The principles and practices of seed production that can affect seed quality in South

Africa.

A research report submitted by

Karabo Masila
Student number: 206030113
Tshwane University of Technology
Research methodology
16 November 2009
1. Introduction

Numerous edible crops and ornamental cultivars, annuals and biennials in South Africa
are established and produced from seed, so it can be acknowledged that seeds of good
quality are of prime importance since they are the primary inputs of plant development
plus a lot of funds and resources are allocated on seeds. Over the recent years end users
of seeds have been asking why some seeds that are purchased from seed growers around
South Africa are unable to germinate, even when these seeds are given the optimal or
correct conditions in the growing field they still fail or don’t carry out according to the
information given by the seed growers, when these seeds do germinate, the seedlings that
emerge result in plants that are not of accepted standards and a number of problems are
encountered.
In this research the researcher intends to examine the practices of seed production that are
followed by South African seed growers and determine the different factors which might
result to a decline in seed quality.

2: Research rationale

The purpose of this particular research is to determine the practices and procedures
followed by seed companies which play a role or can be associated with the decrease in
the quality of seeds, and what are the accepted measures and practices which need to be
taken to minimize this predicament since this problem has a negative impact largely in
the field of South African horticulture and agriculture. The capital investments that are
allocated in seeds in the agricultural and horticulture market are huge, thus this research
is necessary in view of the fact that the impact of poor quality seeds on the industry can
be detrimental and can have an effect on the end user such as the farmer and his\her
profit because good quality seeds is equivalent to good quality crops and the failure of
the seed to germinate means failure for the whole operation, in this research the
researcher intends to create a form of academic manuscript which will focus on improper
practices and treatments which can be accountable for the decrease in seed quality, the
objective of such a study is to assist agriculturist, horticulturist ,gardeners, seed growers
and mainly students in exploring current treatments and practices used which can
damage seed quality and alternative methods which can be employed to reduce damage
and deterioration of seed health and quality.

3: Hypothesis

A lot of end users who purchase seeds in the South African market for seeds, have
encountered this critical problem concerning the matter of seeds that appear to be
damaged and turn out to produce unhealthy seedlings and plants or don’t germinate
completely, consumers of seeds are often confused about the causes of this problem ,
given that they follow all the correct planting procedures which have been specified by
the seed grower accurately but yet the end result is unsatisfactory, this has led to the
assumption that most local seed producers and companies are to be held responsible for
not following the correct practices of seed production and selling seeds that are weak,
dead or damaged and not up to standard, the source of this problem might be due to
internal injuries caused by the sequence of processes that seeds go through before being
sold such as harvesting ,storage ,transportation and packaging meaning a lot of seed
handling is done by man and machinery before the seeds reach the consumers ,thus
physical and mechanical injuries are likely occur internally or externally which could
result to a decline in seed performance, if correct practices for seed handling are not
followed by seed companies, so careful monitoring of employee’s activities by
,machinery and seed quality should be done frequently by some seed companies in order
to determine the source of this crisis regarding seeds.

4: Literature review

Much literature on the field of seeds is focused mainly on methods to improve seed
quality but does not pay much attention on practices that can affect seed quality and how
these practices can be discarded for a more safer approach .It has been stated that some
seed companies give sub contracts to small scale farmers to grow them seeds (Conny
Almekinders and Niels Louwaars 1999:47)but they don’t describe in detail whether small
scale farmers have adequate knowledge and equipment to test the quality factor and
supply seeds for the industrial commercial sector.
Subsequently (Conny Almekinders and Niels Louwaars 1999:48) states that sometimes
seeds purchased from small scale farmers are hand sown and can be contaminated with
stones straws or seeds of other varieties, a question that should have been answered is to
what extent can too many straws, stones and other seeds which are not related to the
variety have on the total seed germination rate, and end up as garbage or useless material
for customers who bought the seed, due to the fact that too many foreign particles might
be confused for the original seeds.
( P D Hebblewaite 1980:135) states that at harvest seed lots contain much extraneous
material, most of which is removed by cleaning .However, certain methods used for
cleaning seeds such as chemical cleaning, can be toxic and might have an effect on the
quality of seeds the fore affecting germination.
(P D Hebblewaite 1980:245) further suggests that basic structures used for storage must
have certain features for protection from rodents, insects and contamination, this explains
that a number of seeds might be injured and this affects their storage life resulting in
seeds that can’t be stored well since they are dead or injured already.
According to (Oren L.Justice and Louis N.Bass 1979:167) damaged seeds provide easy
access for fungi to enter seeds, this is true and it can be acceptable that seed injury can
also have an effect on storage life and some injuries are hard to detect and ultimately they
end up in the hands of the consumers.
The absence of seed borne diseases is another important aspect in seed production
(Roberto L. Benech-Arnold and Rodolf A. Sanchez 2004:196) the most important matter
to be discussed is how are these seed borne diseases carried into seeds and how can they
be eradicated to ensure that they don’t end up in seed bags and limit the germination
capacity .

