Dendrimers – fascinating nanoparticles
science • technique
in the application in medicine
Małgorzata KUBIAK* – Student Scientific Association FERMENT at Faculty of Biotechnology and
Food Sciences, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
Please cite as: CHEMIK 2014, 68, 2, 141–150
A few words about the history of dendrimers
The first information about the new class of branched molecules
appeared in 1974 [1] in a publication written by a team of German
chemist Fritz Vögtle, and because of their characteristic structure they
were called an “octopus molecules”. A few years later, in 1978, the
same group described the synthesis of these compounds, this time
giving them a name “cascade molecules”[2]. However, they were not
a typical dendrimers (Fig.1).
Fig. 1. Octopus molecule obtained by Vögtle’s team
At that time, the aim of synthesis of these highly branched molecules
was obtaining particles, which would facilitate the dissolution of
hydrophilic compounds in hydrophobic solvents.
Fig. 2. The structure of dendrimer PAMAM G3
Corresponding author:
Małgorzata KUBIAK,, e-mail: malgosia.m.kubiak@gmail.com
146 •
The term “dendrimer” appeared for the first time in 1985 in the
publication prepared by Donald Tomalia and co-workers. This name
refers to their tree-like structure and is a combination of two Greek
words – “dendron” meaning tree and “meros” meaning part [3]. One
year later the same team described the first of the two currently
known ways of synthesis of this compound – the divergent method,
based on the attachment of a new monomers to the multifunctional
core [4]. As a results of this research Tomalia obtained polyamidoamine
(PAMAM) dendrimers, which are currently the best studied and,
thanks to that, the best known molecules belonging to this group of
compounds. At the same time, the group of Newkome synthesized
the similar type of nanoparticles and called them “arborols” [5], but
this name, which derives from Latin word “arbor” (also meaning tree),
was not adopted.
At first, these fascinating branched molecules did not draw special
attention of the scientific community, but the situation changed with
the development of nanotechnology.
What are dendrimers?
Dendrimers are highly branched, organic compounds with
well-defined, symmetrical structure. From chemical point of view
they are three-dimensional polymers, characterized by a globular
shape. As depicted in Figure 3, in the central part of molecule is
located a multifunctional core, from which emanate radially perfectly
branched monomers, called dendrons. At the end of the arms are
terminals, functional groups, which can be easily modified in order
to change their chemical and physical properties. There are two types
of dendrimer generation – a full generation with hydroxyl or amine
surface group and a half generation with carboxyl surface group.
The last characteristic elements in the structure of dendrimers are
internal cavities – the empty spaces, which can be used as a “pocket”
for different kind of small particles.
Fig. 3. Schematic description of dendrimer structure
The structure of dendrimers has a significant impact on their
chemical and physical properties and on their potential application.
First of all, thanks to a large number of terminal functional groups,
described polymers are characterized by unusually high reactivity.
These features enable the attachment of various particles to the
surface of dendrimers, e.g. drug substances, which are currently
nr 2/2014 • tom 68
administered as a monomers. It was observed, that the compound
itself exhibit a significantly weaker activity in comparisons with the
equivalent amount of drug attached to dendrimer – it is referred to as
“a dendrimeric effect” [6]. Moreover, due to the presence of empty
spaces between branches, they can be used to encapsulate smaller
molecules. An important feature of described polymers is the facility
of changing the nature of these compounds only by modification of
terminal functional groups. However, the high cytotoxicity of some
types of dendrimers cannot be ignored, because this feature limits
their use in medicine.
Synthesis of dendrimers
Dendrimers are produced in iterative sequence of several
reactions, each time leading to the creation of higher generation of
polymer. Every new layer creates molecule with double number of
active end groups and more than double molecular weight of the
previous generation. One of the most appealing aspects of dendrimers
is a possibility of precise control at every stage of synthesis, which
allows to obtain a molecule with early designed, well-defined
structure. Dendrimers can be made from any type of compounds,
whose nature determines their solubility and biological activity. Most
of the commonly encountered types in biological application are
based on polyamidoamines, polyamines, polipeptydes, poliamides,
polyesters, carbohydrates and nucleic acid.
As mentioned earlier, the first applied method of dendrimer
synthesis was the divergent method proposed by the Tomalia group.
In this process described polymers grow outward by successive
attaching a new layer of the monomers to a multifunctional core
(Fig.4). Each reaction step results in an increase of molecule diameter,
and arms become more and more branched. The last phenomenon is
the reason of one of the most important disadvantage of this method
– congestion of the terminal functional groups with increased dendrimer
