitutes of
Sandakan.[105] A Japanese woman named Osaki said that the men, Japanese, Chinese, whites, and natives,
were dealt with alike by the prostitutes regardless of race, and that a Japanese prostitute's "most disgusting
customers" were Japanese men, while they used "kind enough" to describe Chinese men, and the English and
Americans were the second best clients, while the native men were the best and fastest to have sex with.[106]

During World War II, Empire of Japan organised a governmental system of "comfort women", which is a
euphemism of military sex slaves for the estimated 200,000, mostly Korean, Chinese, and Filipino women who
were forced into sexual slavery in Japanese military "comfort stations" during World War II.[107] Japan
collected, carried, and confined Asian ladies coercively and collusively to have sexual intercourse with Japan's
soldiers during their invasions across East Asia and Southeast Asia. Some Korean women claim that these
cases should be judged by an international tribunal as child sex violence. The legal demand has been made
because of the victims' anger at what they see as the inequity of the existing legal measures and the denial of
Japan's involvement in child sex slavery and kidnapping. On 28 December 2015, Japan and South Korea
agreed that Japan would pay 1 billion Yen into a fund for a Memorial Hall of comfort women.[108][109][110]
Despite this agreement, some Korean victims have complained that they were not consulted during the
negotiation process. They demand that Japan and Korea did not seek both the legal recognition of their claim
and the revision of Japanese history textbooks.[111]

Arab slave trade

Slave trade, including trade of sex slaves,[112] fluctuated in certain regions in the Middle East up until the 20th
century.[113] These slaves came largely from Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj), the Caucasus (mainly
Circassians),[114] Central Asia (mainly Sogdians)[115] and Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Saqaliba).[116]
The Barbary pirates also captured 1.25 million slaves from Western Europe between the sixteenth and
nineteenth centuries.[117][118]
In contrast to the Atlantic slave trade where the male-female ratio was 2:1 or 3:1, the Arab slave trade usually
had a higher female:male ratio instead, suggesting a general preference for female slaves. Concubinage and
reproduction served as incentives for importing female slaves (often European), though many were also
imported mainly for performing household tasks.[119]

White slavery
In English-speaking countries in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the phrase "white slavery" was used to refer
to sexual enslavement of white women. It was particularly associated with accounts of women enslaved in
Middle Eastern harems, such as the so-called Circassian beauties.[120] The phrase gradually came to be used as
a euphemism for prostitution.[121] The phrase was especially common in the context of the exploitation of
minors, with the implication that children and young women in such circumstances were not free to decide
their own fates.

In Victorian Britain, campaigning journalist William Thomas

Stead, editor of the Pall Mall Gazette, procured a 13-year-old girl
for £5, an amount then equal to a labourer's monthly wage (see the
Eliza Armstrong case). Moral panic over the "traffic in women" rose
to a peak in England in the 1880s. At the time, "white slavery" was
a natural target for defenders of public morality and crusading
journalists. The ensuing outcry led to the passage of antislavery
legislation in Parliament. Parliament passed the 1885 Criminal Law
Amendment Act, raising the age of consent from thirteen to sixteen
in that year.[122]

A subsequent scare occurred in the United States in the early

twentieth century, peaking in 1910, when Chicago's U.S. attorney
Statue entitled The White Slave by announced (without giving details) that an international crime ring
Abastenia St. Leger Eberle, a was abducting young girls in Europe, importing them, and forcing
controversial sculpture meant to them to work in Chicago brothels. These claims, and the panic they
depict modern western sexual inflamed, led to the passage of the United States White-Slave
enslavement Traffic Act of 1910, generally known as the "Mann Act". It also
banned the interstate transport of females for immoral purposes.
Its primary intent was to address prostitution and immorality.[123]