According to (P D Hebblewaite 1980:200) other cultural practices may reduce the disease
incidence, but nothing is mentioned as to what measures can be taken to reduce disease
incidences. Subsequently it is stated that seed cleaning has a purpose of removing non
crop seed materials from the harvested material but no suggestions are made on whether
selection of seeds on their physical characteristics are made or not.
(Hartmann, H.T., Kester, D.E. &Davies, F.T) state that in less mechanized farming both
the treatment and contact of seed increases the chances of endangering seeds. But as to
what treatments endanger seeds nothing is suggested or mentioned.
Subsequently (Hartmann, H.T., Kester, D.E. &Davies, F.T Crop) suggest that dressing
with chemicals can be useful but they don’t state whether it chemicals can be dangerous
or not and what chemicals need to be applied with caution.

5: Research methodology and design

The researcher intends to determine the impact seed growers and seed companies can
have on the quality of seeds in regards to the practices that they follow. Seed companies
and growers around South Africa that are meant to provide information for this particular
research are too many, so the researcher will select only two seed companies because of
accessibility and limited time and capital. Both are located in Gauteng, one is based in
Pretoria and is called Booysen’s nursery which is under the Pretoria municipality and
they are responsible for growing, harvesting, drying the actual seed ,the other company is
located at Johannesburg and is called Starke Ayres ,this company is responsible for
treating the seeds to prepare them for germination, packaging and distribution.
There are 250 employees who work at the seed department at Booysen’s nursery and
there are 200 people employees working at Starke Ayres.
To interview all 450 people will be very time consuming and unnecessary since some
employees perform the same function, so a sample size of 30 people, 15 from each
company will be interviewed to provide adequate information, the elements to be
interviewed will be selected depending on their availability, meaning the convenience
sampling method will be employed until we reach the sample size of 30 from both
companies. The researcher will collect data using the qualitative study method, and will
schedule possible dates for face to face interviews with the 30 respondents depending on
the available time, before the interviews starts the participants will sign an informed
consent form(Please refer to Appendix 1 attached hereto), and will be informed about the
need for their participation and the use of the information that will be obtained from the
interview, It is essential to interview such samples in order to gain quality data and to
determine where possible damages can occur before the seeds reach the customer and
also to investigate while participating because the employees carry out most of the
handling of seeds before the end product reaches the consumer.
Throughout the interviews the researcher also conducted this research through
participative observations which included field trips with supervisors on sites in the two
companies, with the aim of ascertaining the roles performed and the different interactions
seeds go through before reaching the market including the way seeds are handled upon
site as well as how the machinery operates to determine the areas and activities where
possible damages could occur as a result of improper practices and handling.
During the participative observations that where conducted around different seed
departments in both companies, field notes where made of different operations that seeds
where subjected to, and memory notes where made as well during conversations with the
respondents as field trips where taken around the different sites that where inspected by
the researcher. Qualitative data obtained from answers that were captured from open-
ended questions during interviews with the respondents provided the researcher with
detailed insight into the manner in which production practices are undertaken in each
subsequent process seeds go through ,and the way seed quality is controlled in terms of
machinery and physical handling of seeds and where mistakes or blunders are likely to
occur and whether they might have an impact on the performance of seeds in the later
stage.
The questions are structured in such a way that they explained significantly to the
researcher, the employee’s responsibility in the workplace and the manner in which the
job is undertaken regarding machinery and all the other handling and technical aspects,
and whether employees are hired on the basis of their qualifications or whether training
and guidance is provided to personnel employed to work with seeds given that these are
complex, fragile products. There will be two sets of questions each for the two different
companies; these questions will be completed by the interviewer during the interview.
The questions will direct the conversation between the interviewer and the interviewee
therefore providing guidelines during discussions. The answers which will be obtained
from the questionnaires and the field and memory notes that where collected during
participative observations from both companies was combined and transferred to a data
sheet where this information was analyzed and conclusions where made, the conclusion
then integrated with secondary data which has been obtained from the TUT library books
and internet sources, as findings and studies prepared by other researchers are excellent
options that support valid information. The secondary data was used to analyze and
evaluate information supplied from the primary source and this produced suitable
information which was easily accessible and could be supported by good books from the
TUT library.
Before the interviews began the participants where informed about the need for their
participation and the use of the information obtained from the interviews.

