Journal of

Materials
Processing
Technology
ELSEVIER Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 51-59 I

Study of the influence of deformation and thermal treatment

on the ultrasonic behaviour of steel
R. P r a s a d a'*, S. K u m a r b
a NIFFT, P.O. H A TIA, Ranchi-834 003, India
b B.LT., Mesra, Ranchi, India

(Received January 19, 1993; accepted July 20, 1993)

Industrial Summary
In this study an attempt has been made to determine the influence of the deformation and the
thermal treatment given to a steel forging on the ultrasonic velocity and its attenuation. Data
obtained indicates that both the amount of deformation and the type of thermal treatment
given to a forging influence the longitudinal ultrasonic velocity and attenuation. It was
observed that with increasing degree of deformation, the ultrasonic velocity decreases, the
velocity being found to be maximum for the normalised condition and the minimum for the
hardened condition, in annealed samples the velocity lying between the two former values.
Further, the ultrasonic velocity was found to increase with increasing tempering temperature.
Attenuation decreases with the degree of deformation and was found to be minimum for the
normalised case and maximum for the simply-forged case. In addition, attenuation was found
to increase with increase in tempering temperature.

1. Introduction

A very c o m m o n use of ultrasonics in the metals industry is for the detection

of defects. However, in recent years it has become used quite commonly also for
material characterisation, i.e. to obtain information about the microstructure, the
grain size and thermal treatment of a metal. However, it was considered that the
deformation and the thermal treatment to which a metal has been subjected could
influence the ultrasonic velocity and its attenuation. The prime aim of the presently
reported work was thus to explore the effect of the degree of deformation and of the
type of heat treatment given to a steel forging on both the ultrasonic velocity and its
attenuation.

* Corresponding author.

0924-0136/94/$07.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0924-0136(93)E0086-V
52 R. Prasad et al. ,,'Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 51 59

2. Experimental procedure

2.1. Sample preparation

Cast-steel samples of initial thickness 69.3, 86.6, 130 and 208 mm were hot-
upset at a temperature of 950°C using a 1600kg capacity hydraulic press, the
deformation applied being 25%, 40%, 60% and 75% height-reduction, respec-
tively, the final height of each of the samples being kept to within 52 ___0.5 mm
by the use of a 'stopper' of this (52 mm) height. Samples with zero percentage
reduction (as-cast) were of size 52 + 0.5 mm thickness and 52 mm diameter,
these samples not being hot-upset.
The hot-upset samples were later given thermal treatments such as annealing,
normalising, hardening, and hardening & tempering, as detailed below:
(i) Annealing temperature 850°C, soaking time 1.5 h, furnace cooling to room
temperature.
(ii) Normalising temperature 850°C, soaking time 1.5 h, air cooling to room
temperature.
(iii) Hardening temperature 820°C, soaking time 1 h, oil, quenching, harden-
ing carried out after annealing.
(iv) The hardened samples were later tempered at 200 °C, 400 °C and 600 °C; soaking
time 2 h, air cooling.
After thermal treatment the surfaces of the samples were ground to remove scale in
order to secure good coupling with the ultrasonic probe during scanning.

2.2. Ultrasonic velocity and attenuation measurement

An ECL-make model 6255 Ultrasonic Flaw Detector was used for the purpose of
the study of the ultrasonic behaviour of the samples. A normal 2.5 MHz probe of
20 mm diameter was employed, machine oil being used as a couplant.
The longitudinal ultrasonic velocity was calculated using the following
equation:

DsTtYs
Vt= DtT~ '

where Ds is the distance from the first back-echo to the second back-echo for the ISW
reference block (100 mm); Dt is the distance from the first back-echo to the second
back-echo for the different samples (mm); Tt is the final thickness of the samples
(52 + 0.5 mm); V~ is the velocity of sound in the ISW reference block (taken to be
6000 m/s); Ts is the thickness of the ISW block (100 mm); and V, is the longitudinal
ultrasonic velocity in the samples.
The velocity of sound obtained for different samples is shown in Table 1. For
attenuation measurement, a coupling medium was applied over the surface of
the sample, after which the probe was placed onto the surface and a small weight then
 R. Prasad et al./ Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 51-59 53

