12v DC To 230v Ac Inverter 1

12V DC TO 230V AC INVERTER CIRCUIT
ABSTRACT
Present days people are domestically using inverters for different appliances. Generally we
need inverters at the time of not availability of supply.
The main object of this project is to produce 230v ac supply from 12v dc battery supply.
When we give dc supply to MOSFET through TRANSISTOR switching action, then then dc turns as
square pulse due to oscillatory circuit which including MOSFET. Finally we give these square wave
pulse to a center tapped transformer and from output of the transformer we can take 230v ac supply.
So finally 230v ac supply we can utilize for our domestic loads.
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 1

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Battery Room Ventilation and Safety

2

CHAPTER-4
COMPONENTS
4.1 BATTERIES
Definition of battery:
Assembly of one or more electrochemical cells, used to electrical devices with stored electrical
energy
A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy by a chemical reaction. Usually the
chemicals are kept inside the battery. It is used in a circuit to power other components. A battery
produces direct current (DC) electricity (electricity that flows in one direction, and does not switch
back and forth).
Using the electricity from an outlet in a building is cheaper and more efficient, but a battery can
provide electricity in areas that do not have electric power distribution. It is also useful for things that
move, such as electric vehicles and mobile phones.
Batteries may be primary or secondary. The primary is thrown away when it can no longer provide
electricity. The secondary can be recharged and reused.
The function of the battery is to store electricity in the form of chemical energy and
When required to convert it to electrical energy. Electrical energy can be produced
from two plates immersed in a chemical solution. When several are linked, they give
a higher capacity.
Battery cells can be divided into two major types:

• Primary cell: It is one that cannot be recharged and is discarded at the end of
its life.
• Secondary cell: It is one that is rechargeable.
Examples of primary cells include carbon-zinc (dry cell), alkaline-manganese,
Mercury-zinc, silver-zinc, and lithium cells (e.g., lithium-manganese dioxide, lithium sulfur
Dioxide, and lithium-thinly chloride). Examples of secondary cells include
Lead-lead dioxide (lead-acid), nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron, nickel-hydrogen, nickel metal
Hydride ,silver-zinc, silver-cadmium, and lithium-ion.

LEAD-ACID BATTERY:
Lead-acid battery is a type of secondary battery which uses a positive electrode of

Brown lead oxide (sometimes called lead peroxide), a negative electrode of metallic
Lead and an electrolyte of sulfuric acid (in either liquid or gel form). The overall cell
Reaction of a typical lead-acid cell is:
The three major contributors to Lead-acid battery chemistry are lead, lead dioxide,
and sulfuric acid. Unfortunately pure lead is too soft to withstand the physical abuse;
about 6% antimony is added to strengthen it. Historically, antimony added to the lead
grids, acted as a catalyst and made out gassing (loss of hydrogen and oxygen during
use) worse and frequent water replenishing was required. So battery manufacturers
looked for another material that could strengthen the lead grids. Calcium was added
to both the positive and negative electrodes. It reduced out gassing enough to allow
manufacturers to claim they are building "maintenance-free batteries".
Components of Lead-Acid Battery:
The Lead-acid Battery basically consists of the following four (4) components:
1. Case
2. Terminals
3. Plates
4. Electrolyte
Case:
The battery case is constructed of insulating, acid resistant material usually plastic or
hard rubber and has a number of compartments or cells. A 12-volt battery has 6
cells. Recesses in the bottom of the cells collect the sediment that falls from the
plates. This prevents the sediment from bridging the plates and causing an internal
short-circuit. The top of the plate assembly is enclosed by a moulded one-piece
cover which is sealed to the main case. Each cell has a removable plug to facilitate
topping up and testing. These plugs are vented to allow for the escape of gases