The research questions will be asked as follows for employees working at Booysen’s
nursery: (Please refer to Appendix 2 attached hereto)

1. The research questions will be asked as follows for employees working at Starke
Ayres. (Please refer to Appendix 3 attached hereto)
7: Results

This section presents a summary of the data that has been captured and evaluated from
the data sheet after field observations and questionnaires during interviews and
discussions that where carried out through at all the stages that seeds where subjected to
at Booysen’s nursery and Starke Ayres, this section is presented in the exact sequence of
activities that seeds travel during production. The data revealed has been checked for
incompleteness and errors by going back to the respondents to confirm certain answers,
and subsequently examining these answers given by the respondents for all the questions
asked ,The total number of the interviewed respondents who where employed to provide
treatments to the mother plants was 3 respondents, and they all confirmed that the mother
plants where fertilized and irrigated according to a fixed schedule, and they where
checked on a regular basis for diseases, insect damage and pathogens by the appointed
person’s trained for the job, and if any of the mentioned where recognized or identified
then the proper treatment was undertaken to control the problem, weeds where constantly
removed as well as unhealthy or injured plant parts. The total number of the interviewed
respondents who where employed to harvest the seeds where 4, according to these
respondents seeds where then harvested using a variety of methods depending on the
species that was being harvested the methods used for harvesting included cutting the
plant material using knives and sickles, the cut plant material was left to dry on a
concrete floor for a couple of days or weeks ,when the plant material was dry the seeds
where threshed or removed from the mother plant material and the remaining plant
material was crushed, seeds where then removed from their seed heads by crushing or
rubbing the seed heads with hands or feet , 5 of the Participants working at the cleaning
department described that seeds where cleaned by removing unhealthy seeds, stones,
weed seeds and other foreign material by hand picking, winnowing and sieving.
Following cleaning, seeds where dried ,from the data obtained from watching the
participants during field observations there where a number of methods that where used
to dry seeds including sun drying the seeds in concrete floors inside of drying rooms,
during observations the seeds where stirred continuously with a rake to ensure
uniformity, chemicals or desiccants such as diquat where used to speed up the process of
drying when the weather was not favorable ,wood fueled driers where also used until the
seeds lost moisture and where dry enough ,after dying seeds where subjected to
treatments against pest and diseases before they could be moved to storage rooms .3
participants employed in the poison department agreed that in the presence of insects,
insecticides where used, chemical treatments and heat treatments where used to eliminate
pathogens.
At some stage during storage the seeds where weighed initially and packed into air tight
drums or in tin cans, the containers where well filled and stored in well ventilated storage
rooms. During this period, tests where conducted in a lab to determine the germination
rate, according to the organizational records of seed testing, seed samples of 4oo seeds
where taken from different containers of different species and where further divided into
4 groups, 100 in each seed lot, the seeds where sowed in trays under optimum conditions,
and this process took about 4 weeks until the seedlings emerged. The seed lots where
checked after those weeks to determine how many seedlings emerged from each lot, if
more than 15%of the seeds from each lot did not germinate, the ungerminated seeds are
examined to determine the cause of their inability to germinate, but if more than
90%germinated the seeds proved to be of good quality and where ready to be, transported
and distributed to different users ,Before transportation fungicide where applied to the
seeds before they where stored inside containers ,last inspections where made by a
supervisor to make certain that the containers where sealed and air tight. Seeds where
then transported to other wholesalers, but since there where too many seed wholesalers
only Starke Ayres was researched to explore the different practices and treatments used
to prepare the seeds for germination and the choice of packaging materials used for seeds.
At Starke Ayres 15 respondents where interviewed, 5 of the respondents confirmed that
when seeds reach Starke Ayres the seeds where repacked and given germination
treatments to improve their germination potential, 5 other respondents described the
treatments seeds where subjected to which included soaking the seeds in water for a
certain period and then dried before packaging.2 other respondents interviewed where
employed for packaging and they explained how seeds where repackaged into small, light
aluminum foil pouches and taken to well ventilated store rooms where 3 respondents
where interviewed and they explained the aspects of security in the storage rooms, they
described that the store rooms included features such as rodent proof, bird and fire proof,
After the seeds traveled through all this processes they where now distributed to shelves
in retail shops such as Shoprite,Checkers and finally sold to the consumer.

