NDT.net - March 2000, Vol. 5 No.

03

Advanced Ultrasonic Methods For In Service Condition

Assessment of Industrial Process Installations
M.B. Hoppenbrouwers MSc
Röntgen Technische Dienst BV, Rotterdam
Corresponding Author Contact:
Email: m.b.hoppenbrouwers@rtd.nl, Web: http://www.rtd.nl

TABLE OF CONTENTS
◾ Abstract
Abstract ◾ Non destructive inspection of process installations
◾ Degradation phenomena
◾ State of the art inspection Techniques
Modern industrial asset maintenance and ◾ Conclusions
inspection concepts require reliable and accurate ◾ References
inspection techniques. New developments in
modern NDT have resulted in a range of screening tools and enhanced mapping techniques,
which enable reliable condition assessment during the operational phase of installations. In
service inspections allow on stream condition assessment of equipment before planned
shutdowns. NDT data is applied to optimise off stream inspection intervals and aim
maintenance effort to where it is required most. The result is reduced downtime and increased
availability of installations.

Non destructive inspection of process installations

Introduction
Modern maintenance concepts, such as Total Productive Maintenance
(TPM) and reliability centred maintenance (RCM), demand maximum
use of installations at minimum costs, without compromising on safety.
The role of non-destructive inspections becomes more and more
important for condition assessment to optimise maintenance
management. NDT is required during and after construction as well as
in the user phase of installations in oil and gas production,
petrochemical industry, power generation, food processing industry or Fig 1:
other types of production plants.

Condition assessment
Instead of corrective breakdown maintenance or time based preventive programs, many owners
of installation turn to condition based approaches [1]. Maintenance effort should be aimed at
those parts, where it is required most. Condition assessment of the actual piece of equipment
provides adequate data to optimise maintenance planning. Action can be taken immediately
where needed or postponed where possible.

Inspection planning
Most inspection regimes are not in line with the maintenance
requirements, but based on fixed inspection intervals prescribed by
governmental regulations. Duration of these intervals is mostly
determined historically or based on generic rules for certain types of
equipment. These criteria may not always be optimal for a specific
installation. Operational integrity of installations should be judged on
more individual basis.
"On stream" inspections can be conducted in service to provide
information about the actual condition of the object.
Off stream inspection can be based on the actual condition of the
moment and interval duration may be made flexible.

In view of condition monitoring programs, it is necessary to establish Fig 2: off shore production
platform
the baseline condition of any installation. This may be done at any
moment in time, but should preferably be implemented directly after construction. In an early
stage, one should consider using a type of inspection, which may be applied in an equal fashion
in a later stage during service time. Periodic condition assessment allows trending and
prediction of the remaining time-to-failure (MTTF). Operational lifetime extension may be
agreed upon with authorities and increased plant availability is the result.

Risk Based Inspection

Inspection planning itself may be optimised to obtain maximum result from as little effort as
possible. A study of applied construction and process materials, degradation mechanisms,
inspection history and operational conditions allows risk assessment for each individual piece
of equipment. Inspection activity is then prioritised based on a number of operational
parameters, e.g. operation pressure and temperature, consequential loss, personnel safety,
environmental damage etc. Risk assessment for each individual asset leads to a risk based
inspection (RBI) approach.

In Service Inspection(ISI)
Preferably, NDT shall be performed before a planned shutdown, while the equipment is in
service. Ample time is then available to plan the necessary maintenance work long before the
actual shutdown takes place. Since the inspection work has been done before shutdown and the
maintenance work is well planned, total downtime for the installation is reduced.

NDT requirements
Lifetime calculation models may predict the remaining service time of any asset. These
calculations require input data provided by the assets' history and available NDT data. The
outcome can only be as reliable as the input. High probability of detection (POD) is required to
ensure reliable operation until the next shutdown and low false call rate (FCR) is desirable to
avoid unnecessary maintenance work. Accurate and highly reliable data result in a reliable
prediction of the remaining service time.

On stream inspection techniques

The number and methods of inspection are always a trade-off between the minimum
requirements for safe operation and the amount of information needed for optimum
maintenance management.

In a baseline inspection, it is important to establish very accurately the zero condition of a piece
of equipment. Therefore, precise methods should be applied, mostly in an off line situation.
Dedicated techniques are available for full off stream inspection.

On the other side, ISI are faced with limitations such as access restrictions, high temperatures
etc. Most on stream methods are considered screening tools, which assess general condition
 rather than exact defect locations and dimensions. Qualitative techniques indicate trends in
condition deterioration but cannot deliver exact quantitative information.

