INTRODUCTION:-

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without closing the way underneath such as
a body of water, valley, or road, for providing passage over the obstacle. There are many different
designs that each serve a purpose and apply to different situations. Designs of bridges vary
depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed
and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available to build it
For design aspect, we divide bridge into 3 parts: -
• Superstructure: - Superstructure that part of the structure which supports traffic and includes
deck, slab, and girders.
• Substructure: - Substructure that part of the structure, i.e. piers and abutments, which supports
the superstructure and which transfers the structural load to the foundations.
• Foundation.

CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES:-
1) On the basis of Span
• Culvert bridge - Less than 6m.
• Minor bridge - 6m to 60 m
• Major bridge – 60m to 150 m
• Long span bridge- >150 m
2) On the basis of Function:
• River Bridge
• Viaduct
• Flyover
• Grade Separator
• Road Over Bridge (ROB)
• Road Under Bridge (RUB)
• Foot Over Bridge (FOB)
• Underpasses
• Subways
• Overpass
3) Based on supported system:
• Simply supported
• Continuous
• Integral support
• Balanced cantilever
• Cable supported

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4) Based on the materials:
• Masonry
• Reinforced concrete
• Prestressed concrete
• Fibre reinforced concrete
• Steel bridges
• Composite bridges
• Timber bridges
5) Based on construction technology:
• In-Situ
• Precast or Prefabricated
• Cantilever
• Incremental Launching
• Span by Span
• Segmental
6) Based on difference in roadway level and high flood level
• High Level Bridge
• Submersible Bridge
7) Based on importance:
• Normal
• Important
• Critical
8) On the basis of Superstructure:
• Arch
The arch bridge carries loads primarily by compression, which exerts on the
foundation both vertical and horizontal forces. Arch foundations must therefore
prevent both vertical settling and horizontal sliding. In spite of the more
complicated foundation design, the structure itself normally requires less material
than a beam bridge of the same span.

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• Solid Slab
The solid bridge is the most common bridge form. This carries vertical loads by
bending. As bridge bends, it undergoes horizontal compression on the top and
tension on the bottom of the slab . Analysis of slab is based on unit width method.

• Voided Slab
Voided biaxial slabs are a type of reinforced concrete slab which incorporates air-
filled voids which reduce the volume of concrete required. These voids enable
cheaper construction and less environmental impact.[1] Another major benefit of the
system is its reduction in slab weight compared with regular solid decks. Up to 50%
of the slab volume may be removed in voids, resulting in less load on structural
members.

• T-Beam and Slab

The T-section is also named as ribbed slab, and it can be treated as a special design
of hollow slab section; the concrete in tension is inefficient to sustain the load, and
can be cut to reduce the deadweight. But in order to provide section for placing the
reinforcing bars and prestressing reinforcement, certain area of cross section is still
necessary. T girder bridges are generally very economical for spans of 12–18 m
with girder stem thickness usually controlled by the necessary spacing of
reinforcements.

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• Suspension
A suspension bridge carries vertical loads through curved cables in tension. These
loads are transferred both to the towers which carry them by vertical compression
to the ground, and to the anchorages, which must resist the inward and sometimes
vertical pull of the cables. The suspension bridge can be viewed as an upside-down
arch in tension with only the towers in compression. Because the deck is hung in
the air, care must be taken to ensure that it does not move excessively under loading.
The deck therefore must be either heavy or stiff or both.

• Cable Stayed
Cable-stayed bridges carry the vertical main-span loads by nearly straight diagonal
cables in tension. The towers transfer the cable forces to the foundations through
vertical compression. The tensile forces in the cables also put the deck into
horizontal compression.

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• Extra Dosed
Extradosed bridges are perfect example for combination in structural configuration
of, stay cable bridges for aesthetics and girder bridges for their durability, strength
and ease of construction. Merger of both bridge configuration leads to economical
bridge construction in terms of design and construction costs savings.

• Box Girder
Box girder sections consist of top deck, vertical web, and bottom slab. As both top
and bottom flange can resist stress, the box-girder can bear both positive and
negative bending moment. The web can be relatively thin to reduce the deadweight.
The box section is widely used for continuous, cantilever, and cable stayed bridges.
It has relatively large bending rigidity, torsion rigidity, and better load
redistribution under eccentric load. Reinforced box-girder bridges are suitable for
spans from 15 to 36 m.

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• Single/Multi-Cell Box
Box culverts are four-sided rectangular structures, the lower side pressed into the
ground below, the top serving as the roadway and the lateral sides supported by the
soil on either side of the obstruction. A box culvert may be constructed with a single
box, or multiple box cells placed side by side.

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 • Truss
A single-span truss bridge is like a simply supported beam because it carries
vertical loads by bending. Bending leads to compression in the top chords (or
horizontal members), tension in the bottom chords, and either tension or
compression in the vertical and diagonal members, depending on their orientation.
Trusses are popular because they use a relatively small amount of material to carry
relatively large loads.

SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS:

ABUTMENT: It is a sub-structure component which supports the end of a superstructure and
retains part or whole of the bridge approach fills.
AFFLUX: Afflux is the rise in the flood level of the channel, immediately on the upstream of a
bridge as a result of obstruction to natural flow caused by construction of a bridge and its
approaches.
APPROACH: It is a part of road which connects the road at ground level to the abutment of the
bridge.
APPROACH SLAB: An approach slab is a transition slab of reinforced concrete laid in
immediate approaches to a bridge with one end resting on bracket attached to dirt wall of abutment.
DIRT WALL: It is a vertical wall projecting from abutment cap to prevent spill of earth/pavement
materials.
BEARING: It is a part of bridge structure which bears directly all the forces from the
superstructure above and transmits the same to the supporting substructure.