Figure 1. Illustrates the seed production line as described by respondents from both
companies in sequence from Booysen’s to Starke Ayres until the end consumer

Booysen's
Nursery
The results mentioned in this section have proven that the hypothesis that seed companies
are to be held responsible for a decline in the quality of seed can not be accepted as true
since the results captured from the research show that the practices and treatments that
are followed at Booysen’s and Starke Ayres reveal that seed companies in South Africa
do follow the correct methods and procedures of handling seed according to the correct
principles and legal standards of seed production, and all seeds are tested according to
government law which ensures that seeds meet legal standards ,and all activities and
processes are inspected by supervisors to ensure that operations are preformed
accordingly so that seeds are of good quality, but there are other practices or procedures
followed at Booysen’s and Starke Ayres which can be detrimental to seed health and
quality and can even affect the germination capacity of seeds , therefore these treatments
have to be pointed to and corrected to ensure that faults and errors that could occur are
prevented or reduced.

Discussions

There where limitations to this study which have to be recognized, firstly this study was
intended to determine the principles and practices that are employed by seed companies
and growers around South Africa, but only two companies where selected for sampling
because of their accessibility and the available budget for this research was low, other
limitations involved qualified and experienced participants who refused to be interviewed
thus preferred participants where not co-operative and therefore much information that
was required from both companies was withheld.
In this section the results will be discussed according to the research questions in the
questionnaire

Research question 1
How is the mother plant treated before harvesting to ensure that a healthy seed is
obtained?
According to the results examined from the data sheet, the selected mother plants at
Booysen’s are chosen according to preferred characteristics regarding their quality e.g.
hardiness, disease resistance etc .The parent stock are given proper treatment by skilled
and trained staff; the treatments include fertilization, effective weed management ,pest
and disease control according to(Oren L.Justice and Louis N.Bass 1979:167) varieties
with a higher yield potential ,with more efficient fertilizer use and well managed pest and
disease control can produce better seeds for harvest . The findings prove that the parent
stock is properly cared for at Booysen’s according to the correct principles of crop
maintenance and this provides healthy parent stock which possess the right qualities to
yield quality seeds .This practices are essential because healthy parent stock minimizes
the transmission of diseases and pathogens to the seeds,