Immigration inspectors at Ellis Island in New York City were held responsible for questioning and screening
European prostitutes from the U.S. Immigration inspectors expressed frustration at the ineffectiveness of
questioning in determining if a European woman was a prostitute, and claimed that many were "lying" and
"framing skillful responses" to their questions. They were also accused of negligence should they accept a
fictitious address from an immigrant or accept less-than-complete responses. Inspector Helen Bullis
investigated several homes of assignment in the Tenderloin district of New York, and found brothels existed in
the early 20th century in New York City. She compiled a list of houses of prostitutes, their proprietors, and
their "inmates".[124] The New York inspection director wrote a report in 1907, defending against accusations of
negligence, saying there was no sense to the public "panic", and he was doing everything he could to screen
European immigrants for prostitution, especially unmarried ones. In a report by the Commissioner General of
Immigration in 1914, the Commissioner said that many prostitutes would intentionally marry American men
to secure citizenship. He said that for prostitutes, it was "no difficult task to secure a disreputable citizen who
will marry a prostitute" from Europe.

Americas
As early as the 1490s, Christopher Columbus established trade in sex slaves on Hispaniola which included sex
slaves as young as nine years old.[125][126] Within 25 years of being colonized, the population of Hispaniola
natives declined, dying from enslavement, massacre or disease.[127]

From the beginning of African slavery in the North American colonies, white men took enslaved African
women as concubines or occasional mistresses. As populations increased, slave women might be taken
advantage of by white overseers, planter's younger sons before they married, and other white men associated
with the slaveholders. Some were sold into brothels outright.

Plaçage, a formalized system of concubinage among slave women or free people of color, developed in
Louisiana and particularly New Orleans by the 18th century. Young mixed-race women (considered highly
desirable) would receive a dowry or property as part of an associated settlement negotiated by their mothers
with white men. The fathers would often pay for education of their mixed-race children born of these unions,
especially sons, who might be educated in France and enter the army. In recent years, at least three historians
(viz. Kenneth Aslakson, Emily Clark, and Carol Schlueter) have challenged the historicity of quadroon balls
and have referred to the institution of Plaçage as "a myth".[128][129]

But Paul Heinegg's research showed that most mixed-race, free black families in the censuses of 1790–1810
were descended from unions between free white women and African men, whether free, indentured servant or
slave, that took place in colonial Virginia. It had half the slaves in the colonies at the time of the Revolution. In
the early colonial years, the working class of indentured servants and slaves often worked and lived
together.[130]

From the 17th century, Virginia and other colonies passed laws determining the social status of children born
in the colonies. Under English common law in England, children of two English subjects took the status of the
father. But Africans were never considered English subjects. To settle the issue of the status of children born in
the colony, Virginia passed a law in 1662 that ruled that children would take the status of their mother at birth,
under the Roman legal principle known as partus sequitur ventrem. Thus all children born to enslaved
mothers were legally slaves, regardless of the paternity or ancestry of their fathers. They were bound for life
and could be sold like any slave unless formally freed.

The term "white slaves" was sometimes used for those mixed-race or mulatto slaves who had a visibly high
proportion of European ancestry. Among the most notable at the turn of the 19th century was Sally Hemings,
who was 3/4 white and believed by historians to be a half sister of Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson by their
common father John Wayles. Hemings is known for having four surviving children from her decades-long
concubinage with President Thomas Jefferson; they were 7/8 European by ancestry. Three of these mixed-race
children passed easily into white society as adults (Jefferson freed them all – two informally and two in his
will). Three of his Hemings grandsons served as white men in the Union Regular Army in the American Civil
War; John Wayles Jefferson advanced to the rank of colonel.

Not all white fathers abandoned their slave children; some provided them with education, apprenticeships, or
capital; some wealthy planters sent their mixed-race children to the North for education and sometimes for
freedom. Some men freed both their slave mistresses and their mixed-race children, especially in the 20 years
after the American Revolution, but southern legislatures made such manumissions more difficult. Both Mary
Chesnut and Fanny Kemble wrote in the 19th century about the scandal of white men having their mistresses
and natural mixed-race children as part of their extended households. Numerous mixed-race families were
begun before the Civil War, and many originated in the Upper South.

After slaves were emancipated, many states passed anti-miscegenation laws, which prohibited interracial
marriage between whites and non-whites.