generation, which results in loss of their reactivity. Furthermore, the
post-reaction mixture consists a large number of molecules with
various structural defects and with smaller than expected weight.
To avoid these problems, a large excess of reagents (monomers) shall
be used, however, this significantly increases the cost of synthesis and
makes the purification of the final product more difficult.
Fig. 4. Divergent method of dendrimer synthesis
As a response to the weaknesses of the divergent method, in
1990 Hawker and Fréchet proposed a different way of dendrimer
synthesis – convergent method [7]. In this approach the first step is
obtaining highly branched dendrons, which can be then connected
to multifunctional core (Fig.5). The great advantage in this case is
easier and more precise control of synthesis, and thanks to that, it
is possible to obtain highly pure molecules, which are free from any
defects. What is more, this method enables to design dendrimers,
in which every dendrons are different. However, this is not an ideal
way for producing describing polymers, because – due to the steric
effect – it allows only for the synthesis of small molecule.
Fig. 5. Convergent method of dendrimer synthesis
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It cannot be clearly determined which method is better,
science • technique
therefore, before the selection of one of them, many different
factors should be taken into consideration (e.g. type of monomer
or structure of dendrimer).
Biomedical application of dendrimers
Dendrimers, thanks to their unique feature, may in the future
be applied in many various fields of science and industry. Currently,
a fundamental limitation is the high cost of production of these
compounds. A lot of attention is paid to the research on the use
of these polymers in medicine, chemistry, genetic engineering and
environmental protection. The first of these trends arouses the
greatest interest due to the permanent demand for a new, better
and more effective forms of therapy, especially, in the case of
diseases, for which no cure has not yet been found.
Studies on the dendrimer application in medicine can be divided
into two major categories – described molecules can be used as
carrier for other substances or as therapeutic agent themselves.
One of the first in vitro studies in this field was associated with the
production of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent
using dendrimers. Mostly used contrast agents are based on the
complex of gadolinium ion (Gd3+) and chelating ligand such as
DOTA (1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane tetraacetic acid) or DTPA
(diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid) [8, 9]. Chelators are required
due to the high toxicity of free gadolinium ions – it accumulates in
human body including the liver, brain or bones [10, 11]. Described
contrast agents are characterized by low molecular weight and
therefore, they are removed too quickly from the body. The solution
to this problem could be to conjugate gadolinium complexes with
natural or synthetic polymers such as polysaccharides, proteins,
polylysine [12]. These conjugates showed a better efficiency in
imaging of tissues, however, this time they reminded in the body
for too long, which might results in undesirable accumulation of
gadolinium compound. In 1994 Wiener group proposed for the first
time the use of PAMAM dendrimer as a carrier for the gadolinium
complexes [13]. The results of these studies were so promising,
that it drew the attention one of the pharmaceutical companies,
Schering AG, whose product – Gadomer 17 – is currently in phase
II clinical trials. Another extremely popular research direction
arose from two unique structural features of dendrimers – a large
number of terminal groups and empty cavities between the arms.
Thanks to these properties, described polymers may be used as drug
carriers both on the surface of molecule and in its interior. Amidst
numerous advantages of this application it should be mentioned the
increase of effectiveness and elimination of side effects of cancer
therapy, the possibility of controlled drug release, the solubility
enhancement of hydrophobic compounds (as a carrier – dendrimer
with hydrophobic interior and hydrophilic surface) and in the distant
future – the opportunity to design the targeted therapy [14]. The
exceptional ability of dendrimers to penetrate the cell membrane
was the reason for starting the research on the use of them as
a non-viral transfecting agent. Dendrimers with positively charged
terminal groups (e.g. PAMAM) can easily bind to the negatively
charged phosphate residues of nucleic acids. These complexes
exhibit an increase stability and high transfection efficiency. The
use of viral vectors carries some risk for the researcher, which
can be avoided by applying dendrimer transection agents [15].
Another application of these nanoparticles is connected with their
multivalency – described feature may be used to create a new
generation of vaccines. Presence of numerous functional groups on
the surface of particles enables the attachment of multiple copies of
both the identical and the different antigens, and therefore enhance
the immunogenicity of the vaccines [6].
• 147
 Table 1
science • technique
Summary of the most important application of dendrimers in medicine