Research question 2
How are seeds harvested?
The results captured from the data indicated that the methods used for harvesting at
Booysen’s are mechanical harvesting of seed; harvesting is done at the right time by
following seasonal records that are kept for seed harvesting. Initially the seeds are
harvested by cutting the plant material using knives and sickles, the problem that might
occur in the harvesting stage might be during the hand threshing stage, as too much force
used to remove seed from the seed heads may result in mechanical damage which may
remain unnoticed until the buying stage (Hartmann and Kester)subsequently described
that threshing the seed when it is over dried can cause cracking but also threshing wet
seeds can cause internal damage that may remain undetected to the naked eye until seeds
reach the end user. The potential consequences that might result from the methods
employed in the harvesting stage at Booysen’s may have an effect on the end product or
quality of seed because damages that are undetected can reduce the seeds ability to
germinate when the seeds are sown in the field.

Research question 3
Explain the cleaning process?
According to the data obtained from the examined results, some of the methods employed
for cleaning seeds at Booysen’s are hand picking technique, this method can be time
consuming and labour intensive sometimes resulting in human errors if the person
employed is inexperienced or exhausted, but if done correctly it has proven to be more
precise in removing disease stained seeds and provided better results than other common
equipment such as the electronic color sorter. There is other advanced equipment that can
be used as alternatives to other seed cleaning methods such as manual winnowing, which
might result to the possibility of human errors, one of the recent machines used
internationally is the gravity table machine which removes foreign particles with better
precision than human labour, but this instrument is costly, but has proved to resolve the
problem of seed damage due to human fault.

Research question 4
Why do you clean the seed?
According to the results, seeds are cleaned thoroughly at Booysen’s to get rid of non-crop
seed matter from the harvested material e.g. straws, weed seeds, stones. If this practice is
not done successfully there would be a risk of consumers buying seed packets that are
crammed with large bulks of unwanted material resulting in a reduced germination
capacity of seeds in the package or unwanted seeds germinating e.g. weeds, the seed
cleaning stage is vital in seed production, this provides evidence that the seeds bought
from Booysen’s are free from foreign particles.

Research question 5
Where are the seeds taken after cleaning?
After cleaning, the seeds are made to dry by a wide range of techniques such as sun
drying the seeds and making use of wood fuelled driers especially when temperatures are
not favorable for sun drying, (Roberto L. Benech-Arnold and Rodolf A. Sanchez
2004:367) state that there are disadvantages associated with sun drying because
prolonged periods of high temperatures can cause internal damage to seeds therefore
affecting the overall performance of the seed and quality. Wood fueled driers require an
experienced and trained person because the seeds might overheat and die eventually
resulting in the client buying dead seeds. Other techniques involve the use of desiccants
such as diquat which can also reduce germination potential but has proven to be an
alternative and safer if not over applied.

Research question 6
Are there any chemicals used at Booysen’s?
Chemicals used at Booysen’s include chemicals such as Carboxin, insecticides and
fungicides such as Benlate are used to treat seeds against a wide spectrum of diseases and
pest that might become a threat to the life of a crop and its successive generation of seeds,
, all of the mentioned chemicals can be very toxic and might affect the quality of seed and
germination capacity if they are applied incorrectly, According to ( P D Hebblewaite
1980:135) Pest and diseases can be reduced by avoiding periods with high disease
pressure, early planting and the timely harvest can be more effective than extensive use
of chemicals, which can damage seeds. To avoid this outcome there are recommendations
such as the use of equipment and machines available in the seed market which are more
effective in applying chemicals uniformly and correctly therefore reducing losses due to
over dosages which is a result of human errors, (Conny Almekinders and Niels Louwaars
1999:113) suggest that equipment that could be utilized include revolving drums which
are used to apply liquids evenly ,rotostats are used for applying powders, These machines
and equipment are alternative means to the traditional methods used at Booysen’s .

Research question 7
What is your educational level?
Most of the participants that where interviewed from both companies did not have any
qualifications relating to the field of seeds, but they where properly trained in regards to
seed handling, for that reason they did have a clear understanding of handling and
managing seeds well, therefore both companies made efforts to train their staff in order to
minimize losses and damages that could occur as a result of improper handling of seed
due to untrained staff.