Table 1
Longitudinal ultrasonic velocity (m/s)

Reduction As-forged Annealed Norm. Hardened HT HT HT

(%) (200 °C) (400°C) (600 °C)

0 (As-cast) 5800 5940 6180 5090 5280 5510 5690

25 5370 5520 5790 4880 5010 5220 5400
40 4880 5090 5220 4510 4720 4900 5210
60 4390 4570 4750 4020 4400 4570 4800
75 3870 4010 4360 3030 4090 4310 4540

Table 2
Details of back-echo heights (cm)

Reduction A s - f o r g e d Annealed Norm. Hardened HT HT HT

(%) (200 °C) (400 °C) (600 °C)

0 (As-cast) 2.8 3.40 3.80 3.70 3.60 3.30 3.15

25 3.0 3.75 4.20 3.95 3.70 3.50 3.40
40 3.25 3.95 4.30 4.20 3.95 3.85 3.60
60 3.45 4.14 4.55 4.45 4.10 4.00 3.90
75 3.7 4.35 4.90 4.70 4.25 4.15 4.10

Table 3
Details of hardness (Rc)

Reduction A s - f o r g e d Annealed Norm. Hardened HT HT HT

(%) (200 °C) (400 °C) (600 °C)

0 (As-cast) 32 23 29 38.5 36.5 35 32.5

25 36 27 33.5 41 38.5 37 35
40 39 31 36 45.5 41.5 39.5 37.5
60 43 35 40 48 43 41 39
75 48 41 44.5 52.5 47.5 43.5 41.5

placed onto the probe. Back-echo heights were measured only after they had become
constant, details of the back-echo heights obtained being given in Table 2.
In addition, hardness readings were taken on different samples, shown in
Table 3.

3. Results and discussion

A separate p a p e r ' A n I n v e s t i g a t i o n into the U l t r a s o n i c B e h a v i o u r of C a s t an d

H e a t - t r e a t e d structures in Steel' has a l r e a d y been p u b l i sh ed [1], hence discussion o n
these (as-cast) samples has been o m i t t e d here.
54 R. Prasad et aL/ Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 51 59

6500

60 O0

l -
< sooo
E

>

~00

3000
I I I I I i I ,

~0 20 90 40 50 60 70 80

°/,REDUCTION .-

Fig. 1. Ultrasonic velocity versus percentage reduction for specimens: (1) forged and normalised; (2) forged
and annealed; (3) forged; (4) forged and hardened.

3.1. Results

Results obtained, shown in Table 1, indicate that the longitudinal ultrasonic

velocity decreases with increasing degree of deformation, in as-forged, forged and
annealed, forged & normalised, hardened (Fig. 1), and, hardened and tempered
samples, the velocity being maximum in the case of normalised samples and minimum
in the case of hardened samples. The ultrasonic velocity in the case of annealed
samples lies between that of the normalised and the hardened samples. Further, from
Table 1, it is clear also that the ultrasonic velocity increases with increase of the
tempering temperature (Fig. 2).
Table 2 indicates that the attenuation decreases with degree of deformation,
whether the samples are simply forged, forged & annealed, forged & normalised,
forged & hardened (Fig. 3) or hardened & tempered.
Comparing the back-echo heights of the simply forged, annealed, normalised
& hardened samples, it is found that the attenuation is minimum in the case of
normalised samples and maximum in case of simply forged samples (Fig. 3). Further,
it is evident also from the said table that the attenuation increases with the increase of
the tempering temperature (Fig. 4).
Table 3 indicates that the hardness increases with the degree of deformation for all
of the samples, irrespective of the thermal treatment to which they have been
 R. Prasad et al./ Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994.) 51-59 55

5800
5700 / ® j 4
56 O0
5500

53oo ®~ ~

l--
(J
O
..J
hl
>
~8oor ~ ~®
(._J
Z
6R

3900 ~ i ., J , ,
100 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERING TEMR *C

Fig. 2. Ultrasonic velocity versus tempering temperature for: (1) as-cast; and for reductions of: (2) 25%;
(3) 40%; (4) 60%; (5) 75%.