Zora Neale Hurston wrote about contemporary sexual practices in her anthropological studies in the 1930s of
the turpentine camps of North Florida. She noted that white men with power often forced black women into
sexual relationships.

Although she never named the practice as "paramour rights," author C. Arthur Ellis ascribed this term to the
fictionalized Hurston in his book, Zora Hurston and the Strange Case of Ruby McCollum.[131] The same
character asserted that the death knell of paramour rights was sounded by the trial of Ruby McCollum, a black
woman who murdered Dr. C. Leroy Adams, in Live Oak, Florida, in 1952. McCollum had testified that Adams
forced her into sex and bearing his child. Journalist Hurston covered McCollum's trial in 1952 for the
Pittsburgh Courier. McCollum's case was further explored in the 2015 documentary You Belong to Me: Sex,
Race and Murder in the South.

The Chinese Tanka females were sold from Guangzhou to work as prostitutes for the overseas Chinese male
community in the United States.[132] During the California Gold Rush in the late 1840s, Chinese merchants
transported thousands of young Chinese girls, including babies, from China to the United States. They sold the
girls into sexual slavery within the red light district of San Francisco. Girls could be bought for $40 (about
$1104 in 2013 dollars) in Guangzhou and sold for $400 (about $11,040 in 2013 dollars) in the United States.
Many of these girls were forced into opium addiction and lived their entire lives as prostitutes.[133][134]

During the Second World War

Germany during World War II

During World War II, Germany established brothels in Nazi concentration camps (Lagerbordell). The women
forced to work in these brothels came from the Ravensbrück concentration camp,[135] Soldier's brothels
(Wehrmachtsbordell) were usually organized in already established brothels or in hotels confiscated by the
Germans. The leaders of the Wehrmacht became interested in running their own brothels when sexual disease
spread among the soldiers. In the controlled brothels, the women were checked frequently to avoid and treat
sexually transmittable infections (STI).
It is estimated that a minimum of 34,140 women from occupied states were forced to work as prostitutes
during the Third Reich.[136] In occupied Europe, the local women were often forced into prostitution. On 3
May 1941 the Foreign Ministry of the Polish government-in-exile issued a document describing the mass Nazi
raids made in Polish cities with the goal of capturing young women, who later were forced to work in brothels
used by German soldiers and officers. Women often tried to escape from such facilities, with at least one mass
escape known to have been attempted by women in Norway.

Japan during World War II

"Comfort women" are a widely publicised example of sexual
slavery. The term refers to the women, from occupied countries,
who were forced to serve as sex slaves in the Japanese army's
camps during World War II. Estimates vary as to how many women
were involved, with numbers ranging from as low as 20,000 from
some Japanese scholars to as high as 410,000 from some Chinese
scholars.[137] The numbers are still being researched and debated.
The majority of women were taken from Korea, China, and other
occupied territories part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity
Sphere. They were often recruited by kidnapping or deception to
serve as sex slaves.[138][139][140][141] Sometimes women were raped
to the point of death, or killed by torture, such as having their
Rangoon, Burma. 8 August 1945. A
breasts sliced off or having their abdomens slit open.[142] Each young ethnic Chinese woman from
slave reportedly suffered "an average of 10 rapes per day one of the Imperial Japanese Army's
(considered by some to be a low estimate), for a five-day work "comfort battalions" is interviewed
week; this figure can be extrapolated to estimate that each 'comfort by an RAF officer.
girl' was raped around 50 times per week or 2,500 times per year.
For three years of service – the average – a comfort girl would have
been raped 7,500 times." (Parker, 1995 United Nations Commissions on Human Rights)[143]

Chuo University professor Yoshiaki Yoshimi states there were about 2,000 centers where as many as 200,000
Japanese, Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Taiwanese, Burmese, Indonesian, Dutch and Australian women were
interned and used as sex slaves.[144]

After World War II

Japan
The Recreation and Amusement Association (特殊慰安施設協会 Tokushu Ian Shisetsu Kyōkai (Special
Comfort Facility Association)) (RAA) was the largest of the organizations established by the Japanese
government to provide organized prostitution and other leisure facilities for occupying Allied troops
immediately following World War II.[145]
The RAA established its first brothel on 28 August: the Komachien
in Ōmori. By December 1945, the RAA owned 34 facilities, 16 of
which were "comfort stations". The total number of prostitutes
employed by the RAA amounted to 55,000 at its peak.

