CONCEPT LEARNING:

BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVISM
&
AUSUBEL’S THEORY OF
SUBSUMPTION

Silvia Jo Sabio
Educ 22 Report
1
 Part. I
Jerome S. Bruner’s
Constructivism
[also known for]
Discovery Learning
Representational Learning
Concept Learning
Inductive Method
SJS
 Bruner

A. Introduction: background & framework

B. Representational Learning
• Three Modes of Representation
• The sequence of representational stages
C. The Course of Cognitive Growth
* Learning by Discovery
* Culture & Cognitive Growth
D. Theory of instruction: Inductive Method
SJS
 Bruner:
going beyond the information given

✤ the outcome of cognitive development => THINKING

✤ aim of education => make the learner “as autonomous &
self-propelled a thinker” as possible
✤ to understand:
➡ what it means to know &
➡ how one comes to know

✤ 2 Major Themes in his work:

➡ sequence of representational systems children acquire to
understand the world; &
➡ role of culture in cognitive growth SJS
 Bruner’s FRAMEWORK

✓ PREMISE: learners must acquire ways of representing

recurrent regularities in environment
✓ PROCESS: interaction between: (a) evolving basic
human capabilities, & (b) culturally invented
technologies that amplify these capabilities
✓ Cognitive growth has 2 aspects:
• from the inside out [REPRESENTATIONAL
LEARNING]
• from the outside in [ROLE OF CULTURE IN
COGNITIVE GROWTH] SJS
 Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development

Jerome S. Bruner Lev S.Vygostky

•Mediation through signs

•emphasized culture
3 Modes of •based in human activity Vygotsky’s
Representing Developmental
Understanding Method

Cognitive
Growth
Social Origins •Internalization
•ENACTIVE of Thinking •ZPD
•ICONIC •Intersubjectivity
•SYMBOLIC

leads to

influences

Implications:
Discovery Learning & 1. Learning pulls development.
Inquiry Teaching 2. Instruction should be scaffolded in the
Culture ZPD.
3. Intersubjective interaction is important

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 3 Modes of Representation

1. ENACTIVE: action-based.
mode of representing past events through appropriate motoe
responses, e.g. bringing you to place vs. giving directions; air-piano playing

2. ICONIC: image-based.
summarizing events by the selective organization of precepts & of
images, by the spatial, temporal & qualitative structures of perceptual
field & their transformed images, e.g., making a map; imagining red-hot
flames & black smoke for fire

3. SYMBOLIC: language-based; the ultimate mode

result of acquiring a symbol system which represents things by design
features that include remoteness & arbitrariness, e.g., language, numeric
codes SJS
 3 Modes of Representation
Implication for
Mode Definition
Instruction

use manipulables & tactile instructional

represents understanding strategies with young children to teach
Enactive through motor response concepts with which learners have no
prior experience

accompany instruction with diagrams &

using images to represent
Iconic understanding
other strategies that appeal to the
imagination

Using symbol systems such as

Use familiar symbol systems when
language, musical notation, &
Symbolic mathematical notation to
teaching new concepts in a subject where
the learner already has prior experience
represent understanding
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 3 Modes of Representation
✓ NOT A DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE THEORY (aka Piaget): the stages are not
delineated, the modes are integrated and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each
other. Influences from environment amplify internal capabilities of learners

➡ REDEFINES READINESS FOR LEARNING: it is a question of translation, as a learner (even

of a very young age) is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is
organized appropriately (vs. Piaget); it is not a question of prior knowledge (vs. Ausubel)
➡ ADULTS ALSO MAY GO THROUGH SEQUENCE: when faced with new material, it is
efficacious to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this
holds true even for adult learners.

✓ SEQUENCE & INSTRUCTION: The optimum sequence of instruction is the 3 modes, as

any domain of knowledge can be represented in the modes..

➡ Optimal instruction requires knowing the learner’s prior knowledge

➡ Optimal instruction also depends on desired speed of learning: flexibility in mode to fit
what is required (time & SKA constraints)
➡ suggests a system of coding to form a hierarchical arrangement of related categories, where
each successively higher level of categories becomes more specific (similar to Bloom’s) &
the related idea of instructional scaffolding. In accordance with this understanding of
learning, Bruner proposed the spiral curriculum, a teaching approach in which each subject
or skill area is revisited at intervals, at a more sophisticated level each time SJS
 Role of Culture in Cognitive Growth
✓ emphasis in interaction: enables learner to develop the capacity to move
through the modes
➡ between genetic predisposition & experience
➡ interpersonal interaction (learning is a social enterprise)
➡ learner & cultural

✓ Learning by Discovery
➡ DISCOVERY: all forms of obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of one’s own
mind.
➡ process is important to intellectual development
➡ not a random event; information gathering must have connectivity & organization,
or else deficiency in problem-solving skills

✓ Prerequisites
➡ sufficient prior knowledge
➡ guided practice in inquiry: need models (concept attainment model) & teachers
must model the conduct of inquiry (not random)
➡ reflection: must know what they did, if successful or not
➡ contrast: leads to cognitive conflicts, which then leads to discovery SJS
 Role of Culture in Cognitive Growth