produced during charging.
Terminals:
Positive pole: shown ‘+’ usually red in color and is the larger of the two.
Negative pole: shown ‘–’ usually black or green and is the smaller of the two.
Battery connectors: Various types of connectors are shown below:
Plates:
Batteries are composed of one or more cells; each cell has a number of positive and
negative plates with separators fitted between them. The total number of plates per
cell is normally not less than seven, usually starting and finishing with a negative
plate.
The surface area of the plates in a cell determines its current capacity. In a lead-acid
battery, the plates are assembled so there is always one extra negative plate. The
plates are close to each other but do not touch, which would cause a short-circuit.
One set of plates is connected to the negative side of a DC source, the other to the
positive side. Direct current is applied to the plates, changing them chemically, until
the battery is ready for service.
The nominal voltage of a cell is 2 volts. Cells connected in series make a battery,
and the number of cells determines its nominal voltage. The accepted, or nominal,
voltage of a cell does not depend on the size of the cell. The size of the cells
determines the discharge capacity (current capacity) of the entire battery.
Each cell has its own vent cap designed to relieve excess pressure and allow gases
to escape. It also keeps the dust and dirt out of cells and contains electrolyte solution
inside the battery cell.
Electrolyte:
The battery is filled with electrolyte, which is a mixture of 35% sulfuric acid and 65%
de-ionized water. The separators between the plates are porous to allow the
circulation of the electrolyte, and the chemical action to take place. When the cell is
functioning, the acid reacts with the plates, converting chemical energy into electrical
energy. Electrical current flows from one pole of the battery, through the circuit, and
back to the battery.
Discharging:
In a fully-charged battery the positive plates are made of lead peroxide and the
negative plates are spongy lead. During discharge or use:
• Sulphur in the acid combines with the plates to form lead sulphate; and
• The oxygen and hydrogen released combine to form water, which dilutes the
electrolyte.
As the battery is discharged, or used, the acid concentration decreases and
becomes weaker (dilute) until the battery cannot produce an electrical current. This
makes it possible to tell the state of charge by seeing how weak the electrolyte is. A
hydrometer is used to measure the strength of the electrolyte. Both negative and
positive plates become lead sulphate as the battery is discharged by use. The
resulting lead sulphate is bulkier than spongy lead or lead peroxide, so if the battery
is discharged too quickly the plates will buckle and some paste will fall out. This
shortens the life of the battery.
Note, the strength is generally expressed in terms of specific gravity, which is weight
of the electrolyte compared to the weight of an equal volume of pure water.
Charging:
To charge a battery, a current must be forced back through it. So a positive voltage
must be applied to the positive terminal, and negative to the negative terminal. Also
7
the voltage must be high enough to overcome the battery voltage and drive sufficient
current into the battery. About 14 Volts is adequate, for a 12V battery.
• Oxygen in the electrolyte combines with the lead sulphate of the positive plate
to become lead peroxide;
• Sulphate is released from both plates, which is converted to sulfuric acid and
the concentration of the electrolyte is restored; and
• The negative plate becomes spongy lead.
Charging is thus the reverse of discharging, and the plate materials return to their
original forming of lead peroxide for the positive plates and spongy lead for the
negative plates. The sulfuric acid (H2SO4) concentration becomes highest when the
cell is fully charged.
Battery Operation:
The diagrams below show the basic operation of a rechargeable battery under
discharge and charge conditions. The positive terminal is the cathode during
discharge, but it is the anode during recharge. Remember, the terms “anode” and
“cathode” properly apply to function, not structure. The anode of a device is the
terminal where current flows in from outside. The cathode of a device is the terminal
where current flows out. A useful mnemonic is ACID: Anode Current into Device.
Key Facts:
Lead-acid batteries do not lend themselves to fast charging and, with most types, a
full charge takes 14 to16 hours.

A Lead-acid battery must always be stored at full state-of-charge. Low charge

causes sulfating, a condition that robs the battery of performance. Adding carbon on
the negative electrode reduces this problem but this lowers the specific energy.
4.2 MOSFET
Introduction:
The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a semiconductor
device which is widely used for switching and amplifying electronic signals in the electronic
devices. The MOSFET is a core of integrated circuit and it can be designed and fabricated in a
single chip because of these very small sizes. The MOSFET is a four terminal device with
source(S), gate (G), drain (D) and body (B) terminals. The body of the MOSFET is frequently
connected to the source terminal so making it a three terminal device like field effect transistor. The
MOSFET is very far the most common transistor and can be used in both analog and digital circuits.
MOSFET:
The MOSFET works by electronically varying the width of a channel along which charge carriers
flow (electrons or holes). The charge carriers enter the channel at source and exit via the drain. The
width of the channel is controlled by the voltage on an electrode is called gate which is located
between source and drain. It is insulated from the channel near an extremely thin layer of metal
oxide. The MOS capacity present in the device is the main part
The MOSFET can function in two ways:
(i) Depletion Mode
(ii) Enhancement Mode
(i) Depletion Mode:
When there is no voltage on the gate, the channel shows its maximum conductance. As the voltage
on the gate is either positive or negative, the channel conductivity decreases.
(ii) Enhancement mode:
When there is no voltage on the gate the device does not conduct. More is the voltage on the gate,
the better the device can conduct.
Working Principle of MOSFET:

The aim of the MOSFET is to be able to control the voltage and current flow between the source and
drain. It works almost as a switch. The working of MOSFET depends upon the MOS capacitor. The
MOS capacitor is the main part of MOSFET. The semiconductor surface at the below oxide layer
which is located between source and drain terminal. It can be inverted from p-type to n-type by
applying a positive or negative gate voltages respectively. When we apply the positive gate voltage
the holes present under the oxide layer with a repulsive force and holes are pushed downward with
the substrate. The depletion region populated by the bound negative charges which are associated
with the acceptor atoms. The electrons reach channel is formed. The positive voltage also attracts

electrons from the n+ source and drain regions into the channel. Now, if a voltage is applied between
the drain and source, the current flows freely between the source and drain and the gate voltage
controls the electrons in the channel. Instead of positive voltage if we apply negative voltage , a hole
channel will be formed under the oxide layer.
The MOSFET is an important element in embedded system design which is used to control the loads
as per the requirement. Many of electronic projects developed using MOSFET such as light intensity
control, motor control and max generator applications. The MOSFET is a high voltage controlling
device provides some key features for circuit designers in terms of their overall performance. This
article provides information about different types of MOSFET applications.
MOSFET and Its Applications

