 Sender – device that sends the data

message; computer, workstation,

Data Communication - Prelims
Data Communication – exchange of data
between two devices via some form of
communications
- Communicating
devices must be part
of a communication
system made up of a
combination of
hardware and
software
Fundamental Characteristics:
Delivery – The system must deliver data to
the correct destination
Accuracy – data accurately
- data that have altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are
unusable.
Timeliness – data delivered late are useless
- Timely delivery means
delivering data as they are
produced
Jitter – variation in the packet arrival time
It is the uneven delay in the delivery
of audio/video packets
Components of data communication:
 Message – information to be
communicated ; texts, numbers,
pictures, audios, videos
telephone, handset
 Receiver – receives the message;
computer, workstation, telephone
handset, TV
 Transmission Medium – physical
path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver; twister pair
wire, coaxial, fiber optic, radiowaves
Data flow – communication between two
devices can be simplex, half duplex or full
duplex
Simplex – unidirectional; 1 can receive, 1
can transmit
Half duplex – both can transmit and receive
but not same time
Full duplex – both can receive and transmit
simultaneously
Networks – interconnection of a set of
devices capable of communication
- A device can be a host (end
system) such as large
computer, desktop, laptop,
workstation, cellphone,
security system
- Connecting device: router,
connects network to other
networks
Switch: connects devices
together
3 factors of network:
1. Performance – speed of transmit or
receive of data
 - Can be measured in many
ways including transit time
and response time
Transmit time: time for message to
travel
Response time: elapsed time
between an inquiry and response
Performance depends on:
- Number of users
- Type of transmission medium
- Capabilities of the connected
hardware
- Efficiency of the software
2. Reliability – measured by the
frequency of failure, time it takes a
link to recover from failure; strength
3. Security – protecting data from
unauthorized access, damage and
development, implementing policies
and procedures for recovery from
breaches and losses
Network Topology - way in which a
network is laid out physically; two or more
devices connect a link, 2 or more links form
a topology
- Topology is geometric
representation of the
relationship of all the links and
linking devices ( called nodes)
to 1 another
4 basic topologies:
1. Mesh – every device has a dedicated
point to point link to every other
device
- The link carries traffic only
between the 2 devices it
connects
Example: telephone regional offices in
which every offices needs to be connected
to every other offices
Advantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees
that each connection can carry its own data
load, thus eliminating the traffic problems
that can occur when links must be shared
by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link
becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate
the entire system
3. There is the advantage of privacy or
security. When every message travels along
a dedicated line, only the intended recipient
sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other
users from gaining access to messages.
4. Point-to-point links make fault
identification and fault isolation easy.
Traffic can be routed to avoid links with
suspected problems. This facility enables
the network manager to discover the
precise location of the fault and aids in
finding its cause and solution.
Disadvantages:
1. Disadvantage of a mesh are related to
the amount of cabling because every device
must be connected to every other device.
2. Installation and reconnection are
difficult.
3. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be
greater than the available space (in walls,
ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
4. The hardware required to connect each
link (I/O ports and cable) can be
prohibitively expensive.
2. Star topology - each device has a
dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub.
- The devices are not directly
linked to one another. Unlike
a mesh topology, a star
topology does not allow direct
traffic between devices.
- The controller acts as an
exchange: If one device wants
to send data to another, it
sends the data to the
controller, which then relays
the data to the other
connected device .
Advantages:
1. A star topology is less expensive than a
mesh topology. In a star, each device needs
only one link and one I/O port to connect it
to any number of others.
2. Easy to install and reconfigure.
3. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and
additions, moves, and deletions involve only
one connection: between that device and
the hub.
4. Other advantage include robustness. If
one link fails, only that link is affected. All
other links remain active. This factor also
lends itself to easy fault identification and
fault isolation. If the hub is working, it can
be used to monitor link problems and
bypass defective links.
Disadvantages:
One big disadvantage of a star topology is
the dependency of the whole topology on
one single point, the hub. If the hub goes
down, the whole system is dead. Although a
star requires far less cable than a mesh,
each node must be linked to a central hub.
For this reason, often more cabling is
required in a star than in some other
topologies (such as ring or bus).
3. Bus Topology - A bus topology is
multipoint.
- One long cable acts as a backbone
to link all the devices in a network. Nodes
are connected to the bus cable by drop lines
and taps.
- A drop line is a connection running
between the device and the main cable. A
tap is a connector that either splices into
the main cable or punctures the sheathing
of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core.
- As a signal travels along the
backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it
becomes weaker and weaker as it travels
farther and farther.