✓ intelligence is to a great extent the internalization of

“tools” provided by a given culture
➡ cultural environment determines use/application of a
concept
➡ schooling is an instrument of culture

✓ cognitive growth is growing from within and

without: theories of instruction must consider the
natures of:
➡ knowledge determines the mode of
representation to be used
➡ knower
➡ knowledge-getting process determines the instructional
strategies SJS
 Part. II
David P. Ausubel’s
Theory of Subsumption
[also known for]
Meaningful [Verbal] Learning
Concept Learning
Theory of Assimilation
Advance Organizers
Deductive Method
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 By: David P. Ausubel Cognitive Organization • Hierarchical cognitive structure
• Individual anchoring ideas
Meaningful Reception
Learning • Derivative subsumption
Processes of Meaningful • Correlative subsumption
Learning • Superordinate learning
• Combinatorial learning
• Assimilation
MEANINGFUL • Retention
LEARNING &
SCHEMA THEORY
• Packets of knowledge similar to
The Nature of Schema theories & procedures
• Mental modes that guide & govern
performance
Schema Theory
• Accretion (add to an existing
Schema-based Processes schema)
• Tuning (modify an existing
Instructional Implications: schema)
1. Activate prior knowledge using advance • Restructuring (develop a new
organizers & schema signals. schema by analogy)
2. Make instructional materials meaningful with
comparative organizers & elaboration.
3. Provide new contexts & examples to apply
to prior knowledge.
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Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Learning

Processes of Meaningful Learning

Cognitive Organization

• Derivative subsumption
• Hierarchical cognitive • Correlative subsumption
structure • Superordinate learning
• Individual anchoring ideas • Combinatorial learning
• Assimilation
• Retention
THEORY OF ASSIMILATION: LEARNING & RETENTION SJS
 Ausubel’s
• Developed parallel with, and essentially unaffected by the
CIP THEORY.
• Initially, Ausubel viewed MRL as fundamentally different
from thrust of SCHEMA THEORY.
➡ But schema theory developed as similar to MRL.
➡R. Mayer proposed synthesis of verbal learning research
that included SCHEMA THEORY & Ausubel’s Meaningful
Learning Theory.
• NOW: Ausubel’s theory not as popular as SCHEMA
THEORY in learning research & theory, but some aspects of
Ausubel’s theory is standard part of educational practice.
SJS
 Ausubel’s
• Developed parallel with, and essentially unaffected by the
CIP THEORY.
• Initially, Ausubel viewed MRL as fundamentally different
from thrust of SCHEMA THEORY.
➡ But schema theory developed as similar to MRL.
➡R. Mayer proposed synthesis of verbal learning research
that included SCHEMA THEORY & Ausubel’s Meaningful
Learning Theory.
• NOW: Ausubel’s theory not as popular as SCHEMA
THEORY in learning research & theory, but some aspects of
Ausubel’s theory is standard part of educational practice.
SJS
 Ausubel’s
• MEANING is at the very core of cognitive
experience.
✓experiences
occurs when learners actively interpret
using certain internal cognitive
operations.

✓experience
interaction between cognitive operations &
===> THEORY OF MEANINGFUL
RECEPTION LEARNING

✓meaningful
made 2 distinctions: kinds of learning & rote vs.
learning
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 Meaningful Reception Learning
★ 1st distinction: there are 2 types of learning in
classroom:
1. RECEPTION LEARNING:
‣ what is to be learned is presented to the learner
in its final form.
‣ learner must internalize information in a form that
will be available for later use
‣ akin to expository instruction
Ausubel: this is most common type of learning in
classrooms.
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 Meaningful Reception Learning
★1st distinction: there are 2 types of learning in classroom:
2. DISCOVERY LEARNING:
‣ The learner must:
a) rearrange information,
b) integrate it with existing cognitive structure,
c) reorganize/transform the integrated combination to
create desired end product or discover a missing
means-end relationship;
d) internalize discovered content.
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 Meaningful Reception Learning
★ 2nd distinction: Rote vs. Meaningful Learning
A. ROTE LEARNING:
‣ verbatim memorization
‣ no real connection between what was already
known & what was memorized
B. MEANINGFUL LEARNING:
‣ process of relating potentially meaningful
information to what the learner knows in a non-
arbitrary & substantive way
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Meaningful Reception Learning

Kinds of Classroom
Learning a. Rote
Learning
1. Reception
Learning

2. Discovery b. Meaningful
Learning Learning

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3 Essential Conditions to Meaningful Learning

1. The Learner must use meaningful learning set to any learning

task.
➡ not just memorize

2. Material must be potentially meaningful.

➡ learning tasks & materials should be organized, readable &
relevant.
3. What learners already know & how that knowledge relates to
what they are asked to learn.
➡ existing cognitive structure (organization, stability &
clarity of knowledge)--the principal factor influencing the
learning & retention of new material.
➡anchoring ideas --- provide entry points for new
information to be connected.
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 PREREQUISITES TO MEANINGFUL LEARNING
1. COGNITIVE STRUCTURE:
✓ the learner’s overall memorial structure or integrated body of
knowledge.
✓ made up of sets of ideas that are hierarchically organized, and
by theme.
➡ within a hierarchy, the most inclusive ideas are the
strongest & most stable.
✓ similar to model of memory, except for hierarchy.