The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a semiconductor
device which is widely used for switching and amplifying electronic signals in the electronic
devices.The MOSFET is a three terminal device such as source, gate, and drain. The MOSFET is
very far the most common transistor and can be used in both analog and digital ckt.
The MOSFET works by varying the width of a channel along which charge carriers flow (holes and
electrons). The charge carriers enter the channel from the source and exits through the drain. The
channel width is controlled by the voltage on an electrode is called gate which is located between the
source and drain. It is insulated from the channel near an extremely thin layer of metal oxide. There
is a different type of MOSFET applications which is used as per the requirement.
N-CHANNEL MOSFET
A N-Channel MOSFET is a type of MOSFET in which the channel of the MOSFET is composed of
a majority of electrons as current carriers. When the MOSFET is activated and is on, the majority of
the current flowing are electrons moving through the channel.
This is in contrast to the other type of MOSFET, which are P-Channel MOSFETs, in which the
majority of current carriers are holes.
Before, we go over the construction of N-Channel MOSFETs, we must go over the 2 types that exist.
There are 2 types of N-Channel MOSFETs, enhancement-type MOSFETs and depletion-type
MOSFETs.
A depletion-type MOSFET is normally on (maximum current flows from drain to source) when no
difference in voltage exists betweeen the gate and source terminals. However, if a voltage is applied
to its gate lead, the drain-source channel becomes more resistive, until the gate voltage is so high, the
transistor completely shuts off. An enhancement-type MOSFET is the opposite. It is normally off
when the gate-source voltage is 0 (VGS=0). However, if a voltage is applied to its gate lead, the
drain-source channel becomes less resistive.

In this article, we will go over how both N-Channel enhancement-type and depletion-type are
constructed and operate.
How N-Channel MOSFETs Are Constructed Internally
An N-Channel MOSFET is made up of an N channel, which is a channel composed of a majority of

electron current carriers. The gate terminals are made up of P material. Depending on the voltage
quantity and type (negative or positive) determines how the transistor operates whether it turns on or
off.
How an N-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET Works
How to Turn on a N-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET

To turn on a N-Channel Enhancement-type MOSFET, apply a sufficient positive voltage VDD to the
drain of the transistor and a sufficient positive voltage to the gate of the transistor. This will allow a
current to flow through the drain-source channel.
So with a sufficient positive voltage, VDD, and sufficient positive voltage applied to the gate, the N-
Channel Enhancement-type MOSFET is fully functional and is in the 'ON' operation.
How to Turn Off an N-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET

To turn off an N-channel Enhancement MOSFET, there are 2 steps you can take. You can either cut
off the bias positive voltage, VDD, that powers the drain. Or you can turn off the positive voltage
going to the gate of the transistor.
How a N-Channel Depletion-type MOSFET Works
How to Turn on an N-Channel Depletion-Type MOSFET

To turn on an N-channel Depletion-type MOSFET, to allow for maximum current flow from drain to
source, the gate voltage should be set to 0V. When the gate voltage is at 0V, the transistor conducts
the maximum amount of current and is in the active ON region. To reduce the amount of current that
flows from the drain to source, we apply a negative voltage to the gate of the MOSFET. As the
negative voltage increases (gets more negative), less and less current conducts across from the drain
to the source. Once the voltage at the gate reaches a certain point, all current ceases to flow from the
drain to the source.
So with a sufficient positive voltage, VDD, and no voltage (0V) applied to the base, the N-channel
JFET is in maximum operation and has the largest current. As we increase the negative voltage,
current flows gets reduced until the voltage is so high (negative), that all current flow is stopped.
How to Turn Off an N-Channel Depletion-type MOSFET

To turn off the N-channel Depletion-type MOSFET, there are 2 steps you can take. You can either
cut off the bias positive voltage, VDD, that powers the drain. Or you can apply sufficient negative

voltage to the gate. When sufficient voltage is applied to the gate, the drain current is stopped.
MOSFET transistors are used for both switching and amplifying applications. MOSFETs are perhaps
the most popular transistors used today. Their high input impedance makes them draw very little
input current, they are easy to make, can be made very small, and consume very little power.
IRF630 MOSFET
Characteristics IRF630 MOSFET transistor

 Type: n-channel
 Drain-to-Source Breakdown Voltage: 200 V
 Gate-to-Source Voltage, max: ±20 V
 Drain-Source On-State Resistance, max: 0.400 Ohm
 Continuous Drain Current: 9 A
 Total Gate Charge: 43 NC
 Power Dissipation: 74 W
 Package: TO-220AB
The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a

semiconductor device which is widely used for switching and amplifying electronic signals in the
electronic devices. The MOSFET is a core of integrated circuit and it can be designed and
fabricated in a single chip because of these very small sizes. The MOSFET is a four terminal
device with source(S), gate (G), drain (D) and body (B) terminals. The body of the MOSFET is
frequently connected to the source terminal so making it a three terminal device like field effect