Research question 8
What procedures are followed when seeds reach Starke Ayres?
When seeds reach Starke Ayres they are unpacked, so that they can receive their final
germination treatment which is intended to improve germination rate of the seed before
reaching the shelves, the treatments involve soaking the seeds into water for certain
periods, (Harrington J.F and Douglas 1970:124) suggest that seeds soaked in water have
an improved germination rate and uniformity. This indicates that seeds bought from seed
companies which follow this method of germination treatments have an improved
germination percentage.

Research question 9
What material do you use for packaging seeds?
Seeds that are distributed from Starke Ayres are destined for small scale farmers and the
home gardener, so material which are used for packaging are small, light aluminum foil
pouches which can be safely handled, the packets are air tight and vapor proof according
to (Harrington J.F and Douglas 1970:124) aluminum foil packaging enhances storage life
of seeds.

Research question 10
Where are seeds stored?
Seeds are stored in air tight drums, tin and in some cases dust bins; this method of storage
minimizes insect movement because of minimal space to moves and respiration is
reduced because of inadequate air, the seed storage rooms at both of the companies are
bird proof, insect and rodent proof since all of the mentioned can be a major causes of
seed quality deterioration .A fire extinguishers would be useful as fires can arise and
damage seeds.

Conclusion
This study was an investigation on the activities and procedures used by seed companies
and growers that could affect seed quality in terms of incorrect practices and principles,
but the hypothesis was not accepted since evidence from the results proved that seed
companies where not responsible for the decline in seed quality because the findings in
this research described in detail the seed production line and also proved that all stages in
the production line where conducted in a professional manner to make certain that seeds
are of good quality, and inspections where also conducted in terms of monitoring daily
activities and all aspects of seed handling which could result to damaged or weak seeds.

Recommendations
There are other techniques and methods used in the procedures followed by most seed
companies that need to be altered for a more modernized and safer approach , companies
should further improve their techniques because some methods have the potential of
causing injury to seed, so safer methods of handling seed have to be employed and other
alternatives like obtaining modern machinery which is more effective than old fashioned
methods for example using the gravity table machine instead of winnowing, because
modernized equipments don’t make errors and are specifically specialized to allow safe
handling of seed therefore reducing losses. The use of biological methods such as
introducing natural enemies to combat insect and diseases might be less harmful than
toxic chemicals which can cause damage to seeds, most seed companies and growers
employ people who they self instruct to use chemicals which can be harmful but rather
they should employ a certified pest controller to avoid aspects such as over applications,
companies should adapt to more use of organic pesticides, since they are less toxic.

Suggestions for further research

The analysis of this data and information obtained from other literature while conducting
this research have made it possible to point out gaps which need further future studies,
one helpful future study would be an investigation on the conditions that seeds are
subjected to after production and when they are displayed on shelves in shops e.g.
shoprite,checkers etc, conditions would include factors such as temperature and other
aspects such as potential harm which can arise from physical contact made by people as
they touch seed packets .And the shelf life of seeds would have to be taken to
consideration as to how long seeds are seeds put on shelves before being removed if they
are not sold. Since the study of seeds in itself is a vast field there are many factors which
might cause seed deterioration of quality therefore another useful study would be on
other factors which might cause a decline in seed quality during production and sales
such as environmental, physiological and other factors not mentioned.
 Appendixes

Appendix 1

INFORMATION LEAFLET AND INFORMED CONSENT

Title of the study:

The principles and practices of South African seed companies and growers that could
affect seed quality.
Department of Horticulture

Tshwane University of Technology

Principle Investigators
Karabo Masila

Introduction
With this information leaflet we wish to invite you to participate in the research as
entitled above. The information contained in this document aims to help you decide
whether or not you would like to participate. Before you agree to participate in this
research, you should fully understand what is involved. If you have any questions, please
call Karabo Masila at 079 572 9135 you should not agree to participate unless you are
completely satisfied that you understand what participation involves.

What is the purpose of the study?

To investigate the improper practices and treatments which can be accountable for the
decrease in seed quality?
What is expected of you if you participate in the study?