- For this reason there is a limit on
the number of taps a bus can support and
on the distance between those taps.
Advantages:
Advantages of a bus topology
include ease of installation. Backbone cable
can be laid along the most efficient path,
then connected to the nodes by drop lines
of various lengths. In this way, a bus uses
less cabling than mesh or star topologies. In
a star, for example, four network devices in
the same room require four lengths of cable
reaching all the way to the hub. In a bus,
this redundancy is eliminated. Only the
backbone cable stretches through the
entire facility. Each drop line has to reach Advantages:
only as far as the nearest point on the
A ring is relatively easy to install and
backbone.
reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its
Disadvantages: immediate neighbors (either physically or
logically). To add or delete a device requires
Disadvantages include difficult reconnection
changing only two connections. The only
and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed
constraints are media and traffic
to be optimally efficient at installation. It
considerations (maximum ring length and
can therefore be difficult to add new
number of devices). In addition, fault
devices. Signal reflection at the taps can
isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a
cause degradation in quality. This
signal is circulating at all times. If one device
degradation can be controlled by limiting
does not receive a signal within a specified
the number and spacing of devices
period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm
connected to a given length of cable.
alerts the network operator to the problem
Adding new devices may therefore require
and its location.
modification or replacement of the
backbone. In addition, a fault or break in Disadvantages:
the bus cable stops all transmission, even
Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
between devices on the same side of the
In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as
problem. The damaged area reflects signals
a disabled station) can disable the entire
back in the direction of origin, creating
network. This weakness can be solved by
noise in both directions.
using a dual ring or a switch capable of
4. Ring Topology - each device has a closing off the break. Ring topology was
dedicated point-to-point connection prevalent when IBM introduced its local-
with only the two devices on either area network Token Ring. Today, the need
side of it. for higher-speed LANs has made this
- A signal is passed along the topology less popular
ring in one direction, from
Hybrid Topology – network topology that
device to device, until it
uses 2 or more differing network topologies
reaches its destination.
- Each device in the ring Criteria:
incorporates a repeater.
Performance
When a device receives a
signal intended for another - Throughput; High ; Bandwidth
device, its repeater - Delay ; Low ; Latency: Time
regenerates the bits and between sending and
passes them along receiving Information
3 factors of Bandwidth: and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to
1. Telecommunication - range of
follow to be able to
frequency
communicate effectively.
2. Computing – communication
- When communication is
capacity
simple, we may need only one
3. Transmission Rate -
simple protocol.
- When the communication is
complex, in which case we
Reliability
need a protocol at each layer,
- Identical sent and received or PROTOCOL LAYERING.
data
Network Types
- Size
Single Layer Protocol
- Geographical coverage
- Ownership (factors) - Communication is so simple
that it can be occur on only
LAN ( Local Area Network)
one layer.
- Privately owned and connects
Complex Protocol
some hosts in a single office,
building or campus - Different set of layers
- Encryption / decryption
WAN ( Wide Area Network)
technique
- Interconnection of devices
Bidirectional Communication : each layer
capable of communication
has 2 opposite function
- Telecommunications network
that extends over a large Modularity
geographical area
- Means independent layers
- P2P WAN / Switched WAN
- A layer module can be defined
Network Models – layering on how data is as a black box with inputs and
transmitted outputs without concern
about how inputs are changed
-
Develop hardware and
to outputs.
software to provide functions
of each layer separately Principles of Protocol Layering:
1. Protocol Layering
1st Principle:
- In data communication and
networking, a protocol defines - It dictates that if we wat
the rules that both the sender bidirectional communication,
 we need to make each layer - Another way of thinking of the
so that it can perform two logical connections is to think
opposite tasks, one in each about the data unit created
direction. from each layer. In the top 3
layers, the data unit(packets)
2nd Principle:
should not be changed by any
- We need to follow in protocol router/layer.
layering is that the two
Physical Layer – responsible for carrying
objects under each layer at
individual bit in a frame across the link.
both sites should be identical
Data Link Layer – responsible for taking the
TCP / IP SUITE
datagram and moving it across the link
- A protocol suite ( a set of
Network layer – creating connection
protocols organized in
between the source computer and the
different layers) used in the
destination computer.
internet today.