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VERTICAL CLEARANCE: For a bridge it is the minimum clearance from the design flood
level with afflux or high tide level, to the lowest point of superstructure.
In case of Flyover, Underpass, Overpass, ROB, RUB, the vertical clearance is the minimum height
above any point of roadway or rail top level to the lowest point of the overhead structure. This
5.5m in case of flyover/overpass and 6.525m in case of ROB.
LATERAL CLEARANCE: It is the minimum distance between the extreme edge of the
carriageway and the face of nearest obstruction such as abutment, pier, column etc.
CRASH BARRIER: A barrier provided at the end of carriageway designed to reduce the risk of
serious accidents by guiding the errant vehicle back on the road.
EFFECTIVE LINEAR WATERWAY: It is the total width of waterway of bridge at HFL minus
the effective width of obstruction.
FREE BOARD:
It is the difference between the HFL after allowing for afflux, if any, and the formation level of
road embankment on the approaches or top level of guide bunds at that point.
GRADE SEPARATOR: It is a bridge which facilitates movement of traffic by segregating ‘at
grade’ conflicting movements of different levels.
KERB: A line of concrete section, forming an edge between carriageway and
railing/footpath/median.
LENGTH OF A BRIDGE: It shall be taken as the overall length measured along the centre line
of the bridge between inner faces of dirt walls (or between end deck joints or outer edge of deck,
where there is no dirt wall).
SPAN: It is the horizontal distance between the centerline of adjacent supports of a bridge
superstructure, or maximum distance between the inner walls of a culvert, measured along its axis.
WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY: It is the minimum clear width measured at right angles to the
longitudinal center line of the bridge between inside faces of crash barrier/kerbs/median. For
divided carriageway, it is measured between inner faces of crash barrier/kerb/median.
PIER: It is an intermediate support of bridge super-structure.
RETURN WALL: It is a wall adjacent to the abutment and parallel to road to retain approach
embankment.
ROAD OVER BRIDGE (ROB): It is a bridge built over the railway tracks.
ROAD UNDER BRIDGE (RUB): It is a structure built beneath railway tracks.
SKEW ANGLE: It is the angle between the axis of support and a line normal to the longitudinal
axis of a bridge.
SUPERSTRUCTURE: The portion of a bridge structure above bearings, which directly supports
pedestrian/vehicular/other transient loads and transfers the same to the substructure.

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SUBSTRUCTURE: It is the portion of a bridge structure between the foundation and the
superstructure.
SUPER ELEVATION: It is transverse inclination given to the cross section of a carriageway on
horizontal curve in order to reduce the effects of centrifugal force on a moving vehicle.
TOE WALL: It is a wall built at the end of the slope of earthen embankment to prevent slipping
of earth and/or pitching.

LOADS AND FORCES TO BE CONSIDERED IN DESIGN:

1) Self-weight of Structure
2) Live Load Including Impact Where Applicable
3) Wind Load
4) Buoyancy
5) Water Current
6) Longitudinal Force
7) Seismic Force
8) Temperature
9) Earth Pressure
10) Ship/Barge Impact
11) Vehicle Collision Loads on Bridge and Flyover Support
12) Secondary Forces
13) Erection Effects
14) Grade Effects
15) Centrifugal Forces

LOAD COMBINATIONS:
In the design of a bridge a number of loads and forces can coexist. Accordingly each component
of the bridge is designed for possible loads and forces which can coexist in this connection table-
1 in IRC: 6-2010 is to be referred. For the purpose of design of foundations and substructure
load combination is given in clause 706 of irc:78-2000.
The load combinations as shown in Annex
B shall be adopted for limit state of design.
• Basic Combination
• Accidental Combination
• Seismic Combination
• Combination of loads for the verification of limit state: rare combination, frequent
combination and quasi permanent combination
• Combination for design of foundation

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IRC’S SPECIFICATIONS FOR LOADS:
1) DEAD LOADS
The dead load carried by a girder or member shall consist of the portion of the weight of
the superstructure which is supported wholly or in part by the girder or member including
its own weight. Unit weights. Of different materials shall be taken from irc:6.

2) LIVE LOADS
Currently, there are five type of vehicles as
• Class A Loading: This loading is to be normally adopted on all roads on which permanent
bridges and culverts are constructed. When we design a bridge using class AA type loading,
then it must be checked for class A loading also.

• Class B Loading: Class B loading is adopted for temporary structures like timber bridge
etc. It is considered as light loading. Both IRC class A and Class B are shown in below
figure.

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• Class AA loading: This loading is adopted within certain municipal limits in
certain existing or contemplated industrial areas, in other specified areas, and along
certain specified highways. Bridges designd for Class AA Loading should be
checked for Class A Loading also. In class AA loading generally two types of
vehicles considered, and they are
➢ Tracked type
➢ Wheeled type

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• CLASS 70R LOADING: This loading is to be normally adopted on all roads
on which permanent bridges and culverts are constructed. Bridges designed
for 70R Loading should be checked for Class A Loading also as under certain
conditions, heavier stresses may occur under Class A Loading.

• CLASS SPECIAL VEHICLE LOADING: This loading is to be adopted for

design of new bridges in selected corridors where passage of trailer vehicles
carrying stator units, turbines, heavy equipment and machinery may occur
occasionally. This loading represents a spectrum of special vehicles in the country
and should be considered for inclusion in the design wherever applicable.