5.0
4.,8
4.6

'~-'~ ~~__~__~~ .~
L~
4.0
3.8
3:6
C.)
to
3.4- - ® ~

3.2 t
3.0 /
~,8 I / i i I I i i i
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 t~0

REDUCTION

Fig. 3. Back-echo height versus percentage reduction for specimens: (1) as-forged; (2) forged and annealed;
(3) forged and hardened; (4) forged and normalised.
56 R. Prasad et aL .' Journal oJ Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 51 59

I 4.4
4.2
E
u 4.0
T 3.8 2
~9

z 3.G
O
z 3.4
4
~: 3.2
o
3.0 i l 1 I i i

100 200 NO 400 500 GO0

o

TEMPERING TEMP. C ---"-"

Fig. 4. Back-echo height versus tempering temperature, for reductions of: (1) 75%; (2) 60%; (3) 40%;
(4) 2 5 ° .

submitted. From metallographic examination (results not reported herein) it was

found that the grain size decreases with increase of the forging reduction.

3.2. Discussion

3.2.1. Velocity changes

When steel is hot worked there is breakdown of the grains into sub-grains.
The hot-deformation process is followed by the dynamic softening process of
recovery & recrystallisation and a new set of grains, smaller than the original grains, is
formed, the recrystallised grain size being inversely proportional to the degree of
deformation, the greater the degree of deformation the smaller the recrystallised grain
size I-2,3]. Research workers have assumed ,that the longitudinal ultrasonic velocity
varies from grain to grain because of misorientation of grains, which is related to
variation in the elastic constant from grain to grain in the same direction [4]: as the
grain size decreases (i.e. as the number of grains per unit area increases) with
increasing degree of deformation, this effect will become more and more pronounced.
The ultrasonic velocity is further affected by dislocation, increase in the dislocation
density decreasing the ultrasonic velocity [4]. The dislocation density increases with
the degree of deformation, the increase in dislocation density being directly related to
the degree of deformation, hence with increase in the degree of deformation, the
ultrasonic velocity will decrease.
The decrease in ultrasonic velocity with increase in the degree of deformation may,
therefore, be related to the increase in misorientation of grains and an increase in
dislocation density.
When steel is hot forged, it develops internal stresses during the process of deforma-
tion and cooling stresses during cooling from finishing temperature to room temper-
ature, such internal stresses being removed by annealing. Hence in an annealed
forging the ultrasonic velocity will be greater [4], as compared to that in a simply-
forged forging.
 R. Prasad et al./ Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 51-59 57

Normalising treatment removes internal stresses as in the case of annealing.

Moreover, normalising produces finer ferrite and cementite lamellae [2], as
a result of which the ultrasonic velocity in a normalised forging will be greater
compared to that in an annealed forging.
In the hardening process steel is quenched from an elevated temperature in the
austenite range. During this quenching process, the parent austenite phase (FCC
lattice) transforms into martensite (body-centered tetragonal lattice) which is accom-
panied by homogeneous elastic lattice deformation and by a significant increase in
dislocation density [5,6]. Increase in dislocation density causes a decrease in ultra-
sonic velocity [4], therefore in a steel forging which is hardened the ultrasonic velocity
is lower as compared to that in an annealed/normalised forging having a lower
dislocation density.
When hardened steel is tempered at 200 °C, the tetragonality of the martensite
decreases and then disappears, which results in decrease in internal stresses, so that
the ultrasonic velocity in a steel tempered at 200 °C is greater [4].
Tempering steel at 400 °C results in decrease in internal stresses, just as happens
during tempering at 200 °C. Moreover, dislocations anneal-out at 400 °C. Therefore,
there is decrease in the dislocation density [5], as a result of which the ultrasonic
velocity in a steel tempered at 400°C is greater than that in a steel tempered
at 200 °C.
When steel is tempered at 600°C, the following changes in the matrix take
place [5]: (i) internal stresses decrease; (ii) dislocations anneal-out; and (iii)
cementite particles assume a spherical shape. Because of these factors the
ultrasonic velocity in a steel tempered at 600°C is much greater than that in
steels tempered at 200 °C and 400 °C. Figs. 1 and 2 show the relationship between
the longitudinal ultrasonic velocity, the percentage reduction and the tempering
temperature.