The dispersal of prostitution made it harder for GHQ to control

STIs and also caused an increase in rapes by GIs, from an average
of 40 a day before the SCAP order to an estimated 330 per day
immediately after.

During the Korean War

During the Korean War, the South Korean military institutionalized
a "special comfort unit" similar to the one used by the Japanese
military during World War II, kidnapping and pressing several
North Korean women into sexual slavery. Until recently, very little Historical Marker, in the memory of
was known about this apart from testimonies of retired generals Comfort women; Plaza Lawton,
Liwasang Bonifacio, Manila
and soldiers who had fought in the war. In February 2002, Korean
sociologist Kim Kwi-ok wrote the first scholarly work on Korea's
comfort women through official records.[146]

The South Korean "comfort" system was organized around three

operations. First, there were "special comfort units" called T'uksu
Wiandae (특수위안대, 特殊慰安隊), which operated from seven
different stations. Second, there were mobile units of comfort
women that visited barracks. Third, there were prostitutes who
worked in private brothels that were hired by the military.
Although it is still not clear how recruitment of these comfort Yasuura House, one such center
women were organized in the South, South Korean agents were
known to have kidnapped some of the women from the North.[147]

According to anthropologist Chunghee Sarah Soh, the South Korean military's use of comfort women has
produced "virtually no societal response," despite the country's women's movement's support for Korean
comfort women within the Japanese military. Both Kim and Soh argue that this system is a legacy of Japanese
colonialism, as many of Korea's army leadership were trained by the Japanese military. Both the Korean and
Japanese militaries referred to these comfort women as "military supplies" in official documents and personal
memoirs. The South Korean armed forces also used the same arguments as the Japanese military to justify the
use of comfort women, viewing them as a "necessary social evil" that would raise soldiers' morale and prevent
rape.[148]

Present day
Official estimates of individuals in sexual slavery worldwide vary. In 2001 the International Organization for
Migration estimated 400,000, the Federal Bureau of Investigation estimated 700,000 and UNICEF estimated
1.75 million.[149] In areas controlled by Catholic priests, clerical abuse of nuns, including sexual slavery, has
been acknowledged by the Pope.[51][52]

Africa
In Africa the colonial powers abolished slavery in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. However, in areas
outside their jurisdiction, such as the Mahdist empire in Sudan, the practice continued to thrive. Institutional
slavery has been banned worldwide, but there are numerous reports of women sex slaves in areas without
effective government control, such as Sudan,[150] Liberia,[151] Sierra Leone,[152] northern Uganda,[153]
Congo,[154] Niger[155] and Mauritania.[156] In Ghana, Togo and Benin, a form of religious prostitution known
as trokosi ("ritual servitude") forcibly keeps thousands of girls and women in traditional shrines as "wives of
the gods", where priests perform the sexual function in place of the gods.[157]

In April 2014, Boko Haram kidnapped 276 female students from Chibok, Borno, a state of Nigeria. More than
50 of them soon escaped, but the remainder have not been released. Instead Shekau, who has a reward of $7
million offered by the United States Department of State since June 2013 for information leading to his
capture, announced his intention of selling them into slavery.