Special Multi Axle Hydraulic Trailer Vehicle (Prime Mover with 20 Axle
Trailer - GVW = 383 Tonnes). The longitudinal axle arrangement of SV
loading shall be as given in the sketch below-

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IMPACT LOAD:
The dynamic effect caused due to vertical oscillation and periodical shifting of the live load
from one wheel to another when the locomotive is moving is known as impact load. The
impact load is determined as a product of impact factor, I, and the live load. The impact
factors are specified by different authorities for different types of bridges.

LOAD COMBINATION:
In the design of a bridge a number of loads and forces can coexist. Accordingly each
component of the bridge is designed for possible loads and forces which can coexist in this
connection table-1 in IRC: 6-2010 is to be referred. For the purpose of design of
foundations and substructure load combination is given in clause 706 of irc:78-2000.

REDUCTION IN THE LONGITUDINAL FORCES:

Reduction in the longitudinal effect on bridges accommodating more than two traffic
lanes

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 NO. OF LANES REDUCTION IN LONGITUDINAL EFFECT

FOR TWO LANES NO REDUCTION

FOR THREE LANES 10% REDUCTION

FOR FOUR LANES 20% REDUCTION

FOR FIVE OR MORE LANES 20% REDUCTION

WIND load:
Wind pressure acting on a bridge deck depends on the geographical location of the bridge and its
height above ground. Design wind pressures can be taken from table-5 of irc:6-2014.
Wind load on a bridge may act ·
Horizontally, transverse to the direction of span ·
Horizontally, along the direction of span ·
Vertically upwards, causing uplift ·
Wind load on vehicles
Wind load effect is not generally significant in short-span bridges; for medium spans,
the design of sub-structure is affected by wind loading; the super structure design is affected by
wind only in long spans. For the purpose of the design, wind loadings are adopted from the maps
and tables given in IS: 875 (Part III). A wind load of 2.40 kN/m2 is adopted for the unloaded span
of the railway, highway and footbridges. In case of structures with opening the effect of drag
around edges of members has to be considered
Transverse wind force (ft) = PZ*A1*G*Cd
Where,
Pz: hourly mean wind pressure
A1: projected area
G: gust factor (F IRC:6 for value)
Cd: drag coefficient (depending on the geometric shape of bridge deck or pier)
Upward or downward vertical wind load (fv) = PZ*A3*G*CL
Where,
A3: the area in plan
CL: lift coefficient (0.75 for normal type of slab, BOC, I-GIRDER and PLATE GIRDER)

WATER CURRENT FORCE:

Water current force on a pier parallel to water current is given by the formula P=52 KV2

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P = intensity of pressure due to water current in kg/m2
V = velocity of water current at the point where pressure intensity is being calculated
K = a constant depending upon shapes of piers
Value of v2 varies from 0 at the point of deepest scour to square of maximum velocity at free
surface of water. Maximum velocity is equal to  2 x maximum mean velocity of current.
At any height x from deepest scour
u2 = x/h x 2 v2
v = maximum mean velocity
When the current strikes at an angle the velocity of current shall be resolved along and
perpendicular to the pier.
To provide against possible variation of the water current allowance to be made for a variation of
angle of current by 200.

LONGITUDINAL FORCE AT BEARING LEVEL:

In the design of bridges provision is made for longitudinal forces arising from anyone or more of
the following causes-
-Tractive effort caused through acceleration of driving wheels
-Braking effect
-Frictional resistance offered to the movement of free bearings due to change in temperature or
any other cause.

SEISMIC FORCE:
For the purpose of calculating seismic force on a structure country has been divided into 4 zones
according to tectonic activity. For each zone a factor ‘z’ has been assigned as below-

ZONE NO. ZONE FACTOR

V 0.36

IV 0.24

III 0.16

II 0.10

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For bridges at the border or two zones higher zone factor has to be considered
FeQ = Ah x (Dead Load + Appropriate Live Load)
Ah = Z/2 x i x (Sa/g)
Where Z = Zone factor
I = Importance factor
Sa/g = Average response acceleration coefficient.
Following types of bridges need not be checked for seismic effects-
a) Culverts and minor bridges upto10m span in all seismic zones.
b) Bridges in seismic zones ii and iii satisfying both limits of total length not exceeding 60m
and spans not exceeding 15m.
In zones iv and v, to prevent dislodgement of superstructure ‘reaction blocks’ (additional safety
measures in the event of failure of bearings) or other types of seismic arresters shall be provided)
under seismic condition there is an additional earth pressure on earth retaining components such
as abutments/retaining walls. This is called dynamic increment.

SHIP/BARGE IMPACT ON BRIDGES:

The bridge portion located in navigable water (as well as other portions where possibility of vessels
reaching the same exists) shall be designed for ship/barge impact.
The ship impact forces and their points of application shall be assessed on the basis of design
vessels and their speeds.
For larger ships in navigable waterways piers shall be protected by energy absorbing structures.
Other suitable protective measures can be fenders, sacrificial caissons or islanding etc. However
design impact force shall at least be100t acting at a height of 1m above HTL/HFL in spite of
fenders being provided.

VEHICLE COLLISION LOADS ON BRIDGE AND FLYOVER

SUPPORTS:
Bridge piers built in the median or in the vicinity of carriageway shall be designed to withstand
vehicle collision loads. The effect of collision load shall also be considered on foundations and
bearing.
The effect of collision load shall not be considered on abutments or on structures separated from
the edge of the carriageway by a minimum distance of 4.5m.
Further effect of collision load shall not be combined with effect of pricipal live loads over the
structure, as well as wind or seismic load. The effect of collision loads is to be worked out as per
clause 222 of IRC:6-2014.