Documentation
In signalling (monitoring) inspection, reproducibility is of high importance. Many conventional
ultrasonic methods are performed with hand held probes and results are presented in hand
written reports. The influence of the particular inspector on the outcome is significant and
hardly reproducible. Mechanised scanning and automated reporting minimise this 'human
factor'.

Access restrictions
Many inspection problems are associated with restricted access. Conventional techniques fail at
complex objects or locations that can hardly be accessed such as inspection of nozzles on
vessels, tapered pipes, pipework under insulation or on sleepers, under reinforcement or repair
patches, etc. New inspection techniques have been developed to fill in the gap in ancient
problem areas.

New materials
Higher operational requirements demand higher performance of construction materials.
Nowadays, high pressure vessels are constructed in austenic or duplex steels with internal
cladding, special weld materials and buffer layers which are often very difficult to inspect.
Another trend in pipeline construction is the use of glass fibre reinforced plastics (GRP).
Conventional inspection methods are restricted by the material structure and alternative
techniques should be applied.

High temperature measurements

On stream measurements are often faced with high process temperatures. Elevated temperature
measurement imposes additional requirements on the inspection equipment. Special ultrasonic
probes and couplants are applied for thickness measurements up to 350ºC. Non - contact
methods may even go up to higher temperatures.

Degradation phenomena

During service time of installations many known degradation mechanisms threaten the
condition of the equipment and eventually cause failures. Several phenomena are known to
cause problems in the service phase of equipment. Depending on type of equipment, materials,
process parameters, service time and external factors, certain types of degradation may occur. It
is desirable to understand these mechanisms and anticipate in an early stage on possible
consequences.
Degradation phenomena may be classified in two groups: mechanical wear and chemical
corrosion. Mechanical wear occurs in equipment under cyclic mechanical or thermal loads.
Depending on its manifestation and the equipment's function, mechanical wear may be more or
less threatening to the operational reliability. Corrosion manifests itself in several forms [2],
which occur in a certain environment in a single form or in a combination of corrosion forms.
Many forms may have a severe impact on the integrity of (parts of) process installations.

General corrosion
The most common manifestation of corrosion is a uniform attack, caused by a chemical or
electro-chemical reaction uniformly distributed over the exposed surface. A combination of a
corrosive product and an oxygen containing environment may start corrosion. Environmental
factors such as temperature, electrochemical potential etc determine the corrosion rate.
Generally, this type of corrosion is of no great concern, since a slow, gradual loss of material is
well predictable and adequate measures may be taken.

Pitting corrosion
Localised corrosion may be a greater threat to installations, because it
may form small pinholes that perforate the material rapidly. Pitting is a
result of an anodic reaction process. At an initiation location, the
surface is attacked by a corrosive product (e.g. chloride). Metallic
atoms are dissolved at the surface of the starting pit. The dissolution
causes excessive positive charge in the surface area, which attracts
negative chloride ions to restore electrochemical balance. The chloride Fig 3: pitting corrosion in a
ions, again, dissolve new metal atoms and the reaction becomes self storage tank floor
propagating. Within a short time the pit may penetrate the complete wall thickness. The
localised nature of pitting makes it extremely difficult to detect pits in an early stage.

Weld root erosion/corrosion

Root erosion is a degradation phenomenon, which is often encountered
in flow lines. It is difficult to grind the weld penetration on the inside
of pipelines. The excessive penetration causes a discontinuity on the
surface, which disturbs the flow pattern. On some metals, the wall is
passivated by an oxide film, which protects the steel from corrosion
processes. Turbulence and cavitation affect the region adjacent to the
welds and hamper formation of this passivation layer. Local wash out Fig 4: weld root erosion in
of wall material at the weld side is the result. a flow line

Another form of weld root corrosion is caused by selective corrosion. In many corrosion
resistant alloys or special welding materials, selective leaching may occur. Removal of the least
noble metals results in deterioration of the lattice structure in alloys (e.g. dezincification in
brass components). If the weld material is more susceptible to corrosion than the base material,
wash out of the weld causes root corrosion and degradation of structural integrity.