2. ANCHORING IDEAS:
✓ describes how specific linkages occur within the structure

✓ specific, relevant ideas in the cognitive structure that provide

the entry points for new information to be connected.
➡ enables the learner to construct meaning from new
information & experiences that are only potentially
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 COOKING Ideas high in the hierarchy

general stable
includes different
involves preparation
types

determining assembling
stove oven
recipe ingredients

mixing
frying roasting
sauteing baking stir beat whip

whip whisk

egg beater
specific unstable
Ideas low in the hierarchy

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HIERARCHY OF KNOWLEDGE AS APPLIED TO COOKING

 PROCESSES OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING
How is new information added to an
existing structure?
New information can be:

1. Subordinate to SUBSUMPTION
- lower in the structure; 1. Derivative
- under more general & inclusive 2. Correlative
anchoring ideas already in memory

2. Superordinate to SUPERORDINATE
- higher in the structure

3. Coordinate with COMBINATORIAL

-same level in the structure
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 AUSUBEL’S ASSIMILATION THEORY
1. SUBSUMPTION
1A. DERIVATIVE -> new examples of learned concepts
A. DOG

a1. Poodle a2. Bulldog a3. Labrador a4.Dalmatian

1B. CORRELATIVE -> elaboration, extension or modification of

learned concepts [A becomes A1]

Government

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President Congress Judiciary local government

AUSUBEL’S ASSIMILATION THEORY

2. SUPERORDINATE
-> synthesis of established ideas, i.e. learning a new concept under
which established ideas can be subsumed.

Do all assignments ahead of time

Educ29 Mother of Educ27 video has to be Educ22 Report has to

all PEs edited be made

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AUSUBEL’S ASSIMILATION THEORY

3. Combinatorial
-> new ideas are neither more inclusive nor subordinate to anchoring
ideas, i.e. not relatable in a specific sense to an existing anchor, but
relevant to a broad background of information.

Conduct of electricity through

Flow of heat through metal
metal

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Ausubel’s Assimilation Theory
THE MEANINGFUL
Original: LEARNING PROCESSES
process of SUBSUMPTION
(derivative, correlative)
retention SUPERORDINATE
COMBINATORIAL

result of the interaction that

Revised: takes place between (a) new
process of material to be learned, and (b)
learning & the existing cognitive
structure
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 RETENTION OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING

✓ RETENTION: maintain availability of acquired information, for

access at a later time.
✓ immediately after meaningful learning, new information is easily
accessible
➡ stability due to anchorage to relevant concepts in cognitive
structure.
✓ over time, subsumed ideas less distinct from anchor. When no
longer retrievable as separate from anchor, deemed forgotten.
✓ forgetting more serious for correlative, superordinate &
combinatorial vs. derivative learning.
✓ difference between forgetting after rote vs. meaningful learning
==> net gain in cognitive structure in latter.
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 READINESS FOR LEARNING

✓ the learner’s developmental level of cognitive functioning.

✓ determines the extent to which learners are capable of learning
at various levels of abstraction within a subject matter
➡ “the most important single factor influencing learning
is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and
teach him accordingly.”
✓ depends on
a) substantive content in cognitive structure;
b) cognitive organization of the learner; [also]
c) age differences among learners
d) cultural disadvantage
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 ADVANCE ORGANIZERS

★ concept developed & systematically studied by Ausubel

★ Definitions:
• "statement of inclusive concepts to introduce and sum up material
that follows" (Woolfolk, 2001).
• Cognitive instructional strategy used to promote the learning and
retention of new information (Ausubel, 1960).
• method of bridging and linking old information with something new
• information that is presented prior to learning and that can be used
by the learner to organize and interpret new incoming information
(Mayer, 2003).
★ works best when there is no prior knowledge-- serves
as prior knowledge before learning new material
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 ADVANCE ORGANIZERS
★ highly useful in process of transferring knowledge: allows
organization of new material to familiar structure, e.g., creative problem
solving or transfer of knowledge to new situations
★ TYPES:
• EXPOSITORY- describe the new content; serves to make appropriate
prerequisite knowledge available to the learner by providing new information
• COMPARATIVE: serve to build external connections with existing knowledge
that is relevant to the new information by reminding the learner about prior
knowledge are called comparative organizers (Mayer, 2003, 128)
• NARRATIVE- presents the new information in the form of a story to
students.
• SKIMMING - used to look over the new material and gain a basic overview.
• GRAPHIC ORGANIZER- visuals to set up or outline the new information.
• CONCEPT MAPPING
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