3.2.2. Changes in attenuation

Attenuation in all of the samples, irrespective of the thermal treatment given to
them (i.e. whether as-forged, forged & annealed, forged & normalised, forged
& hardened and, hardened & tempered), decreases with increasing degree of deforma-
tion (Fig. 3), due to grain refinement occurring with increasing degree of deformation
[2,3], finer grain size causing less attenuation [7].
Attenuation is maximum in the case of simply-forged samples, which may be related
to internal stresses resulting from: (i) hot deformation; and (ii) cooling from the
finishing temperature to room temperature.
The attenuation is greater in case of annealed samples than in the case of nor-
malised samples, the reason being that an annealed sample is soft (i.e. has a lower
hardness, Table 3) and contains a larger area of ferrite than a normalised sample. Such
a matrix is able to absorb (dampen) more sound energy, hence the attenuation in the
case of annealed samples is greater than in the case of normalised samples.
Normalised steel contains a finer and more even distribution of ferrite and
pearlite and it is also less soft than annealed steel, such a structure causing
58 R. Prasad et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 51- 59

less sonic damping than an annealed structure [8]. As such, attenuation in the case of
normalised samples is minimum compared to that for other samples.
The hardening process introduces internal stresses into the lattice resulting
from lattice deformation, this being accompanied by an increase in dislocation
density, a higher value of the latter causing greater absorption of sonic energy
[4,7].
When steel is tempered there is a reduction in the internal stresses and in the
dislocation density, which is accompanied by reduction in the hardness and increase
in the ductility. The ductility is seen to increase (i.e. the hardness decreases) with
increase in the tempering temperature (Table 3). Because of the increase in ductility
the damping capacity of tempered steel increases and it is able to absorb a greater
amount of sonic energy. As a consequence, attenuation in the case of tempered steel is
greater than that in the case of hardened steel, and increases with increase in the
tempering temperature (i.e. increase in the softness) [1]. Figs. 3 and 4 show the
relationship between back-echo height, the percentage reduction and the tempering
temperature.

4. Conclusions

The ultrasonic velocity and attenuation in steel are influenced by the degree of
deformation and by the thermal treatment to which it has been submitted, both the
velocity and the attenuation decreasing with increasing of the degree of deformation.
The ultrasonic velocity is maximum in the case of a normalised forging and minimum
in the case of a hardened forging, for the same degree of deformation. In addition, the
velocity increases with increase in the tempering temperature. The attenuation is
maximum in simply-forged samples and minimum in normalized samples, the attenu-
ation also increasing with increasing of the tempering temperature.
The measurement of ultrasonic velocity and attenuation in a steel forging can be
used to determine the thermal condition of the forging. This technique will reduce the
need for metallography and has advantage over metallography in the sense that it
scans the entire surface and the entire volume of the section along its length and
breadth, which is not possible in case of metallography. The technique may be useful
also for sorting purposes when the hardness ranges overlap under different thermal
conditions.

References

[1] R. Prasad and S. Kumar, An investigation into the ultrasonic behaviour of cast and heat treated
structure in steel, Brit. J. NDT., 33(10)(Oct. 1991),506-508.
[2] T.G. Byrer, Forging Handbook, American Societyfor Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1985.
[3] J.S.Campbell,Principles of Manufacturing Materials and Processes, Koga Kusha Co. Ltd, Tokyo, 1961.
[4] R.S.Sharpe, Research Techniques in Non-Destructive Testing, Vol.VI, AcademicPress, London, 1982.
[5] R.W. Cahn and P. Hassen, Physical Metallurgy, Part 2, 3rd Ed., North-Holland Physics Publishing,
Amsterdam, 1983.
 R. Prasad et al./ Journal of Materials Processing Technology 42 (1994) 51- 59 59

[6] D. Peckner, The strenothening of Metals, Reinhold, New York, 1967.

[7] J. Krautkramer and H. Krautkramer, Ultrasonic Testing of Materials, 2nd Ed., Springer, Berlin, 1983.
[8] R. Prasad, An investigation into the correlation between micro-structure and ultrasonic properties of
steel, Brit. J. NDT., 32(3) (Aug. 1990) 403-404.