Fatigue cracking
Under cyclic mechanical or thermal loads, a component may be subject to fatigue. This process
is caused by repeated stresses just below the yield point. However, due to stress peaks,
microscopic plastic deformations of material structure occur. Under continuing stresses, these
deformations result in crack initiations. Mechanical fatigue cracking manifests itself as cracks
with preferential orientation perpendicular to the predominant stress directions. Thermal fatigue
cracking results in a random web-like crack structure.
In combination with a corrosive medium, the fatigue resistance of materials is reduced.
Corroded spots act as initiator of fatigue cracks, which on their turn corrode fastest at the crack
tip. This combined mechanical and chemical process is called corrosion fatigue.

Stress Corrosion Cracking

Crack formation occurs at location where tensile stresses act on the component in a specific
corrosive environment. High pressure equipment, mechanical stresses, thermal stresses,
remaining stresses from welding processes etc. may initiate stress cracking. After a while,
corrosion products in cracks act as wedging forces. A preferably hot, aqueous environment in
the presence of oxidizers is an ideal situation where SCC grows rank. Failing cathodic
protection may accelerate the process.
 In heavy duty austenitic materials, stress corrosion cracking occurs mainly along the grain
boundaries. This phenomenon, known as intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC),
manifests itself in the heat affected zone of nuclear reactor vessels and piping. With increased
use of high definition materials in petrochemical plant work IGSCC may cause problems in
process plants as well.

Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC)

Chemical reactors containing hydrogen may suffer from hydrogen induced cracking (HIC). In
contrast with molecular H2 gas, Hydrogen atoms penetrate steel reactor walls. Recombination
of atoms forms H2 gas, which piles up in voids in the metal structure. Internal pressure
increases until blisters build up and cracking occurs. Propagation of cracks occurs often by
transitional cracks between two parallel cracks. This process is known as stepwise cracking.

Hot Hydrogen Attack

At high temperature, hydrogen atoms react with the metallic atoms to intermetallic hydrides.
This phenomenon is referred to as Hot Hydrogen Attack, to discriminate from HIC, which
merely occurs at lower temperatures. Formation of methane gas (CH4) is caused by Hydrogen
reaction with carbides from the metal structure. Besides expansion of the volume and crack
initiation, decarburisation of the steel structure results in hydrogen embrittlement, which leads
to fast deterioration of structural integrity.

State of the art inspection Techniques

With the upcoming of computer technology and miniaturisation of equipment, NDT techniques
have developed rapidly into modern highly reliable inspection tools [3]. One of the most
important factors is the increased accuracy and reproducibility of data. Further mechanisation
of inspection techniques improved reliability greatly. One of the main reasons for this is that
full coverage is assured by performing the inspection in a mechanised fashion. Secondly, the
availability of a complete inspection record greatly improves condition monitoring facilities.

Special UT probes
In the past, specific probes have been designed to solve known
inspection problems. Special focused angle beam compression wave
probes have been developed to inspect specific depth regions in a weld.
The compression wave concept was introduced by BAM in the early
eighties [4]. Dual crystal probe construction and beam focussing
techniques enabled high sensitivity ultrasonic examination of complex
materials, which could not be achieved with standard shear wave Fig 5: various types of
techniques. ultrasonic probes

In austenitic or duplex materials, a well known phenomenon is intergranular stress corrosion

cracking (IGSCC). Especially in nuclear component inspection, many studies have been
undertaken to find appropriate methods for IGSCC detection.

For near surface cracks, special creeping wave probes have been developed. Creeping waves
travel just below the surface rather than in it, therefore they are not influenced by the presence
of coupling liquids, and the influence of surface irregularities. Moreover, since the creeping
wave is a compression wave type, they suffer less from a coarse material structure than shear
waves. Another outstanding example is the development of probes focussed under cladding
crack detection (UCC). The focal range is calculated in the parent material - cladding transition
zone. Cracks initiating from the clad layer into the parent material may be readily detected by
UCC probes.

Mode conversion techniques and combination of functions lead to minimization of the number
of probes required for complete inspection coverage. Tandem transducers with multiple crystals
can be build in one housing such as the Round Trip Tandem (RTT) probe or special functions
such as Long-Long-Trans (LTT) probes have been developed. Multi crystal transducers
combine a number of tasks in one housing to save space in the scanner setup and construction
costs.

In all cases, it appeared to be of utmost importance that the transducer parameters are optimized
for specific jobs. Once having gained experience with a certain weld type however, it is
possible to establish a "standard series" of dedicated transducers, with which the inspections
can be performed without excessive lead times. Mechanization of the inspection improved
inspection accuracy and reproducibility.