Americas
The San Francisco Chronicle reported in 2006 that in the 21st century, women, mostly from South America,
Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, are trafficked into the United States for the
purposes of sexual slavery.[158] A 2006 ABC News story stated that, contrary to existing misconceptions,
American citizens may also be coerced into sex slavery.[159]

In 2001 the United States State Department estimated that 50,000 to 100,000 women and girls are trafficked
each year into the United States. In 2003, the State Department report estimated that a total of 18,000 to
20,000 individuals were trafficked into the United States for either forced labor or sexual exploitation. The
June 2004 report estimated the total trafficked annually at between 14,500 and 17,500.[160] The Bush
administration set up 42 Justice Department task forces and spent more than $150 million on attempts to
reduce human trafficking. However, in the seven years since the law was passed, the administration has
identified only 1,362 victims of human trafficking brought into the United States since 2000, nowhere near the
50,000 or more per year the government had estimated.[161]

The Girl’s Education & Mentoring Services (GEMS), an organization based in New York, claims that the
majority of girls in the sex trade were abused as children. Poverty and a lack of education play major roles in
the lives of many women in the sex industry.

According to a report conducted by the University of Pennsylvania, anywhere from 100,000 up to 300,000
American children at any given time may be at risk of exploitation due to factors such as drug use,
homelessness, or other factors connected with increased risk for commercial sexual exploitation.[162] However,
the report emphasized, "The numbers presented in these exhibits do not, therefore, reflect the actual number
of cases of CSEC in the United States but, rather, what we estimate to be the number of children ‘at risk’ of
commercial sexual exploitation."[162]

The 2010 Trafficking in Persons report described the United States as, "a source, transit, and destination
country for men, women, and children subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically forced labor, debt
bondage, and forced prostitution."[163] Sexual slavery in the United States may occur in multiple forms and in
multiple venues. Sex trafficking in the United States may be present in Asian massage parlors, Mexican cantina
bars, residential brothels, or street-based pimp-controlled prostitution. The anti-trafficking community in the
United States is debating the extent of sexual slavery. Some groups argue that exploitation is inherent in the
act of commercial sex, while other groups take a stricter approach to defining sexual slavery, considering an
element of force, fraud or coercion to be necessary for sex slavery to exist.

The prostitutes in illegal massage parlors may be forced to work out of apartment complexes for many hours a
day.[164] Many clients may not realize that some of the women who work in these massage sex parlors have
actually been forced into prostitution.[164] The women may initially be lured into the US under false pretenses.
In huge debt to their 'owners', they are forced to earn enough to eventually "buy" their freedom.[164] In some
cases women who have been sex trafficked may be forced to undergo plastic surgery or abortions.[165] A
chapter in The Slave Next Door (2009) reports that human trafficking and sexual enslavement are not limited
to any specific location or social class. It concludes that individuals in society need to be alert to report
suspicious behavior, because the psychological and physical abuse occurs which can often leave a victim unable
to escape on their own.[166]

In 2000 Congress created the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act with tougher punishments for
sex traffickers. It provides for the possibility for former sex slaves to obtain a T-1 visa.[164] To obtain the visa
women must, "prove they were enslaved by 'force, fraud or coercion'."[164] The visa allows former victims of
sex trafficking to stay in the United States for 3 years and then apply for a green card.[164]
The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS) has been suspected of trafficking girls
across state lines, as well as across the US–Canada[167] and US–Mexico borders,[168] for the purpose of
sometimes involuntary plural marriage and sexual abuse.[169] The FLDS is suspected by the Royal Canadian
Mounted Police of having trafficked more than 30 under-age girls from Canada to the United States between
the late 1990s and 2006 to be entered into polygamous marriages.[167] RCMP spokesman Dan Moskaluk said
of the FLDS's activities: "In essence, it's human trafficking in connection with illicit sexual activity."[170]
According to the Vancouver Sun, it's unclear whether or not Canada's anti-human trafficking statute can be
effectively applied against the FLDS's pre-2005 activities, because the statute may not be able to be applied
retroactively.[171] An earlier three-year-long investigation by local authorities in British Columbia into
allegations of sexual abuse, human trafficking, and forced marriages by the FLDS resulted in no charges, but
did result in legislative change.[172] Former FLDS members have also alleged that children belonging to the
sect were forced to perform sexual acts as children upon older men while being unable to leave. This has been
described by numerous former members as sexual slavery, and was reported as such by the Sydney Morning
Herald,[173][174] One former resident of Yearning for Zion, Kathleen Mackert, stated: "I was required to
perform oral sex on my father when I was seven, and it escalated from there."[174]