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EARTH PRESSURES OVER ABUTMENTS AND RETAINING WALLS:
Structures designed to retain earth fills shall be proportioned to withstand earth pressure. Normally
earth pressure is calculated in accordance with coulomb’s theory subject to the modification that
the centre of pressure due to backfill when dry is located at an elevation of 0.42 of the height of
the wall instead of 0.33h
The force and moments shall not be less than those due to fluid weighing 480 kg/m3.
All abutments and retaining walls shall be designed for a live load surcharge equivalent to 1.2m
earthfill.
Under seismic condition lateral force due to earth pressure can be worked out as outlined in
is:1893.

BASIC DESIGN DATA REQUIRED:

1. Hydrology:
Design discharge, HFL, LWL, LBL, silt factor
Waterway required, scour depth (normal) dsm
Velocity of flow (in m/sec)
Scour depth near abutment (1.27 dsm)
Scour depth near pier (2.0 dsm)
2. Subsurface Investigation Report:
Type of strata – sandy, clayey, rock
Properties of soil (c,  & γ / rock available)
SBC at proposed founding level (for open foundations) and values of c,  and SBC/pile
capacity for deep foundations
3. Carriageway Width/Deck Width Over The Road:
Traffic carrying capacity of a road is as below-

ROAD CAPACITY

2 LANE UPTO 15,000 PCUs PER DAY IN PLAIN TERRAIN

4 LANE > 15,000- 40,000

6 LANE > 40,000 PCUs

Carriageway width and deck widths of bridges is being provided according to:
IRC:SP:73 Manual for two lane of national highways
IRC:SP:84 Manual for four lane of highways
IRC:SP:87 Manual for six lane of highways
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4. Span Arrangement:

a. Span Length: Span length is decided after considering total length of bridge, type
of soil, type of foundations, type of material to be used in construction of bridge.
b. Type of Foundation:
Open foundations for small spans and little scour
Deep foundations (pile/well) for large spans transmitting heavy loads and
significant scour of river bed.
c. Type of substructure:
RCC Solid Slab upto10m
RCC Beam and Slab > 10m < 25m
RCC Voided Slab 15 To 20m
PSC Voided Slab 21m to 28m
PSC Beam & Slab 25m to 45m
PSC Box 40m to 50m
Steel Concrete Composite 24m to 50m
Steel Truss 60m to 100m
RCC Arch, PSC Arch
Cable Stayed Type 200m to 800m
Suspension 400m to 800m
Extradosed 120m to 200m
d. Construction Material to Be Used:
I. Concrete – grades of concrete proposed to be used as per irc:112 grades of
concrete can be in the range of m15 to m70. However, m30 & m35 grade are
generally used for RCC members and m45 or above for PSC members.
II. Untensioned Steel – Though IRC:112 specifies use of fe-240, fe-415 and fe-500
grade bars, now a days only fe-500 grade bars are being used as main
reinforcement, since manufacturing of other type of steel is almost negligible.
III. Prestressing Cables – a number of different sizes of cables are being
manufactured by system providers. Efforts should be made to use minimum
number of cables and also that prestressing is completed in one or two stages.
e. Design Load: Live loads to be considered in design can be IRC: Class A, IRC:
Class 70r and combination thereof. No. Of lanes to be considered for design ,
according to carriageway width are specified in table-2 under clause 204.3 of
IRC:6-2017. As of late SV loading and Congestion factors are also applied.
f. Seismic Zone: Seismic zone as per location of bridge on seismic map of India as
per provision of IS1893.In case bridge on boundary line of two zones it should be
designed for higher seismic zone.
g. Type of Bearings: Tar Paper, Elastomeric, Pot-PTFE, Spherical
h. Design Codes: IRC:5, 6, 22, 24, 78, 83, 87, 89 AND 112

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 i. Clearances:

HORIZONTAL VERTICAL

FLYOVERS 12M FOR 2-LANE 5.5M ABOVE CROSS

ROAD BELOW ROAD

24M FOR 4-LANE

ROAD BELOW

30M FOR 6-LANE

ROAD

> 40M FOR WIDE ROAD

AND TURNING
TRAFFIC

ROBs LATERAL CLEARANCE 6.525M ABOVE RAILS

FROM CENTRE LINE GENERALLY
OF TRACK – 2.67M

OR

AS SPECIFIED BY 8.5M ABOVE RAILS

CONCERNED FOR DFCC OR AS
RAILWAY SPECIFIED BY
RAILWAYS

UNDERPASSES

FOR PEDESTRIANS 7M 3.5 TO 4.5M

FOR VEHICLES 12M 5.5M

GAS PIPELINES AS PER ROW OF GAS 2M ABOVE GROUND

PIPELINE.

METHODS OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION:

1. CAST-IN-SITU METHOD:
This method is a flexible method of bridge construction where complex and unusual
geometrical shapes of dams can be constructed easily. Situations when it is hard to transport
pre-fabricated elements either due to size or unreachability, this method is a good choice.

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2. BALANCED CANTILEVER METHOD:
This method is used for constructing bridges with span 50 to 250m. The bridge constructed
can either be cast-in-place or precast. Here, the segments are attached in an alternative
manner at opposite ends of the cantilevers supported by piers. This is the best choice for
the construction of long span length bridges, irregular length, and cable-stayed bridges.