TOFD
The Time-Of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) technique is an advanced ultrasonic inspection
technique that fulfils a need for reliable inspections. It is a powerful technique because it can
simultaneously detect and size defects.

TOFD provides highly reproducible fingerprints of installation, which makes TOFD extremely
suitable for condition monitoring[5] .

TOFD Weld inspection

The preparation required for a TOFD scan is minimal, which makes the
technique attractive even when only a small number of welds have to be
inspected. TOFD may be applied during construction, where time
constraints exist. TOFD allows examination directly after welding (up to
200 °C) without hold up of production speed. The acceptance result is
directly available. There is practically no interference in continuation of
nearby construction works for safety reasons (no radiation shielding
etc).
Fig 6: TOFD inspection
Over the past years, the system has been used in a great variety of of process pipework in a
applications, ranging from circumferential welds in pipelines (including petrochemical plant
joints of different wall thickness and tapered pipes), weld inspection of heavy wall pressure
vessels (up to 300 mm wall thickness). Also, the TOFD technique was successfully applied for
inspection of partially filled welds, which are hardly inspectable by any other technique. Nozzle
and flange welds (complex geometry) can be inspected with prior computer simulation
modelling to aid inspection planning and result evaluation.

On stream inspection with TOFD

In contrast with radiography, for TOFD examination only external access to the object is
required. In the service phase of process installations and pipework, TOFD may be applied to
detect and monitor service induced defects (stress or fatigue cracks etc). 'Fingerprints' of the
object are recorded during acceptance inspection of welds directly after construction and
periodically every number of years. Initial acceptable defects are monitored and service induced
defects are revealed and progressively monitored.
Critical reactor vessels with heavy wall constructions can only be adequately inspected by
means of TOFD. Other techniques such as high energy radiography with Cobalt-60 sources or
portable betatrons, are faced with high safety requirements and extremely long examination
times. Ultrasonic meander scanning is often too cumbersome and time consuming. Spherical
gas tanks and steam generator headers may be surveyed for cracks.

Root erosion in flow lines

Selective erosion/corrosion in flow lines may be detected and sized by regular TOFD
inspection. Discrimination between single or two side wash out is easily achieved from the
TOFD images. Long stretches of pipeline may be inspected rapidly with minimum preparation
needed.

Hot Hydrogen Damage detection

Hydrogen embrittlement starts from the internal surface and propagates slowly through the wall
material. It is often difficult to detect due to minor changes in structure. A TOFD image can
display an increased noise level at the affected location and estimate the degree of attack.

Mapscan
The demand for mechanised ultrasonic wall thickness measurement is
fulfilled with the introduction of the Mapscan.
Mapscan applies a mechanical link between transducer and computer
to record the thickness data for each predetermined measurement
position. The transducer is scanned manually over the surface and the
thickness readings are stored on disk. After the scanning is finished,
the data are plotted in a wall thickness map. Each thickness level is Fig 7: Mapscan image
colour coded and wall thinning by corrosion or erosion is readily
recognised. High reproducibility (within 0.3 mm wall loss) enables
accurate monitoring and calculation of corrosion rates. This input is
very important to estimate time-to-failure.

Mapscan is applied on vessels, pipework (bends), tank walls etc, for

exact documentation of corroded regions. It can be applied in service at Fig 8: In service Mapscan
examination
temperatures up to 250°C. Corrosion phenomena such as general wall
thinning, pitting corrosion, flow accelerated corrosion (FAC), hydrogen induced corrosion
(HIC) and hot hydrogen attack have been revealed successfully by Mapscan.

For its high accuracy, Mapscan is accepted au lieu internal visual inspection of vessels. Based
on the on stream Mapscan results, off stream inspection interval extension is often
accomplished.

P-scan/Bandscan

P-scan
Ultrasonic mapping techniques prove to be very useful in wall
thickness measurement. The same advantages apply for weld
inspections. However, ultrasonic weld inspection is executed with
angle beam transducers and mapping algorithms become more
complex. This problem was solved with the development of projection
scanning (in short 'P-scan'). Dedicated scanners enable 3-dimensional
Fig 9: P-scan inspection of
presentation of the inspection object. This technique enabled extreme a nuclear reactor
high reliability inspection for monitoring of nuclear reactor vessels.
Meander scanning was implemented to comply with existing ultrasonic inspection standards
e.g. ASME, AINSI, etc.