Asia

Central and West Asia

The Trafficking in Persons Report of 2007 from the US Department of State says that sexual slavery exists in
the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, where women and children may be trafficked from the post-Soviet states,
Eastern Europe, Far East, Africa, South Asia or other parts of the Middle East.[175][176][177]

According to media reports from late 2014 the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) was selling Yazidis
and Christian women as slaves.[178][179][180] According to Haleh Esfandiari of the Woodrow Wilson
International Center for Scholars, after ISIL militants have captured an area "[t]hey usually take the older
women to a makeshift slave market and try to sell them."[181] In mid-October 2014 the U.N. estimated that
5,000 to 7,000 Yazidi women and children were abducted by ISIL and sold into slavery.[182][183]

In the digital magazine Dabiq, ISIL claimed religious justification for enslaving Yazidi women whom they
consider to be from a heretical sect. ISIL claimed that the Yazidi are idol worshipers and their enslavement
part of the old shariah practice of spoils of war.[184][185][186][187][188] ISIL appealed to apocalyptic beliefs and
"claimed justification by a Hadith that they interpret as portraying the revival of slavery as a precursor to the
end of the world."[189] In late September 2014, 126 Islamic scholars from around the Muslim world signed an
open letter to the Islamic State's leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, rejecting his group's interpretations of the
Qur'an and hadith to justify its actions.[190][191] The letter accuses the group of instigating fitna—sedition—by
instituting slavery under its rule in contravention of the anti-slavery consensus of the Islamic scholarly
community.[192] In late 2014 ISIL released a pamphlet on the treatment of female
slaves.[193][194][195][196][197][198] In January 2015, further rules for sex slaves were announced.[199]
Selling women and children still occurs in the Middle East.[200] Yazidi women have also reported being raped
and used as sexual slave by members of ISIS. In November 2015 it was reported that "around 2,000 women
and girls are still being bought and sold in ISIS-controlled areas. The young become sex slaves and older
women are beaten and used as house slaves, according to survivors and accounts from ISIS militants".[201]

South Asia
In 2007, the Ministry of Women and Child Development estimated
that there are around 2.8 million sex workers in India, with 35 percent
of them entering the trade before the age of 18 years.[202][203] The
number of prostitutes has also doubled in the recent decade.[204] One
news article states that an estimated 200,000 Nepalese girls have been
trafficked to red light areas of India.[205] Nepalese women and girls,
especially virgins, are reportedly favoured in India because of their fair
skin and young looks.[206][207] One report estimates that every year
between 5,000 and 7,000 Nepalese girls are trafficked into the red-
light districts in Indian cities, and that many of the girls may only be 9
or 10 years old.[208]

In Pakistan, young girls have been sold by their families to big-city

brothel owners. Often this happens due to poverty or debt, whereby
the family has no other way to raise the money than to sell the young
Nepali mother who travelled to
girl.[209] Cases have also been reported where wives and sisters have
Mumbai, India, hoping to rescue
been sold to brothels to raise money for gambling, drinking or drug
her teenage daughter from an
addictions. Sex slaves are reportedly also bought by 'agents' in Indian brothel.
Afghanistan who trick young girls into coming to Pakistan for well-
paying jobs. Once in Pakistan they are taken to brothels (called
kharabat) and forced into sexual slavery, some for many years.[210][211] Beardless young boys in Afghanistan
may be sold as bacha bazi for use in dancing and prostitution (pederasty), and are sometimes valued in tens of
thousands of dollars.[212]

East and Southeast Asia

In January 2010, the Supreme Court of India stated that India is "becoming a hub" for large-scale child
prostitution rackets. It suggested setting up of a special investigating agency to tackle the growing
problem.[213]