Biomedical application of dendrimers The advantages of using dendrimers Selected examples

Dendrimers + active substances

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 1) Optimal circulation time within the body Gadomer 17 – contrast agent containing gadolinium chelates
contrast agent 2) Reduced risk of accumulations of gadolinium compounds based on polylysine dendrimers
3) Good quality of imaging

Drug carrier:
- particles encapsulated inside dendrimers
- particles attached to the surface groups
1) Increase the solubility of hydrophobic drugs in aqueous
environment of body fluids [25]
2) Increased cell membrane permeability for drugs
3) The protection of unstable drugs during the transport within
the body
4) Controlled and prolonged release of drugs, and thereby
reducing their toxicity
5) The possibility of lower dosage of the drugs
6) Minimizing the negative side effects of medicines [14]
7) The possibility of attachment of various active substances to
one molecule of dendrimer [28]
8) The possibility of targeting the drug to certain tissues
- targeted therapy [25]
Niclosamide – antiparasitic drug, almost insoluble in water –
after encapsulation in PAMAM drendrimers increased solubility
This also enabled the controlled drug released [26]
Cisplatin – popular anticancer drug – thanks to the combination
with PAMAM dendrimer it was possible to achieve slower
release, lower toxicity, and also increased accumulation in tumor
cells [27]
Ketoprofen – nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug – the
medicine was bound to the PAMAM dendrimer – thereby
obtained enhanced solubility in aqueous solution, an increase in its
concentration in the blood, and prolonged effect of this drug [29]

Gene therapy (non-viral transfection 1) High efficiency of nucleic acids transport Dendrimer-oligonucleotide-plasmid complex – tumor
agents) growth inhibitory factor. Plasmid contains a gene encoding
2) Protection from degradation
tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase or angiostatin (endogenous
3) High stability under the wide range of pH angiogenesis inhibitor) [34]
4) Easy transfer of genes through the cell wall SuperFect® (Qiagen) – commercially available transfection
5) Gene expression in vitro in various mammalian cell lines and in agent, based on PAMAM dendrimers [35, 36]
vivo in various animal tissues [30, 31, 32, 33]

Dendrimer-based vaccines 1) The ability to bind multiple copies of an antigen - increased Vaccine against malaria – based on multiple antigenic peptide
immunogenicity of the vaccine (MAP) dendrimers, currently in phase I clinical trials [6]
2) The possibility to omit protein carriers, which could be Vaccines against HIV – created using various kinds of
a potential sensitiser. dendrimers [37]

Dendrimers per se

Antiviral and antibacterial agents
1) The ability to block receptors on the surface of the virus
2) Prevention of the attachment of pathogens to mammalian
cells either by strong adhesion to the bacterial cell wall and
surface of the virus or by coating the potentially attacked
cells.
3) The ability to destroy the negatively charged bacterial
membrane, which results in the lysis of the cell [38, 29]
Sialodendrimers – inhibitors of hemagglutination process of
human erythrocytes induced by influenza virus [17]
VivaGel® (Starpharma Ltd.) – drug for women based on
polylysine dendrimers (G4), protects against HIV infection. It
works by blocking the receptors on the surface of the virus.
Currently in phase III clinical trials [40]

Treatment of neurodegenerative diseases 1) Prevention of the formation of harmful amyloid deposits PAMAM Denrimers G3, G4, G5 – inhibitors of formation of
(Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, prion) 2) The ability to destroy existing fibrillar protein aggregates amyloid plaques. They are also characterized by the ability to
degrade the existing deposites [41]

Anti-inflammatory agents
1) The ability to inhibit the synthesis of protein secreted during
the induction of inflammatory response of the body
2) The ability to reduce existing inflammatory response
3) High solubility in water (compared with non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs)
Half-generation PAMAM dendrimers (G4.5) with
functional groups conjugated with glucosamine – the
presence of these nanoparticles inhibits the secretion of
proinflammatory chemokines and cytokines by LPS
Phosphorus dendrimers covered with bisphosphonate
(ABP) groups – as above, additionally enhance the NK cell
proliferation
PAMAM dendrimers - exhibit anti-inflammatory activity
in vivo in studies using models representing the two types of
inflammation - acute and chronic

Besides the use of dendrimers as a complex with other
molecules, it is possible to apply them as an independent active
substance. First of all, these nanoparticles show strong antibacterial
and antiviral properties. Dendrimers may act in two ways: either
by coating viruses and bacterial cells or by covering potentially
attacked mammalian cells, thereby protecting from the infection
[16]. One of the first studies in this area concerned the use of
described nanoparticles against the influenza virus. For this purpose
they applied sialic acid-conjugated dendrimers [17]. Described
nanopolymers bind to the haemagglutinin present on the surface
of the virus and thus prevent the adhesion of the pathogen
to the cell. Another direction of research on the application of
dendrimers per se is associated with attempts to use them in
the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s