Regression in construction of new nuclear power plants, meant a reduction in inspection work.
Increased inspection requirements in process plants have accelerated a technology transfer to
petrochemical equipment inspections. Especially for high pressure vessels and stainless steel
reactors higher inspection demands arose.

Enhanced scanning equipment has lead to further automation of ultrasonic inspections. A spin
off of this development is fast mechanised wall thickness mapping, which in spite of the
expensive equipment is economically attractive due to its high inspection speed.

Bandscan
Mechanised weld inspection greatly improved accuracy and
reproducibility. The development of special purpose probes and
focussing techniques opened new ways of inspection. Instead of
meander scanning with standard shear wave angle beam probes, the
concept of line scanning was implemented in the Bandscan. A
transducer frame on a guided vehicle is moved parallel to the weld
along a band. Any number of probes can be mounted with different Fig 10: Bandscan
functions. inspection on a spherical
tank
For weld inspection, the cross section of the weld is subdivided in several depth zones, each of
which is addressed with a combination of probes. Using focusing techniques, the ultrasonic
beam is so narrow at the focal position, that accurate defect sizing is possible, even though only
a single line scan is performed. Improved inspection speed and direct sizing capability are great
advantages for application of Bandscan rather than meander scanning (P-scan). Especially for
large structures, such as spherical gas tanks, Bandscan is the preferred method. Later on this
concept was motorized for high inspection speed on pipeline girth welds. Inspection cycles of
several minutes in (off shore) pipeline construction can now be achieved with the widely used
"Rotoscan" systems.

For non-routine weld inspection, such as dissimilar metal welds (DMWs), Bandscan may be
equipped with special probes. Joints of carbon steel to austenitic, duplex or high nickel alloy
steel materials can be examined using optimised probes. Due to the coarse structure of these
materials, they can hardly be inspected using conventional shear wave methods. Compression
wave angle beam probes are capable to penetrate these ultrasonic unfriendly materials. In
applications, where TOFD or shear wave ultrasonic techniques fail, Bandscan may do the job.
In this field, once again, Bandscan has proven its merits

LORUS (Long Range Ultrasonics)

Service induced defects such as corrosion and cracking tend to favour
locations where access for inspection is limited. Hidden corrosion is
often found with great difficulty or in a late stage when damage is
already done. LORUS has been developed as a tool for fast screening
of regions with limited access [6]. From a single access point, a range
up to one metre may be examined for corrosion or cracks. Inspection
Fig 11: LORUS scanner on
may be carried out on stream without dismantling, lifting or opening the external lid of a storage
tank floor.
components, which means substantial savings in shutdown, process interruptions and/or
cleaning time and costs.

Special design, high sensitivity ultrasonic probes are applied to achieve a considerable
inspection range. LORUS measures reflection signals and composes coherent projection
images. Examination results are documented in easy to understand, colour coded, 2D top view
corrosion maps. Corrosion extent is readily obtained and corrosion growth may be monitored in
recurrent inspections Reflection amplitudes provide qualitative information on corrosion
severity but can not present actual corrosion depth.

Storage Tank Inspection

An upcoming trend is the use of on stream screening techniques to establish general tank
condition. LORUS may be part of a carefully composed on stream tank inspection package,
containing Acoustic Emission corrosion activity measurement, and mechanised ultrasonic wall
thickness mapping. These complementary techniques provide a firm basis for decision making
in maintenance planning and service time extension for storage tank operation.

LORUS focuses specifically on the high risk zone of the annular plate, supporting the tank
shell. This region is considered critical, due to high stresses and failures may lead to large
product spills or endanger personnel and environment. The ultrasonic beam is emitted under the
proper angle to propagate underneath the shell and cover a range up to 1 metre. Projection
images show the area of the annular plate region in top view and form a permanent document
for recurrent inspections. General corrosion as well as localised pitting corrosion is easily
recognised.

Large area screening

Mapping of large objects for corrosion or cracks may be performed
rapidly with projection mapping techniques. Complete volumetric
coverage is achieved by performing line scanning only. Substantial
time saving is achieved compared to full area scanning methods (e.g.
Mapscan).

In many cases, defect orientation may be such that angle beam

inspection is required. Detection of cracks in through thickness
direction demands application of angle beam probes. Projection images Fig 12: A small strip needs
to be prepared for LORUS
present colour coded defect maps, with exact defect location and inspection of a 2 m wide
extent. Depth sizing may be by more quantitative techniques e.g. area.
TOFD, at those locations indicated on the LORUS maps.