transistor. The MOSFET is very far the most common transistor and can be used in both analog
and digital circuits.
IRF630
IRF630FP
N - CHANNEL 200V - 0.35- 9A - TO-220/FP
MESH OVERLAYMOSFET
n TYPICAL RDS(on) = 0.35 W
n EXTREMELY HIGH dV/dt CAPABILITY
n VERY LOW INTRINSIC CAPACITANCES
n GATE CHARGE MINIMIZED
DESCRIPTION
This power MOSFET is designed using he
company’s consolidated strip layout-based MESH
OVERLAY] process. This technology matches
and improves the performances compared with
standard parts from various sources.
APPLICATIONS
n HIGH CURRENT SWITCHING
n UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
n DC/DC COVERTERS FOR TELECOM,
INDUSTRIAL, AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT.
INTERNAL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS
Symbol Parameter Value Unit
IRF630 IRF630FP
VDS Drain-source Voltage (VGS = 0) 200 V
VDGR Drain- gate Voltage (RGS = 20 kW) 200 V
VGS Gate-source Voltage ± 20 V
ID Drain Current (continuous) at Tc = 25 oC 9 9(**) A
ID Drain Current (continuous) at Tc = 100 oC 5.7 5.7(**) A
IDM(•) Drain Current (pulsed) 36 36 A
Ptot Total Dissipation at Tc = 25 oC 75 25 W
Derating Factor 0.6 0.20 W/oC
dv/dt (1) Peak Diode Recovery voltage slope 5 5 V/ns
VISO Insulation Withstand Voltage (DC) ' 2000 V
Ts tg Storage Temperature -65 to 150 oC
Tj Max. Operating Junction Temperature 150 oC
(•) Pulse width limited by safe operating area ( 1) ISD 3 9A, di/dt 3 300 A/ms, VDD 3 V(BR)DSS,
Tj 3 TJMAX

First Digit of the Date code Being Z or K Identifies Silicon Characterized in this Datasheet
(**) Limited only by Maximum Temperature Allowed
AVALANCHE CHARACTERISTICS
Symbol Parameter Max Value Unit
IAR Avalanche Current, Repetitive or Not-Repetitive
(pulse width limited by Tj max)
9A
EAS Single Pulse Avalanche Energy
(starting Tj = 25 oC, ID = IAR, VDD = 50 V)
160 mJ
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (Tcase = 25 oC unless otherwise specified)
OFF
Symbol Parameter Test Conditions Min. Typ. Max. Unit
V(BR)DSS Drain-source
Breakdown Voltage
ID = 250 mA VGS = 0 200 V
IDSS Zero Gate Voltage
Drain Current (VGS = 0)
VDS = Max Rating
VDS = Max Rating Tc = 125 oc
IGSS Gate-body Leakage
Current (VDS = 0)
VGS = ± 20 V
VGS (Th) Gate Threshold Voltage VDS = VGS ID = 250 mA 2 3 4 V
RDS (on) Static Drain-source on
Resistance
VGS = 10V ID = 5 A 0.35 0.40 W
ID(on) On State Drain Current VDS > ID(on) x RDS(on )max
VGS = 10 V
10 A
DYNAMIC
VDS > ID(on) x RDS(on )max ID = 5 A 3 4 S
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (continued)
SWITCHING ON
Turn-on Time
Rise Time
VDD = 100 V ID = 4.5 A
RG = 4.7 W VGS = 10 V

TO-220FP MECHANICAL DATA

IRF630
Information furnished is believed to be accurate and reliable. However, STMicroelectronics assumes
no responsibility for the consequences
of use of such information nor for any infringement of patents or other rights of third parties which
may result from its use. No license is
granted by implication or otherwise under any patent or patent rights of STMicroelectronics. Specific
ationmentioned in this publication are
subject to change without notice. This publication supersedes and replaces all information previously
supplied. STMicroelectronics products
are not authorized for use as critical components in life support devices or systems without express
written approval of STMicroelectronics.
The ST logo is a trademark of STMicroelectronics
{1999 STMicroelectronics – Printed in Italy – All Rights Reserved
STMicroelectronics GROUP OF COMPANIES
4.3 RESISTORS
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a

circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to
divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-
power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of
motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors
can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is
proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the maximum working
voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and
inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits

the maximum permitted current, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is
determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and
position of leads (or terminals), are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically
large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.
Units:
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
Commonly used multiples and submultiples in electrical and electronic usage are the milliohm
(1x10−3), kilohm (1x103), and megohm (1x106).
Theory of operation
Ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) through it
where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:
This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is maintained across a resistance (R), a
current (I) will flow through the resistance.
This formulation is often used in practice. For example, if V is 12 volts and R is 400 ohms, a current
of 12 / 400 = 0.03 amperes will flow through the resistance R.
Series and parallel resistors

Main article: Series and parallel circuits
Resistors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find their
total equivalent resistance (Req):

The parallel property can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in geometry) to
simplify equations. For two resistors,
The current through resistors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each resistor can be
different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their
total resistance:
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series can be broken up into smaller parts
that are either one or the other. For instance,
However, many resistor networks cannot be split up in this way. Consider a cube, each edge of
which has been replaced by a resistor. For example, determining the resistance between two opposite
vertices requires additional transforms, such as the Y-Δ transform, or else matrix methods must be
used for the general case. However, if all twelve resistors are equal, the corner-to-corner resistance is
5
⁄6 of any one of them.
The practical application to resistors is that a resistance of any non-standard value can be obtained by
connecting standard values in series or in parallel.