An article about the Rescue Foundation in New Internationalist magazine states that "according to Save the
Children India, clients now prefer 10- to 12-year-old girls". The same article attributes the rising number of
prostitutes believed to have contracted HIV in India’s brothels as a factor in India becoming the country with
the second-largest number of people living with HIV/AIDS in the world, behind South Africa.[214]
In Thailand, the Health System Research Institute reported in 2005 that children in prostitution make up 40%
of Thailand's prostitutes.[15] It said that a proportion of prostitutes over the age of 18, including foreign
nationals mostly from Myanmar, China's Yunnan province, Laos and Cambodia, are also in some state of
forced sexual servitude.[215] In 1996, the police in Bangkok estimated that there were at least 5,000 Russian
prostitutes working in Thailand, many of whom had arrived through networks controlled by Russian
gangs.[216] The Tourism Police Bureau in 1997 stated that there were 500 Chinese and 200 European women
in prostitution in Bangkok, many of whom entered Thailand illegally, often through Burma and Laos. Earlier
reports, however, suggest different figures. (Police Colonel Sanit Meephan, deputy chief of Tourism Police
Bureau, "Thailand popular haunt for foreign prostitutes", The Nation, 15 January 1997)

Part of the challenge in quantifying and eliminating sexual slavery in Thailand and Asia generally is the high
rate of police corruption in the region. There are documented cases where Thai and other area law
enforcement officials worked with human traffickers, even to the extent of returning escaped child sex slaves to
brothels.[217]

Ethnic Rohingya women are kidnapped by Myanmar military and used as sex slave[218] Many Rohingya
women were detained at a human trafficking syndicate transit camp in Padang Besar, Thailand, were treated
like sex slaves.[219]

Europe
In the Netherlands, the Bureau of the Dutch Rapporteur on
Trafficking in Human Beings in 2005 estimated that there are from
1,000 to 7,000 trafficking victims a year. Most police investigations
relate to legal sex businesses, with all sectors of prostitution being
well represented, but with window brothels being particularly
overrepresented.[220][221][222] Dutch news site Expatica reported
that in 2008, there were 809 registered trafficking victims in the
Netherlands; out of those 763 were women and at least 60 percent
of them were reportedly forced to work in the sex industry. Of
reported victims, those from Hungary were all female and all forced
into prostitution.[223][224]

In Germany, the trafficking of women from Eastern Europe is often

organized by people from that same region. German authorities
identified 676 sex-trafficking victims in 2008, compared with 689
in 2007.[225] The German Federal Police Office BKA reported in
2006 a total of 357 completed investigations of human trafficking, De Wallen red-light district in
with 775 victims. Thirty-five percent of the suspects were Germans Amsterdam. Most of the trafficked
born in Germany and 8% were German citizens born outside girls and women come from central
Germany.[226] and eastern Europe.
In Greece, according to NGO estimates in 2008, there may be a total 13,000–14,000 trafficking victims of all
types in the country at any given time. Major countries of origin for trafficking victims brought into Greece
include Nigeria, Ukraine, Russia, Bulgaria, Albania, Moldova, Romania and Belarus.[227]

In Switzerland, the police estimated in 2006 that there may be between 1,500 and 3,000 victims of all types of
human trafficking. The organizers and their victims generally come from Hungary, Slovakia, Romania,
Ukraine, Moldova, Lithuania, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Thailand and Cambodia, and, to a lesser extent,
Africa.[228]

In Belgium, in 2007, prosecutors handled a total of 418 trafficking cases, including 219 economic exploitation
and 168 sexual exploitation cases. In the same year, the federal judicial police handled 196 trafficking files,
compared with 184 in 2006. In 2007 the police arrested 342 persons for smuggling and trafficking-related
crimes.[229] A recent report by RiskMonitor foundation estimated that 70% of the prostitutes who work in
Belgium are from Bulgaria.[230]

In Austria, Vienna has the largest number of reported trafficking cases, although trafficking is also a problem
in urban centers such as Graz, Linz, Salzburg, and Innsbruck. The NGO Lateinamerikanische Frauen in
Oesterreich–Interventionsstelle fuer Betroffene des Frauenhandels (LEFOE-IBF) reported assisting 108
victims of all types of human trafficking in 2006, down from 151 in 2005.[231]