Even locations that cannot be inspected directly because of access

restrictions of pipework, repair scales, bandages etc, can be examined
by means of LORUS.
Fig 13: 100% area
Minimum surface preparation combined with high inspection speed,
screening of a large tower
essentially provide a rapid and cost effective mapping technique. This
method is extremely suited for mapping of cracking, such as fatigue
cracking with a preferential orientation or randomly orientated SCC,
but also suited for small corrosion pits.
pipe supports
Corrosion under pipe supports or saddles is a major problem area for
inspection. The region between outer pipe surface and support is
susceptible to corrosion due to water ingress. Radiographic or
ultrasonic wall thickness techniques are not applicable because of
Fig 14: LORUS inspection
access limitation. The only option is lifting the pipe from the support to of pipe supports
gain access. However, the condition of the pipe is the unknown factor
and lifting may be a riskful enterprise.

With LORUS, the support region is inspected from the free top surface of the pipe without the
need for lifting. Fast screening of large numbers of supports is achieved in a minimum of time.

Both pulse-echo and transmission techniques are applied in circumferential directions to obtain
maximum information. In a single scan over the top surface of the pipe, two probes measure
reflection and transmission signals simultaneously. Reflection signals are used to calculate
projection images, while transmission signals are used to estimate corrosion severity in several
depth classes.

Guided wave pipeline inspection

Screening tools for fast assessment of large parts of installations seem to have a growing
inspection potential. In stead of spot checks, plant users demand complete 100% inspection
coverage of their installations. Where conventional ultrasonic techniques, based on bulk wave
propagation, have a limited range up to one meter, Lamb waves have the potential of
propagating over much longer distances. In a confined geometry such as a pipe, guided waves
build up, which can travel over tens of meters.

As a screening tool, this technique provides on line information of long lengths of pipework.
Guided waves travel across straight stretches of pipes, bends, supports, T-joints, etc but cannot
pass across flange joints, end pieces, etc.

Fig 15: Guided wave inspection system

Ring transducers have been developed [7], which can generate waves in a specific mode,
optimal in range and sensitivity.

An extremely long inspection range is achieved for screening of on and offshore pipework,
detection of corrosion under insulation without removing lagging other than for application of
the probes, road crossings and other hidden penetrations, lined pipework, etc.
 Since very low frequencies are applied, the defect sensitivity is limited to larger areas of
(corrosion) wall loss. Welds cause reflection signals at regular distance, providing reference for
sensitivity settings. Internal features in the weld such as weld root erosion may be discriminated
in the reflection signal by advanced signal processing techniques. In a similar way, guided wave
inspection could discriminate between corroded and unaffected pipes at locations of supports.
The full potential of the technique will become evident when it is applied more widely.

Conclusions

Advanced ultrasonic techniques show very attractive merits for use on in service inspections of
industrial process plants. Most known degradation phenomena may be detected, localised and
documented using on stream techniques. Inspection programmes can be optimised to aim
optimum effort at high risk (parts of) equipment. Critical components can be monitored and
defect grow can be followed in time. Reliable operational service of equipment can be extended
until safety limits are attained. The result of an optimised inspection approach is reduced
downtime and maximum availability of installations. Substantial savings are obtained in
inspection expenses and secondary, much larger savings may be obtained in cutting operational
costs for unneeded maintenance shutdowns.

References

1. Van Ryn, C.F.H., 'Specifying and maintaining (rotating) equipment, an effective contribution to
plant profit.' Maximising Rotating Reliability Engineering, ImechE Seminar, 1994
2. Fontana, M.G., 'The eight forms of corrosion'. From Corrosion Engineering by Fontana and
Greene, 1967
3. de Raad, J.A., 'Developments and evaluation of modern NDT techniques and their application,
an overview', ImechE/EEMUA/Safed Seminar, 1997
4. Dijkstra, F.H. and Walte, F. 'Ultrasonic Probes for Special Purposes, types, applications and
experiences' ASME Pressure Vessel and Piping Conference, 1991
5. Bouma, T. and de Raad, J.A., 'Time-Of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD), a reliable technique for
detection and sizing of defectsÆ, 5th European welding week, 1995.
6. Hoppenbrouwers, M.B. and de Raad, J.A. 'Long Range Ultrasonics for corrosion detection on
hard-to- access locations', 7th European Conference on Non Destructive Testing, 1998
7. Guided Ultrasonics Ltd, 'GUL wavemaker 16' brochure, 1999

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