3. PRECAST METHOD:
In this method, the bridge is constructed with the help of precast concrete elements. The
prefabrication is performed in different methods. The precast elements include:
• Precast Beams
• Precast Decks
• Precast Segmental Decks

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4. SPAN BY SPAN CASTING METHOD:
This method is associated with cantilever construction method but with many
advancements in the technique, it is considered as most economic and rapid in construction.
For long bridges and viaducts with an individual span up to 60m, the method is feasible.
Decks are begun at one abutment and constructed continuously by placing segments to the
other end of the bridge. Segments can be positioned by either a temporary staying mast
system through more commonly using an assembly truss.

5. INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING METHOD:

The Incremental Launching Method (ILM) method of bridge construction is employed
mainly for the construction of continuous concrete bridges or steel girder bridges. The
method performs the procedure in increments. With this method of construction, the bridge
deck is built in sections by pushing the structure outwards from an abutment towards the
pier. The ILM method can be used for bridge decks with a length greater than 250m.

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DESIGN OF FOUNDATION:

For any bridge, based on design discharge, length of bridge, span length (fixed on consideration or
type of founding strata and type of construction etc.) type of foundations are decided

For an adequate margin of safety, design discharge is increased by a factor given in clause 703.1 of
irc:78-2000 as below.
CATCHMENT AREA IN (Km)2 INCREASE OVER DESIGN DISCHARGE
(%)
0-3,000 30
3,000-10,000 30-20
10,000-40,000 20-10
ABOVE 40,000 10 – For intermediate values of catchment, linear
interpolation may be made.
MEAN DEPTH OF SCOUR

Mean scour depth below HFL for scourable bed is calculated by following equation
Dsm = 1.34 Db2 y3
Db = UNIT DISCHARGE = Q/W
Ksf
Ksf = SILT FACTOR AS PER RIVER BED MATERIAL
AVAILABLE AT SITE.

MAXIMUM DEPTH OF SCOUR FOR DESIGN OF FOUNDATION IS TAKEN AS BELOW

FOR PIERS 2 dsm

FOR ABUTMENTS (a) 1.27 dsm FOR APPROACH RETAINED

CONDITION

(b) 2 dsm WITH SCOUR ALL AROUND

In seismic condition maximum scour depth is multiplied by a factor of 0.9.

DEPTH OF FOUNDATION

Depth of foundation is decided on consideration of scour level, bearing capacity of strata and safety
against settlement, sliding, overturning and capability of withstanding worst combination of loads
and forces.

Minimum depth of open foundations resting on soil shall be kept 2m below scour level. In case of
rock minimum embedment of foundation in hard rock shall be 0.6m and in soft rock 1.5m

Minimum depth of well foundations below scour level shall be 1/3 x maximum scour depth.

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 In case of pile foundations the minimum depth of foundations below the point of fixity should be
the minimum length required for developing full fixity.

BUOYANCY:
In the design of abutment, pier and foundation, the effect of buoyancy has to be considered in the
stability calculation the effect of full buoyancy has to be considered but in the design of member
only 15% of full buoyancy has to be considered.

DESIGN OF SUBSTRUCTURE:

ABUTMENTS: Generally wall type or spill through type abutments are provided

PIERS: Piers can be wall type, circular or frame. To reduce weight of substructure piers can be made
hollow also.

Piers shall be designed to withstand loads and forces from superstructure. Water current force,
ship/barge impact, vehicle collision loads, if required.

Abutments are designed for loads and forces from superstructure on one side and earth pressure and
earth load on other side. Abutments are designed for a live load surcharge of 1.2m height of earth
fill.

For tall piers having L/r ratio more than 50, reduced permissible stresses in steel and concrete are
considered.

PIER AND ABUTMENT CAPS

According to the type of superstructure and type of pier, cap can be fully supprted, cantilever or
corbel type in one or both directions and is to be designed accordingly.

It is also to be designed for loads and forces during lifting of superstructure when required.

DESIGN OF SUPERSTRUCTRE :
Type of superstructures-
• RCC/PSC SOLID SLAB,
• RCC/PSC SLAB WITH CANTILEVERS,
• RCC/PSC GIRDER AND SLAB,
• RCC/PSC BOX,
• STEEL TRUSS,
• STEEL GIRDER AND RCC SLAB COMPOSITE

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For purpose of design, length of superstructure is divided into 4, 8 or 10 parts and maximum BM
and SF found out for dead load (self wt., wearing course and crash barrier) and live load.
1. SOLID SLAB TYPE OF SUPERSTRUCTURE:
Simply supported solid slab type superstructure is provided for small spans upto10m. Load
governing the design of slab is class 70r tracked vehicle.
For finding maximum BM, load is placed at center. Design is carried out by effective
width method. When load is placed eccentric dispersion of load towards outside is
restricted and effective width is reduced thus load intensity is increased. For purpose of
finding BM the slab is designed per metre of its width.
2. BEAM AND SLAB TYPE SUPERSTRUCTURE:
Beam and slab type superstructure is normally adopted for spans between 10m to 50m.
No. Of class a or class 70r wheeled or a combination thereof according to carriageway
width are placed and bending moments and shear force found. The loads are placed over
bridge deck in most eccentric position as this condition produces torsional effect also on
the bridge deck. Loads are placed in such a manner that-
Loads are in most eccentric position
or
Outer wheel is over outer girder
or
Train is symmetrically placed with respect to a girder and moments found out in the
girders.
Live load moments are more in case of outer girders and less in case of inner girders. While
calculating live load moments impact factor is to be considered as per clause 208 of IRC: 6-2014.
Impact factor is more for small spans and reduces as the span length increases.
3. DESIGN OF BOX TYPE SUPERSTRUCTURE:
In longitudinal direction i.e. along the span, box is designed as a beam. However the effect
of torsion due to eccentric loading is to be catered for.
In transverse direction the box is to be considered as a closed frame and analysed. Stresses
induced due to difference in outside and inside temperature are also to be found out and
provision made.
DESIGN OF EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURE:
Re wall is an earth retaining structure generally made of solid plate type panels placed one above
other and anchored into earth back fill with the help of horizontal tensile element. Force due to
earth pressure on each panel is resisted by friction between the surface of the tensile element and
the earth above and below it. As the depth increases from top, earth pressure increases and so also
the size of tensile element (length and width in case of strips).
The tensile element can be of metallic elements like bars, strips, plates etc. Metallic reinforcement
in the form of mesh, polymeric elements like strips, grips ribs, mesh etc.