In Spain, in 2007, officials identified 1,035 sex trafficking victims and 445 labor trafficking victims.[232]

See also
◾ 1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children
◾ The Bible and slavery#Sexual and conjugal slavery
◾ Child grooming
◾ Comfort women
◾ Forced marriage
◾ Islamic views on slavery#Sexual intercourse
◾ Kippumjo - Sex slaves of North Korea's ruler
◾ Rape
◾ Sexism

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Cited sources
◾ Askin, Kelly Dawn (1997). War Crimes Against Women: Prosecution in International War Crimes Tribunals
(https://books.google.com/?id=ThfzGvSvQ2UC). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-90-411-0486-1.
◾ Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan (https://books.google.com/?id=p3D6a
7bK_t0C&pg=PA77) (illustrated ed.). Macmillan. p. 77. ISBN 978-0230614246.
◾ Soh, Sarah (2009). The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan
(https://books.google.com/?id=GIHcaFVxXf0C&pg=PA347). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-
0226767772.
◾ Yoshimi, Yoshiaki (2000). Comfort women: sexual slavery in the Japanese military during World War II (htt
ps://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/2022435). Translated by O'Brien, Suzanne. Columbia University Press.
ISBN 978-0231120326.<

Further reading
 ◾ Davis, Robert Murray (2003). Christian slaves, Muslim masters: white slavery in the Mediterranean, the
Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-4551-8.
◾ Walsh, Michael J.; Don Jordan (2008). White Cargo: The Forgotten History of Britain's White Slaves in
America. NYU PRESS. ISBN 978-0-8147-4296-9.
◾ Lal, Kishori Saran (1994). Muslim Slave System in Medieval India. Columbia, Mo: South Asia Books.
ISBN 978-81-85689-67-8.
◾ Markon, Jerry, Washington Post. "Human Trafficking Evokes Outrage, Little Evidence" (https://www.washi
ngtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/22/AR2007092201401.html) 23 September 2007
◾ Fine, Glenn U.S. Justice Department Inspector General Glenn Fine report (http://traffickingwatch.org/nod
e/18) 8 August 2008:
◾ Davies, Nick Guardian newspaper "Inquiry fails to find single trafficker who forced anybody into
prostitution" (https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2009/oct/20/government-trafficking-enquiry-fails) 20 October
2009
◾ Davies, Nick Guardian newspaper "Prostitution and trafficking – the anatomy of a moral panic" (https://ww
w.theguardian.com/uk/2009/oct/20/trafficking-numbers-women-exaggerated) 20 October 2009
◾ Ozimek, John The register "UK gov prostitution proposals caught with pants down" (https://www.theregiste
r.co.uk/2009/10/22/gov_proposals/print.html) 22 October 2009:
◾ Dasgupta, Rajashri, and Murthy, Laxmi The hoot media: "Human trafficking exaggerated numbers?" (htt
p://www.thehoot.org/web/home/story.php?storyid=3622&mod=1&pg=1&sectionId=9&valid=true#) January
2009
◾ Weitzer, Ronald -George Washington University report (http://www.bayswan.org/traffick/Weitzer_Criminolo
gist.pdf)
◾ Waterfield, Bruno Spiked online "Exposed: the myth of the World Cup sex slaves" (http://www.spiked-onlin
e.com/index.php?/site/article/2850/) February 2007
◾ Slavery with a capital S (https://web.archive.org/web/20100515154431/http://www.nepalitimes.com.np/iss
ue/2005/11/11/nation/3892) at the Wayback Machine (archived 15 May 2010)
◾ New York Times: "The Face of Slavery" By Kassie Bracken (https://www.nytimes.com/video/opinion/11948
37193498/the-face-of-slavery.html?playlistId=1194811622305) 4 January 2009

External links
◾ Ex-Prostitutes Say South Korea and U.S. Enabled Sex Trade Near Bases – NYTimes.com (https://www.ny
times.com/2009/01/08/world/asia/08korea.html)
◾ Sex-trafficking online resources (http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/10/MNGN9LFHR
O1.DTL&ao=8)

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