- A hierarchical protocol made - The network layer in the
up of interactive modules, Internet include the main
each of which provides a protocol, Internet Protocol
specific functionality. The (IP) that defines the format of
term hierarchical means that the packet called a data gram
each upper level protocol is at the network layer.
supported by the services
Transport Layer – giving services to the
provided by one or more
application layer to get a message from an
lower level protocols.
application program running on the source
- The original TCP/IP protocol
host and deliver it to the corresponding
suite as defined as four
application on the destination host.
software layers built upon the
hardware. 2 Packets:
- Today, however, TCP/IP is
Segments TCP
thought of as a five layer
model. User datagram UDP ( User data
protocol)
Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol
Suite TCP AND UDP DIRECTION:
- Duty of the application, TCP – bidirectional
transport and network layers
UDP – Unidirectional
is end to end. The duty of the
data link and physical layers is
hop to hop which is a hop is a
host/router.
Application layer
- Exchanging messages
between each other as
through there where bridge.
HTTP ( Hypertext Transfer Protocol) –
internet
SMTP ( Single Mail Transfer Protocol) –
mail
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – file from one
host to another
TELNET&SSH (Terminal Network & Source
shell) – site remotely
SNMP ( Simple Network Management
Protocol) – admin to manage internet
DNS ( Domain Name System) – network
layer
IGMP ( Internet Group Management
Protocol)
– Collect membership in a group
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
- One of the important
concepts in protocol layering
in the Internet is
encapsulation/decapsulation
Encapsulation at the Source Host
- At the application layer, the
data to be exchanged is
referred to as a message.
- A message normally does not
contain any header or trailer,
but if it does, we refer to the
whole as the message. The
message is passed to the
transport layer.
- The network layer takes the
transport layer packet as data
or payload and adds it own
header to the payload. The
result is the network layer
packet called a datagram.
- The network layer the passes
the packet to the data link
layer.
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
at the Router
- The data link layer of the next
link encapsulates the
datagram in a frame and
passes it to the physical layer
for transmission.
- The network layer only
inspects the source and
destination addresses in the
datagram header and consults
its forwarding table to find the
next hop to which the
datagram is to be delivered.
- The contents of the datagram
should not be changed by the
network layer in the router
unless there is a need to
fragment the datagram. If it is
too big to be passed through
the next link. The datagram is
then passed o the datalink
layer of the next link.
Decapsulation at the Destination
Host
- At the destination host, each
layer only decapsulates the
packet received, removes the
payload and delivers the
payload to the next higher
 layer protocol until the from several next higher layer
message reaches the protocols (One at a time)
application layer. - Demultiplexing means that a
- It is necessary to say that protocol can decapsulate and
decapsulation in the host deliver a packet to several
involves error checking. next higher layer protocols
Addressing OSI ( Open System Interconnection)
- It is worth mentioning - A set of protocols that allows
another concept related to any two different systems to
protocol layering in the communicate regardless of
internet, addressing. their underlying architecture.
- There is a relationship - The purpose of the OSI
between the layer, the Models is to show how to
address used in that layer and facilitate communication
the packet name at that layer. between different systems
without requiring changes to
Packet Names Layers Addresses
the logic of the underlying
Message Application Names hardware and software.
Layer - The OSI Models is not a
Segment/ Transport Port protocol: it is a model for
User Diagram Layer Numbers understanding and designing a
Datagram Network Logical network architecture that is
Layer Addresses
flexible, robust and
Frame Data Link Link Layer
interoperable.
Layer Addresses
- The OSI model was intended
Bits Physical
Layer to be the basis for the
creation of the protocols in
the OSI stack.
OSI VS TCP/IP
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
- When we compare the two
- Since TCP/IP protocol suite
models, we find that two
uses several protocols at
layers, session and
some layers, we can say that
presentation are missing from
we have multiplexing at the
the TCP/IP protocol suite.
source and demultiplexing at
- These two layers were not
the destination
added to the TCP/IP Protocol
- Multiplexing in this case
suite after the publication of
means that a protocol at a
the OSI Model.
layer can encapsulate a packet
 - The application layer in the sending computer bits from one device to
suite is usually considered to another along the network.
be the combination of three
layers in the OSI model.
- 1st: TCP/IP has more than one
transport layer protocol.
- 2nd: application layer is not
only one piece of software.
Application Layer – Enables the user to
interact with the application or network
whenever the user elects to read messages.
Presentation Layer – translates or formats
data for the application layer based on the
semantix or syntax that the application
accepts.

Session layer – set ups, coordinates and

terminates conversations between
applications.
- Its services include
authentication and
reconnection after an
interruption.
Transport Layer – it is responsible for
transferring data across a network and
provides error checking mechanisms and
data flow controls.
Network Layer – primary functions is to
move data into and through other
networks.
Data Link Layer – the protocol layer in a
program that handles the moving of data
into and out of a physical link in a network.
Physical Layer – Transport data using
electrical, mechanical, or procedural
interfaces. The layer is responsible for