24
There are three basic elements of an earth retaining wall which are facia panels, friction element
(tensor) and anchorage for tensor. The facia panels are of different pattern and can be chosen as
per one’s choice.
Overall stability of an earth retaining wall is checked considering it a block of overall height
(including embedment below ground) of wall and width equal to the length of friction ties.
Structural stability of block is checked for sliding, overturning due to lateral earth pressure, bearing
pressure at base and slip circle failure.
Re wall are designed as per provision of IRC:SP:102-2014.

DURABILITY:
• Type and quality of constituent materials viz
Coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and their grading
Type of cement
Type of steel i.e. Corrosion resistant
Quality of water pH value > 6
• Cement content and water cement ratio
Cement content ≯540 kg/m3
• Density of concrete
Concrete to be dense
• Grade of concrete
Higher grade of concrete recommended
• Water cement ratio
Water cement ratio to be as low as possible≯0.4 to 0.45. Ifnecessary use admixtures
• Thickness of the member
• Cover
Increased cover for parts embedded in earth
• Protective coating in case of aggressive environment
• Workmanship to obtain full compaction and curing
Jacketing of piers against rolling stones in mountainous regions.

DISTRIBUTION OF LONGITUDINAL HORIZONTAL FORCES AMONG BRIDGE

SUPPORTS:
(i) SIMPLY SUPPORTED SPANS ON UNYIELDING SUPPORTS HAVING FIXED
AND FREE BEARINGS (OTHER THAN ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS)
FIXED BEARING FREE BEARING
Fn- (Rg + Rq)  (Rg + Rq)
Or Fn/2 +  (Rg + Rq)  (Rg + Rq)
Whichever is greater

25
 Where Fn = Applied horizontal force
Rg = Reaction at free end due to dead load
Rq = Reaction at free end due to live load
(ii) SIMPLY SUPPORTED SPANS (UPTO 10M) WHERE NO BEARINGS ARE
PROVIDED
Fn/2 or  Rg whichever is greater.
(iii) SIMPLY SUPPORTED SPANS OVER IDENTICAL ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS
Fn/2 + Vr ltc
Vr = Shear rating of bridge
ltc = Movement of deck above bearing other than that due to applied forces.

CONTINUOUS BRIDGES WITH ONE FIXED BEARING OR OTHER FREE

BEARINGS

26
PROJECT 1:-

DESIGN OF SOLID SLAB:

FOR GIVEN CARRIAGE WIDTH 11m. AND TOTAL DECK WIDTH 12.5m.
Length of the slab in traffic direction 10m.
Structure has been analysed by effective width method.
Structure is designed for per metre width.

Slab need not to be checked for shear in effective width method as per clause no. Annexure B-3,
Clause B-3.2 of IRC:112-2011.
The following 3 lane carriageway live load has been considered
3-Lane Class A
1-Class A + 1-70RWheel
1-70R Track
Concrete shall be design mix with a minimum 28 days characteristic strength of 30 MPa for RCC
superstructure.
The reinforcing bars shall be of thermo mechanically treated/ corrosion resistant steel (TMT-CRS)
(grade designation Fe-500D) conforming to IS:1786 standards.
65mm thick wearing course comprising of 40mm thick asphaltic concrete over laid with 25 mm
thick mastic asphalt shall be provided as per section 500 of morth specifications.
Moderate conditions of exposure are considered for structure.
0.3mm permissible Crack width has been considered for Moderate/Severe condition of exposure.
Clear cover to the outermost steel shall be 40 mm.
Slab has been designed by ultimate limit state method and stresses and crack width has been
calculated by rare combination and quasi-permanent combination respectively.
The temperature loading for uniform rise or fall has been considered.
The following IRC Codes has been used for the design of slab
IRC: 6-2017
IRC:112-2011

Lapping of reinforcement shall be avoided as far as possible. In case lapping bars becomes
unavoidable minimum lap length of reinforcement bars shall be calculated as follow with
maximum allowable lapping (p) of 50% only. (IRC 112-2011) (clause :15.2.5.1)

27
LOADS CONSIDERED FOR DESIGN:
Self-weight of deck slab
Super imposed dead load
Crash barrier load
Footpath load
Live load combinations
Thermal stresses
DESIGN STRESSES:
For ultimate stress condition
Bending moment and shear force due to DL., LL., SIDL., footpath load and crash barrier load with
ultimate partial safety factor for verification of structural strength (IRC112:2011) (Table B.2)

For serviceability limit condition

Bending moment and shear force due to DL., LL., SIDL., footpath load, crash barrier load and
temperature stresses with partial safety factor for verification of serviceability limit states
(IRC112:2011) (Table B.3)
Steps:
1. Grillage formation

28
2. ANALYSIS:
Total Bending Moment at Mid Span (STAAD results)