Power dissipation
The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is calculated
using the following:
All three equations are equivalent. The first is derived from Joule's first law. Ohm’s Law derives the
other two from that.
The total amount of heat energy released is the integral of the power over time:
If the average power dissipated is more than the resistor can safely dissipate, the resistor may depart
from its nominal resistance and may become damaged by overheating. Excessive power dissipation
may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it burns out, which could cause a fire in
adjacent components and materials. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they
overheat dangerously.
Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it can safely
dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board, ambient temperature, and
other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly. Rated power dissipation may be given
for an ambient temperature of 25 °C in free air. Inside an equipment case at 60 °C, rated dissipation
will be significantly less; a resistor dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by the
manufacturer may still be outside the safe operating area and may prematurely fail.
4.4 CAPACITORS
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It is a passive electronic
component with two terminals.
The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some capacitance exists between any two
electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor is a component designed to add
capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was originally known as a condenser or condensator.[1] The
original name is still widely used in many languages, but not commonly in English.

The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many types of capacitor
are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of
metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film,
sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper,
mica, air, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. When an electric
potential, a voltage, is applied across the terminals of a capacitor, for example when a capacitor is
connected across a battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive
charge to collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the other plate. No current
actually flows through the dielectric. However, there is a flow of charge through the source circuit. If
the condition is maintained sufficiently long, the current through the source circuit ceases. If a time-
varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing
current due to the charging and discharging cycles of the capacitor.
The earliest forms of capacitors were created in the 1740s, when European experimenters discovered
that electric charge could be stored in water-filled glass jars that came to be known as Leyden jars.
In 1748, Benjamin Franklin connected a series of jars together to create what he called an "electrical
battery", from their visual similarity to a battery of cannon, which became the standard English term
electric battery. Today, capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.[2] The property of energy storage in
capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in early digital computers.[3
4.5 TRANSFORMER
A transformer is an electrical device used to change the value of an alternating voltage. Transformers
are widely used in electrical work. They are encountered daily, in industrial, commercial and
domestic situations. They vary in size from miniature units used in electronics to huge units used in
power stations. The efficient transmission and distribution of electricity throughout the country
would be impossible without the use of power transformers.
Transformers are also used for safety reasons on construction sites when using power tools and in
domestic bathroom situations in shaver units. They are used in doorbell operation and also to power
electronic equipment, battery chargers, televisions, computers, alarm systems, etc. Transformers vary
considerably in construction, size and shape depending on their application.
All transformers rely on the principle of mutual inductance for their operation. Mutual inductance
was discussed in detail in Unit Magnetism, Electromagnetism and Electromagnetic Induction.

4.5.1 Transformer Symbols:
Architectural Symbols Circuit symbols
Figure 1
4.5.2 Transformer Construction:
A transformer consists of two coils of wire called windings, which are wound onto a common iron
core. The wire used in the two windings, primary and secondary, is coated with an insulating
varnish. Both coils are wound onto, but insulated from the iron core.
Primary Winding Secondary Winding
Applied Alternating Alternating Induced

Current Supply EMF
Figure 2

4.5.3 The Transformer Principle:
When a conductor or coil is moved in a stationary magnetic field it cuts the lines of magnetic flux
and an EMF is induced in the conductor or coil. This same principle also applies when a conductor is
held stationary and the magnetic flux is made to change or vary.
Now consider an alternating current applied to a stationary coil. A magnetic field will build up and
collapse in the coil, continually rising and falling in harmony with the applied AC current as shown
in Figure 3.
Alternating flux
AC Supply continually
building up,
collapsing
and changing
in polarity
If a second coil ( coil 2 ) is placed close to the first coil ( coil 1 ) the alternating magnetic flux in coil
1 links with coil 2. See Figure 4. This results in an EMF being induced in coil 2. This is a process
known as mutual induction.
Coil 1 Coil 2

Current Supply EMF

If coil 1 and coil 2 are mounted on an iron core the magnetic flux around both coils will be
concentrated. This arrangement of coils and an iron core form the complete device known as a
transformer. See Figure 5.

Current Supply EMF
Lines of Flux set up by Primary Winding
The input coil of a transformer is fed from the AC supply and is called the primary winding. The
output coil, to which the load is connected, is called the secondary winding.
It is important to remember that there is no electrical connection between the primary winding and
the secondary winding of a transformer. The only common link between the two windings is the
magnetic field. Step-Up Transformer
If the number of turns on the secondary winding of a transformer is greater than the number of turns
on the primary winding, then the secondary output voltage will be greater than the primary input
voltage. This type of transformer is called a step-up transformer and is illustrated in
Figure 7.
Applied Alternating Having more turns than