In order to determine whether the practices and techniques of seed production used by
seed companies and seed growers are up o standard or not, we need you to respond to
some questions in the questionnaire, and give opinions if necessary about the nature of
your work.
Has the study received ethical approval from an authoritative body?
The Research Ethics Committee of the Technikon Pretoria approved the research
protocol.
 What are my rights as participant?

Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary, and you may withdraw at any time
during the process should you feel uncomfortable with any of the questions or procedures

Confidentiality
All information obtained during the course of this study will be treated with the utmost
confidentiality. All the data collected will be treated anonymously,

Appendix 2

Questionnaire for employees working at Booysen’s Municipal Nursery

Due to too many respondents that where interviewed, a summary of all answers for the
questions are presented in the results session.

No. Questions Answers

1 What is your role and function in the workplace?

2 Are there any chemicals used at Booysen’s?

3 How are seeds harvested?

4 Explain the cleaning process?

5 Where are the seeds taken after cleaning?

6 How are the mother plants treated before

harvesting

7 What is your educational level?

 Appendix 3

Sample of questionnaire for employees working at Starke Ayres

Due to too many respondents that where interviewed, a summary of all answers for the
questions are presented in the results session

Questions Answer

1 What is your role and function in the workplace?

2 What procedures are followed when seeds reach

Starke Ayres

3 What material do you use for packaging seeds?

4 Where are the seeds stored?

A summarized answer sheet of all answers, filled in by the interviewer during discussions
with respondents
 Are there any chemicals used at Booysen’s?
How are seeds harvested?
Explain the cleaning process?
Where are the seeds taken after cleaning?
How are the mother plants treated before
harvesting
What is your educational level?
What procedures are followed when seeds reach
Starke Ayres
What material do you use for packaging seeds?
Where are the seeds stored?
Appendix 4
yes
By cutting plant material first with knives
or sickles and then removing sees from
their seed heads by threshing, and
crushing or rubbing the seed heads with
hands or feet
Seeds are cleaned by removing unhealthy
seeds, stones, weed seeds and other
foreign material by hand picking,
winnowing and sieving
Seeds are dried after cleaning
Proper cultural practices(fertilizer, weed
& pest control) are used to ensure that
trees are healthy
26 out of 30 had a matric certificate 4 did
not have matric certificate
Seeds are unpacked from containers and
given germination treatments.
small, light aluminum foil
air tight drums, tin and in some cases dust
bins
Terminology

Germination rate-The percentage of normal seedlings which can be produced by a lot

under more or less ideal conditions.

Seed cleaning-Removal of foreign particles from seed lot.

Rouging-removal of different plants from seed field.

Field inspection-inspection of field to check on diseased plants, weeds, pests and

condition of equipment.
References

1. A.F. Kelly and R.A.T George.1998.Encyclopedia of Seed Production of World

Crops. Second Edition. New York: John Wiley &sons Ltd
2. R.Kumar1999.Research Methodology A Step-by-Step Guide For Beginners. Sage
publications Ltd. ISBN:0 7619 6213 1
3. C.Almekinders &N.Louwaars.1999.Farmers’ Seed Production New Approaches
And Practices.London.IT Publications ISBN 1 85339 466 1
4. Roberto L. Benech-Arnold and Rodolf A. Sanchez. 2004. Hand Book of Seed
Biology Seed Physiology Applications to Agriculture .The Haworth Press Inc.
ISBN: :1 56022 928-4

5. Hebblethwaite, P D, 1980, Seed Production, London, Butterworth’s.

ISBN: 0 408 10621 2:

6. Oren L.Justice and Louis N.Bass,1979,Principles And Practices of Seed Storage,

Castle House Publications Ltd.ISBN: 0 7194 0022 8

7. Hartmann, H.T., Kester, D.E. &Davies, F.T.1990.Plant Propagation Principles

and Practices Fifth edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International inc.ISBN:0-
13-680786-0

Internet references

1. http://www. avg.urlseek.vmn.net

2. http://www. General seed certification.com

3. .http://www.wrc.co.za