Quasi
Rare
Quasi permanent permanent
Unfactored B.M. ULS Moment Rare Combination Combination
Loads ULS Factor combination combination
(kNm/m) (kNm/m) factor Moment
Factor Moment
(kNm/m)
(kNm/m)
DL 125.51 1.35 169.44 1.00 125.51 1.00 125.51
SIDL1 13.19 1.35 17.80 1.00 13.19 1.00 13.19
Surfacing 15.47 1.75 27.07 1.00 15.47 1.00 15.47
FPLL 0.00 1.50 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Case 1: Leading Live load with accompanied thermal load
CWLL - (Class A
130.30 1.50 195.45 1.00 130.30 0.00 0.00
/70R)
CWLL - SV Load 99.618 1.00 99.62 1.00 99.62 0.00 0.00
Total Moment ( Case 1) 409.76 284.46 154.16
Case 2: Leading thermal load with accompanied live load
CWLL - (Class A
130.30 0.75 97.73
/70R)
CWLL - SV Load 99.62 0.75 74.71
Total Moment ( Case 2) = 251.89

Summary of Shear Force:

Loads S.F. at deff(kn/m) ULS Factor uls s.f
DL 117.68 1.35 158.87
SIDL1 19.68 1.35 26.57
Surfacing 13.975 1.75 24.46
FPLL 0.00 1.50 0.00
CWLL - (Class A 173.82 1.50 260.74
CWLL - SV Load 171.014 1.00 171.01
Total 470.62

Summary of Torsional Moment:

ULS
Loads Unfactored Moment ULS Factor
moment

DL 6.72 1.35 9.07

SIDL1 1.86 1.35 2.51
Surfacing 0.79 1.75 1.38
FPLL 0.00 1.50 0.00
CWLL - (Class A
7.63 1.50 11.44
/70R)
CWLL - SV Load 0.569 1.00 0.57
Total 24.40

29
Summary of Support Reaction

Loads Reaction (kN)

DL 919.79
SIDL1 117.36
Surfacing 276.81
FPLL 50.37
CWLL - (Class A
913.20
/70R)
CWLL - (SV)

ULS DESIGN:
FOR BENDING MOMENT

Provide 20 mm dia @ 150 mm c/c + 0 mm dia @ 150 mm c/c

2 2
Area provided= 2094.40 mm /m > 1826.40 mm /m OK
Percentage of Steel (pt%) = 0.35 %

Maximum Spacing of Bars : as per Clause 16.6.1.1 of IRC:112-2011

Smax = 2h = 1200 mm
OR = 250.00 mm whichever is minimum

Provided Spacing is less than Smax, Hence OK

Limiting Depth of Neutral Axis , Xm = 0.0035 . d = 0.0035 x 600.00
( 0.0035 + fyd/ Es) 0.0035 + 0.0022

= 370.11 mm

Depth of Neutral Axis , X = fyd . Ast = 434.78 x 2094.40

0.36 . fck . b 0.36 x 35.00 x 1000

= 72.27 mm UNDER REINFORCED DESIGN, OK

Moment of Resistance of Section w.r.t. Steel ( MR)

MR = fyd . Ast . z
= 434.78 x 2094.40 x 569.94
= 5.19E+08 Nmm / m
= 518.99 kNm / m > 409.76 kNm / m SAFE

Moment of Resistance of Slab is More than Design Bending Moment , HENCE SLAB IS SAFE IN BENDING

30
FOR SHEAR:
From IRC:112 Shear capacity is


VRd,c = 0.12 K (801 f ck )
0.33
+ 0.15 cp bw d 
Subjected to min of V Rd ,c = (V min + 0.15  cp )bw d

K = 1 + SQRT(200/d) ≤ 2.0 , where d is depth in mm

K = 1.58
3/2 1/2 2
vmin = 0.031 K fck , fck = 35.00 N/mm
Hence vmin= 0.363 N/mm2
scp = Concrete compressive stress in concrete at centroidal axis in the direction of axial load or prestressing
scp = NEd/Ac < 0.2 fcd where , fcd = 0.67 fck/1.5
scp = 0.00 N/mm2
Hence,
tc = VRd,c/(bw .d) = Vmin + 0.15 scp = 0.3633 N/mm2 From eq.2

r1 = Steel Ratio = Asl/(bw . d) ≤ 0.02

Hence r1 = 0.0035
tc = VRd,c/(bw .d) = 0.405 N/mm2 From eq.1

Max of eq.1 & eq.2

tc = VRd,c/(bw.d) = 0.405 N/mm2 Corresponds to steel ratio = 0.349% & M35 Grade of
Concrete
Shear stress( vEd) = VEd/(bw*d)

vEd = 504157.25 = 0.840 N/mm2 >

1000.00 x 600.00 0.405 MPa

AsvEd is greater than Tc Hence Shear Reinforcement is need to be provided.