Current Supply the Primary Winding
Step-Up Transformer

4.5.4 CENTER TAP TRANSFORMER
Diagram of center-tapped transformer
In electronics, a center tap (CT) is a contact made to a point halfway along a winding of a
transformer or inductor, or along the element of a resistor or a potentiometer. Taps are sometimes
used on inductors for the coupling of signals, and may not necessarily be at the half-way point, but
rather, closer to one end. A common application of this is in the Hartley oscillator. Inductors with
taps also permit the transformation of the amplitude of alternating current (AC) voltages for the
purpose of power conversion, in which case, they are referred to as autotransformers, since there is
only one winding. An example of an autotransformer is an automobile ignition coil. Potentiometer
tapping provides one or more connections along the device's element, along with the usual
connections at each of the two ends of the element, and the slider connection. Potentiometer taps
allow for circuit functions that would otherwise not be available with the usual construction of just
the two end connections and one slider connection.
Volts center tapped
Volts center tapped (VCT) describes the voltage output of a center tapped transformer. For example:
A 24 VCT transformer will measure 24 VAC across the outer two taps (winding as a whole), and 12
VAC from each outer tap to the center-tap (half winding). These two 12 VAC supplies are 180
degrees out of phase with each other, thus making it easy to derive positive and negative 12 volt DC
power supplies from them.
 In early vacuum tube audio amplifiers, center-tapped transformers were sometimes used as
the phase inverter to drive the two output tubes of a push-pull stage. The technique is nearly
as old as electronic amplification and is well documented, for example, in The Radiotron
Designer's Handbook, Third Edition of 1940. This technique was carried over into transistor
designs also, part of the reason for which was that capacitors were large, expensive and
unreliable. However, since that era, capacitors have become vastly smaller, cheaper and more
reliable, whereas transformers are still relatively expensive. Furthermore, as designers
acquired more experience with transistors, they stopped trying to treat them like tubes.
Coupling a class A intermediate amplification stage to a class AB power stage using a
transformer doesn't make sense anymore even in small systems powered from a single-
voltage supply. Modern higher-end equipment is based on dual-supply designs which

eliminates coupling. It is possible for an amplifier, from the input all the way to the
loudspeaker, to be DC coupled without any capacitance or inductance.
 In vacuum tube amplifiers, center-tapped transformers are used to couple a push-pull output
stage to the speaker. This use is still relevant today because tubes and tube amplifiers
continue to be produced for niche markets.
 In analog telecommunications systems center-tapped transformers can be used to provide a
DC path around an AC coupled amplifier for signalling purposes.
 Power distribution, see 3 wire single phase.
 Historically producing full-wave DC with a center-tapped transformer and two rectifiers was
preferred to the full bridge rectifier when rectifier costs were higher than the extra cost of
copper windings and iron laminations (a centre tap only uses half of the secondary coil per
half-cycle.) They saved the cost of two diodes, and also (but less importantly) halved the
voltage drop across the rectifying stage. However, now the economic case has reversed and
bridge rectifiers are much more common.
 Phantom power can be supplied to a condenser microphone using center tap transformers.
One method, called "direct center tap" uses two center tap transformers, one at the
microphone body and one at the microphone preamp. Filtered DC voltage is connected to the
microphone preamp center tap, and the microphone body center tap is grounded through the
cable shield. The second method uses the same center tap transformer topology at the
microphone body, but at the microphone preamp, a matched pair of resistors spanning the
signal lines in series creates an "artificial center tap".[1]
4.6 TRANSISTORS
4.6.1 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR:
Simple diodes are made up from two pieces of semiconductor material, either silicon or germanium
to form a simple PN-junction and we also learnt about their properties and characteristics. If we now
join together two individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will give us two PN-junctions connected
together in series that share a common P or N terminal. The fusion of these two diodes produces a
three layer, two junction, three terminal device forming the basis of a Bipolar Junction Transistor, or
BJT for short.
Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that can
act as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor's
ability to change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: "switching" (digital
electronics) or "amplification" (analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors have the ability to
operate within three different regions:
 1. Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

 2. Saturation - the transistor is "fully-ON" operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)
 3. Cut-off - the transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and Ic = 0

Typical Bipolar Transistor
The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination of the words Transfer Varistor used to
describe their mode of operation way back in their early days of development. There are two basic
types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes the physical
arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made.
The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting
terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three
terminals are known and labeled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C )
respectively.
Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing through
them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting like a
current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is
exactly the same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for
each type.

Bipolar Transistor Construction
The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given above
with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of "conventional current flow"
between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow always points from the
positive P-type region to the negative N-type region for both transistor types, exactly the same as for
the standard diode symbol.
4.6.2 Bipolar Transistor Configurations
As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to
connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output.
Each method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static
characteristics of the transistor varies with each circuit arrangement.
 1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

 2. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.
 3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

The Common Base (CB) Configuration:
As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the BASE connection is
common to both the input signal AND the output signal with the input signal being applied between
the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding output signal is taken from between the base
and the collector terminals as shown with the base terminal grounded or connected to a fixed
reference voltage point. The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both
the base current and collector current respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than
the emitter current input resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of "1" (unity) or less, in
other words the common base configuration "attenuates" the input signal.
The Common Base Transistor Circuit
This type of amplifier configuration is a non-
inver ting voltage amplifier circuit, in that the