148 • nr 2/2014 • tom 68

disease, Alzheimer’s disease or prion diseases. In all of cases the
characteristic feature is the formation, and then the accumulation
of amyloid deposits – fibrillar aggregates built from proteins,
which are normally dissolved. It turned out that dendrimers not
only inhibit the formation of amyloid plaques, but also destroy the
already existing [18, 19]. This direction seems to be particularly
important, due to the fact that there are still no effective treatment
methods for these diseases. Among the numerous studies on
the properties of dendrimers in relation to their potential use in
medicine, anti-inflammatory activity of these compounds is one of
the most recent and promising discoveries in this field, therefor in
this paper more attention was paid to this. Great interest in this
subject is enhanced by an urgent need for a new, effective ways of
treatment of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis,
celiac disease, lupus or psoriasis. The first report mentioning the
anti-inflammatory effects of dendrimers appeared in 2004, and its
main topic was the prevention of scar tissue formation [20]. The
research has been conducted using the half-generation PAMAM
dendrimers (G4.5), in which a few of terminal carboxyl groups
were conjugated with glucosamine. It turned out that despite the
lipopolysaccharide (LPS, from Salmonella minnesota) stimulation,
in the presence of these nanoparticles the immune cells did not
produced neither proinflammatory chemokines nor cytokines
– proteins secreted during the induction of inflammatory response
of the body. Another study, this time with the use of phosphorus
dendrimers covered with bisphosphonate (ABP) groups, has led
to the discovery of strong immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory
properties of these molecules [21, 22]. As in the previous example,
they inhibited the release of pro-inflammatory proteins.
It is worth mentioning, that the described dendrimers enhance
the proliferation of natural killer (NK) cells [23], which are
cytotoxic effectors against bacteria-, virus- or parasite-infected
cells, and also against tumor cells – what gives a chance to use
them in cancer therapy. In 2009 the Tomalia group conducted in vivo
studies on the use of PAMAM dendrimers as a potential carrier for
indomethacin –  compound belongs to the group of non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs. Rats with induced inflammation were
divided into three groups – the first was treated with indomethacin
alone, the second with complex of dendrimer and indomethacin and
the third with dendrimer alone (it was intended to be a negative
control). Unexpectedly, it turned out that the free PAMAM
dendrimer showed anti-inflammatory activity, and what is even
more interesting – it was comparable to the effect induced by the
complex of nanopolymer and indomethacin [24]. Bryszewska M.: Influence of phosphorus dendrimers on the aggregation of the prion
The most important biomedical applications, their advantages and
selected examples are summarised in Table 1.
Summary
Dendrimers are polymers characterized by a unique structure
from which derive their unique properties. In this study attention
was drawn to the potential use of these compounds in medicine,
however, it should be noted that all these examples are still in the
phase of intensive research. Nevertheless, dendrimers give hope
to create new methods for the treatment of diseases for which it
have not yet be found a cure, such as neurodegenerative diseases
or autoimmune diseases.
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Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2006, 345, 1, 21–28
Translation into English by the Author
* Małgorzata KUBIAK – she graduated from the Faculty of Biotechnology
and Food Sciences at Lodz University of Technology in November
2013 with an excellent result with Master’s Degree in Biotechnology
(specialization: Molecular Biotechnology and Technical Biochemistry). She
is the author of 5 posters (2 at the international conferences and 3 at the
national conferences). She has been a member of Scientific Association of
Biotechnology Students FERMENT since October 2010.
• Obszar II Przeróbka (Mineral Processing)
Temat zagadnienia: Innowacyjna technologia efektywnego rozdrabniania
na potrzeby przygotowania rud metali nieżelaznych do wzbogacenia
• Obszar III Metalurgia, przetwórstwo, nowe materiały
Temat zagadnienia:  Opracowanie innowacyjnej hydrometalurgicznej
technologii produkcji metali nieżelaznych z koncentratów KGHM
Temat zagadnienia: Opracowanie innowacyjnego rozwiązania techno-
logicznego do procesu odmiedziowania żużla w procesie zawiesinowego
otrzymywania miedzi. Więcej na: https://cubr.ncbr.gov.pl/cubr/. (em)
(http://www.ncbir.pl/ 16 luty 2014 r.)
Optoelectronic components and systems for smart productio-
n,communication and medicine
27 stycznia 2014 r. Narodowe Centrum Badań i Rozwoju (NCBR)
i Departament Gospodarki, Technologii i Badań Senatu Berlina
(SenWTF) ogłosili otwarcie konkursu na wspólne projekty w dziedzi-
smart production,communication and medicine.
NCBR przeznacza kwotę 1 500 000 EUR na dofinansowanie pro-
jektów polskich podmiotów, które zostaną zaakceptowane do finanso-
wania w procedurze konkursowej. Termin składania wniosków upływa
31 marca 2014 r. (em)
(http://www.ncbir.pl/ 16 luty 2014 r.)
dokończenie na stronie 160
nr 2/2014 • tom 68