Governing Shear Reinforcement ( Asw)= 161 mm2

Let us provide 10 dia 3 legged stirrups in Width of 1m @ 150 mm C/C

thus providing = 235.62 OK

31
Temperature Stress (TEMP RISE) T1

.150

.195 T2 H/2
H

.150

T3

Fig 10(a) of IRC:6-2014

T1 T2 T3
o o o
C C C
17.8 4 2.1

Temperature Stress Summary

y t fei Nature of
Location o
qy at
m C Mpa Stress
Stress at
0 17.80 0.00E+00 2.14E-04 -3.25 Compressive
top fiber
Stress at
0.600 1.40 1.34E-04 1.68E-05 -1.23 Compressive
CG of steel

TEMP FALL:

T1 T2 T3 T4
o o o o
C C C C
-10.60 -0.70 -0.80 -6.60 Fig 10(a) of IRC:6-2014

32
33
PROJECT 2:
DESIGN OF RCC GIRDER AND DECK SLAB:
Effective span 15m.
Effective span c/c of bearing 13.2m
The following CWLL combination have been considered in the design. The design is then carried
out for the most critical CWLL Combination.
1. One Lane Class A + One Lane of class 70R Most Eccentric
2. Three Lane of Class A Placed Most Eccentrically
3. One Wheel of Class 70 R Placed over Girder + 1 Lane Class A
4. Class 70 R Placed concentric to the Girder + One Lane of Class 70R
5. SV Loading
The climate condition is assumed to be "MODERATE".
The temperature variation of +/- 25 C shall be considered for the design of bearings and expansion
joints.
Temperature gradients given in IRC 6:2017 has also been considered to evaluated the effect on
structure due to daily changes in temperature.
Coefficient of thermal expansion as per IRC: 6-2017 = 1.2/10^(5)
CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE:
• Casting of Precast Girders and curing @ 7 days
• Placing the Girders on the Bearing and Position the I-Girder on permanent bearings. Place
shuttering on girder top for casting of RCC deck slab Concrete @ 14 days
• Placing of Deck Slab & Diaphragm Conc. And removal of shuttering @ 28 days
• Casting of Crash Barriers, Wearing Coat and other deck furniture @ 50 days
• Open to traffic @ 78 days
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS:
Section Properties:
Uncracked sectional properties have been used for analysis. The effective flange widths for
sectional properties for the longitudinal girders and cross diaphragms have been determined in
accordance with IRC:112-2011.
Longitudinal Analysis of The Deck for SIDL & CWLL:
Superstructure has been model as an equivalent grillage mesh consisting of longitudinal and
transverse members. Analysis of Self weight of girder and green concrete of slab has been carried
out by single line model and the analysis of SIDL and CWLL has been carried out by grillage
model. STAAD-Pro Software, which is widely accepted for structural analysis, has been used for
analysis. For the design of longitudinal girders, moments and shear forces have been determined

34
at the critical sections. The design of various components has been carried out by design excel
sheets.
Diaphragms have been designed for DL+SIDL load in Jack up condition.
Analysis of Deck Slab:
Deck slab has been analysed along transverse direction as a continuous beam with overhangs
supported on longitudinal girders and diaphragms. Live load effects shall be taken based on
effective width method.
GRILLAGE IDEALISATION:

35
SECTION PROPERTY OF INNER GIRDER

3000
1500 1500
850 850
220
150
75
575

300
1200
150
250
650

Parameter Self Composite

Depth 1200 mm 1420 mm
2
Area 576875 mm2 1236875 mm
4
Iz 9.24E+10 mm4 2.48E+11 mm
Yb 604.58 mm 981.0 mm
Yt 595.42 mm 439.0 mm
3 3
Zb 1.5E+08 mm 2.5E+08 mm
3 3
Zt 1.6E+08 mm 5.7E+08 mm
u 3.9E+00 m 9.5E+00 m

OUTER GIRDER:

850 850 220

220
150
75
575
1200 575
300
150
250 250
650
G1 G2 G3 G4
1750 3000 3000 3000 1750

36
 Parameter Self Composite
Depth 1200 mm 1420 mm
Area 576875 mm2 1291875 mm2
Iz 9.24E+10 mm4 2.54E+11 mm4
Yb 604.58 mm 995.0 mm
Yt 595.42 mm 425.0 mm
Zb 1.528E+08 mm3 2.554E+08 mm3
Zt 1.552E+08 mm3 5.980E+08 mm3
u 3.900E+00 m 9.990E+00 m

AT SUPPORT

850 850

220
150 150
27 27
1023
1023
1200 650 650
0 0
0

650 650 650 650 650 650

Self Composite
Depth 1200 mm 1420 mm
2 2
Area 812700 mm 1527700 mm
4 4
Iz 1.0E+11 mm 2.9E+11 mm
Yb 621.37 mm 943.7 mm
Yt 578.63 mm 476.3 mm
3 3
Zb 1.7E+08 mm 3.0E+08 mm
3 3
Zt 1.8E+08 mm 6.0E+08 mm
U 9.1E+00 m

37
38
39
SUMMARY:
Bridge is an important part of transportation. It has made transportation simpler and easier
because many regions where construction of highways was difficult, bridge and filled the gap
and shortened the path.
Bridge design is most critical part, because any failure in bridge will lead to huge life and
financial loss. So, it’s analysis and design is done very accurately in the most critical stage with
high safety of factor.
Bridge is of many types according to design, length, materials used etc. But in all the designing
procedure we almost follow the same procedure i.e.
1. Total Loads
2. It’s combination for with various partial factors for various sorts of stability.
3. Moment and Shear force calculation at every single point.
4. Choose most critical stage.
5. Choose materials which can be used for construction
6. Put reinforcement and other supports to keep it stable for it’s life period.
7. Iterate the process till it’s 100% accurate
8. Estimation and costing
9. Forward to site engineer for construction.

Bridge design has become easy due to use of various software and applications like STAAD pro,
Ms Excel, MIDAAS etc. But a bridge engineer should have all the concepts of analysis and
design clear, so that he/she can visualize all the movements that will take part in bridge in it’s
life time. So, software just transforms an engineer’s imagination on paper’s drawing.
Bridge engineering especially design is the best part of civil engineering.

40