signal voltages Vin and Vout are in-phase. This type of transistor arrangement is not very common
due to its unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its output characteristics represent that of a
forward biased diode while the input characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-diode.
Also this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a high ratio of output to input resistance or more
importantly "load" resistance (RL) to "input" resistance (Rin) giving it a value of "Resistance Gain".
Then the voltage gain (Av) for a common base configuration is therefore given as:
Common Base Voltage Gain
Where: Ic/Ie is the current gain, alpha (α) and RL/Rin is the resistance gain.
The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier circuits such as microphone
pre-amplifier or radio frequency (Rf) amplifiers due to its very good high frequency response.
The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is applied between the
base, while the output is taken from between the collector and the emitter as shown. This type of
configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor based amplifiers and which represents
the "normal" method of bipolar transistor connection. The common emitter amplifier configuration
produces the highest current and power gain of all the three bipolar transistor configurations. This is
mainly because the input impedance is LOW as it is connected to a forward-biased PN-junction,
while the output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse-biased PN-junction.
The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit
In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the currents
flowing into the transistor as the emitter current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib. Also, as the load resistance
(RL) is connected in series with the collector, the current gain of the common emitter transistor
configuration is quite large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib and is given the Greek symbol of Beta, (β). As
the emitter current for a common emitter configuration is defined as Ie = Ic + Ib, the ratio of Ic/Ie is
called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of α. Note: that the value of Alpha will always be less than
unity.
Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib, Ic and Ie is determined by the
physical construction of the transistor itself, any small change in the base current (Ib), will result in a
much larger change in the collector current (Ic). Then, small changes in current flowing in the base
will thus control the current in the emitter-collector circuit. Typically, Beta has a value between 20
and 200 for most general purpose transistors.
By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the mathematical relationship between
these parameters and therefore the current gain of the transistor can be given as:

Where: "Ic" is the current flowing into the collector terminal, "Ib" is the current flowing into the base
terminal and "Ie" is the current flowing out of the emitter terminal.
Then to summarise, this type of bipolar transistor configuration has a greater input impedance,
current and power gain than that of the common base configuration but its voltage gain is much
lower. The common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit resulting in the output
signal being 180o out-of-phase with the input voltage signal.
The Common Collector (CC) Configuration:
In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is now common through
the supply. The input signal is connected directly to the base, while the output is taken from the
emitter load as shown. This type of configuration is commonly known as a Voltage Follower or
Emitter Follower circuit. The emitter follower configuration is very useful for impedance matching
applications because of the very high input impedance, in the region of hundreds of thousands of
Ohms while having a relatively low output impedance.
The Common Collector Transistor Circuit
The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to the β value of the
transistor itself. In the common collector configuration the load resistance is situated in series with
the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter current. As the emitter current is the
combination of the collector AND the base current combined, the load resistance in this type of
transistor configuration also has both the collector current and the input current of the base flowing
through it. Then the current gain of the circuit is given as:

The Common Collector Current Gain
This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit in that the signal voltages of
Vin and Vout are in-phase. It has a voltage gain that is always less than "1" (unity). The load
resistance of the common collector transistor receives both the base and collector currents giving a
large current gain (as with the common emitter configuration) therefore, providing good current
amplification with very little voltage gain

BIBILOGRAPHY
[1]. Hibikino, Wakamatsu, Kitakyushu, “Accident Prevention System Based On Semantic Network
Jian-Xiong Yang, JunzoWatada”, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Machine
Learning and Cybernetics, Kunming, 12-15 July 2008, pp.: 3738-3743.
[2]. P L Needham of VDO Kienzle UK Ltd., “Collision Prevention: The Role of an Accident Data
Recorder (ADR)” in the ADASOl: International Conference on Advanced Driver Assistance
Systems September 2001.
[3]. BaoRong Chang, Chung-Ping Young, Hsiu Fen Tsai, and Jian-Jr Lin, from National Taitung
University, Taiwan, on “Applying Embedded Hybrid ANFIS/Quantum-Tuned BPNN Prediction to
Collision Warning System for Motor Vehicle Safety”, Eighth International Conference on Intelligent
Systems Design and Applications 2008.
[4]. Kai-Tai Song and Chih-Chieh Yang, of National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan, “Front
Vehicle Tracking Using Scene Analysis”, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on
Mechatronics & Automation 2005.
[5]. PadminiKumari j, S.S. Dorle, A.G. KeskarMegha, B. Chakole, “Micro-controlled based Vehicle
Safety System Using Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC)”, Second International
Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering and Technology, ICETET-09.
[6]. Soichi Kubota, Yoshiharu Okamoto, Hideo Oda of National Institute of Information and
Communication Technology (NICT), Japan, “Safety Driving Support System Using REID for
Prevention of Pedestrian-involved Accidents”, 6th International Conference on ITS
Telecommunications Proceedings 2006.

[7]. A.R.Ali, E. Imran Zualkernan, and FadiAloul, “A Mobile GPRS-Sensors Array for Air
Pollution Monitoring,” vol. 8, pp. 415-422, 2010.
[8]. F.-S. BAI，Y.-L. LIU, “Design of Fault Monitoring Alarm System for Networks Based on GSM
SMS,” pp. 45-67, 2010.
[9]. R. Al-Ali, Member, IEEE, Imran Zualkernan, and FadiAloul, Senior Member, IEEE, “A mobile
gprs-sensors array for Air pollution monitoring” vol. 6, pp. 410–422, Oct. 2010.
[10]. Da-Jeng Yao, “A gas sensing system for indoor air quality control and polluted environmental
monitoring,” pp. 11-14, 2009.
[11]. Chen Peijiang, Jiang Xuehua, “Design and Implementation of Remote monitoring system
based on GSM,” vol.42, pp.167-175. 2008.

BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of resistance, is commonly used
to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger current at collector & emitter terminals. ... Its
equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549
Bipolar junction transistors come in two major types, NPN and PNP. A NPN transistor is one in which the
majority current carrier are electrons. Electron flowing from the emitter to the collector forms the base of
the majority of current flow through the transistor. The further types of charge, holes, are a minority.
BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration. Transistors are commonly used in digital
circuits as electronic switches which can be either in an "on" or "off" state, both for high-power applications
such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates.
CENTRE TAPPED TRANSFORMER

Diagram of center-tapped transformer
In electronics, a center tap (CT) is a contact made to a point halfway along a winding of a transformer or
inductor, or along the element of a resistor or a potentiometer. Taps are sometimes used on inductors for
the coupling of signals, and may not necessarily be at the half-way point, but rather, closer to one end. A
common application of this is in the Hartley oscillator. Inductors with taps also permit the transformation of
the amplitude of alternating current (AC) voltages for the purpose of power conversion, in which case, they
are referred to as autotransformers, since there is only one winding. An example of an autotransformer is an
automobile ignition coil. Potentiometer tapping provides one or more connections along the device's
element, along with the usual connections at each of the two ends of the element, and the slider
connection. Potentiometer taps allow for circuit functions that would otherwise not be available with the
usual construction of just the two end connections and one slider connection.
RESISTORS
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a

circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to
divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-
power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of
motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors
can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
Resistor
An array of axial-lead resistors

Type
Passive
Working principle
Electric resistance

Electronic symbol
Two common schematic symbols
Axial-lead resistors on tape. The component is cut from the tape during assembly and the part is
inserted into the board.
Size comparison of axial-lead resistors.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various
compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.
The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the
resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the component.
CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It is a passive electronic
component with two terminals.
Capacitor
Type
Passive
Invented
Ewald Georg von Kleist
Electronic symbol
The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some capacitance exists between any two
electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor is a component designed to add
capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was originally known as a condenser or condensator.[1] The
original name is still widely used in many languages, but not commonly in English.
The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many types of capacitor
are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of
metallic plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film,
sintered bead of metal, or an electrolyte. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper,
mica, air, and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. When an electric
potential, a voltage, is applied across the terminals of a capacitor, for example when a capacitor is
connected across a battery, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive
charge to collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the other plate. No current

actually flows through the dielectric. However, there is a flow of charge through the source circuit. If
the condition is maintained sufficiently long, the current through the source circuit ceases. If a time-
varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing
current due to the charging and discharging cycles of the capacitor.
The earliest forms of capacitors were created in the 1740s, when European experimenters discovered
that electric charge could be stored in water-filled glass jars that came to be known as Leyden jars.
In 1748, Benjamin Franklin connected a series of jars together to create what he called an "electrical
battery", from their visual similarity to a battery of cannon, which became the standard English term
electric battery. Today, capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage in
capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in early digital computers.
Capacitors are used to store energy and electric charge. They store energy between the spaces of the
plates and this energy is used to generate high form of electric current

12v DC To 230v Ac Inverter 1

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

12v DC To 230v Ac Inverter 1

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

12V DC TO 230V AC INVERTER CIRCUIT

So finally 230v ac supply we can utilize for our domestic loads.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 1

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 2

Battery Room Ventilation and Safety

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 3

Battery cells can be divided into two major types:

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 4

Lead-acid battery is a type of secondary battery which uses a positive electrode of

Components of Lead-Acid Battery:

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 5

produced during charging.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 7

A Lead-acid battery must always be stored at full state-of-charge. Low charge

(ii) Enhancement mode:

Working Principle of MOSFET:

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 8

MOSFET and Its Applications

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 9

How N-Channel MOSFETs Are Constructed Internally

An N-Channel MOSFET is made up of an N channel, which is a channel composed of a majority of

How an N-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET Works

How to Turn on a N-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET

How to Turn Off an N-Channel Enhancement type MOSFET

How a N-Channel Depletion-type MOSFET Works

How to Turn on an N-Channel Depletion-Type MOSFET

How to Turn Off an N-Channel Depletion-type MOSFET

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 10

Characteristics IRF630 MOSFET transistor

The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 11

INTERNAL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 12

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 13

TO-220FP MECHANICAL DATA

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 14

Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

Series and parallel resistors

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 15

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 16

using the following:

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 17

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 18

4.5.1 Transformer Symbols:

Architectural Symbols Circuit symbols

4.5.2 Transformer Construction:

Primary Winding Secondary Winding

Applied Alternating Alternating Induced

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 19

4.5.3 The Transformer Principle:

Applied Alternating Alternating Induced

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 20

Primary Winding Secondary Winding

Applied Alternating Alternating Induced

Lines of Flux set up by Primary Winding

Primary Winding Secondary Winding

Applied Alternating Having more turns than

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 21

4.5.4 CENTER TAP TRANSFORMER

Diagram of center-tapped transformer

Volts center tapped

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page 22