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 Author's personal copy
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2009) 8:305–311
DOI 10.1007/s11157-009-9174-y
PROJECT UPDATE
SCUSA: integrated approaches and strategies to address
the sanitation crisis in unsewered slum areas in African
mega-cities
Jan Willem Foppen • Frank Kansiime
Published online: 16 October 2009

Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract Africa, though reported to be the least
urbanized continent, is recognized as one where the
rate of urbanization is highest. The development and
expansion of informal settlements in the suburbs of
the cities is widespread, while they harbor the
majority of the urban population. Slums are charac-
terized by, among other things, poorly constructed
houses, poor water supply and sanitary conditions,
and lack or inadequate support services. Besides the
spreading of diseases related to surface water (e.g.,
malaria), one of the main problems associated with
sanitation and water in slum areas is related to the
pollutant load entering and leaving the slum catch-
ment, either as surface water or groundwater. This is
polluting drinking water or causing eutrophication of
surface water, due to the extremely high nitrogen and
phosphorus fluxes discharging those slum catch-
ments. The SCUSA research project aims at identi-
fying the most sustainable sanitation solutions in
urban slums, including the most important parameters
determining and guaranteeing sustainability. Our
approach is multidisciplinary, and should therefore
yield answers with a financial, social, technical, and
J. W. Foppen (&)
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft,
The Netherlands
e-mail: j.foppen@unesco-ihe.org
F. Kansiime
Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
environmental view on the extremely complex field
of sanitation in urban slums.
Keywords Sanitation
Eutrophication

Health
Pollution
Sustainability

Slums
Kampala
1 Introduction
The urban population is growing at an alarming rate.
In the last decades, urbanization has increased by
20–30% in most parts of the world, and in 2003,
around 48% of the population of the world lived in
urban areas (UN-HABITAT 2003). These trends
imply that world urban populations will increase by
an equivalent of 33 new cities of 2 million people per
year for the next 30 years. By the year 2015, more
than 50% of the world’s population will live in urban
areas. Despite an increase of almost 40% in the
number of people served with improved sanitation
over 1990–2004, the number of unserved people is
still growing (JMP 2006). With current projections,
the number of urban dwellers without access to
improved sanitation will see an increase of almost
46% from the baseline year (1990) to 2015 (Fig. 1).
Africa is recognized as the continent where the rate
of urbanization is highest (UNEP 2002), particularly
urban population growth rates in so called informal
123
306
3500
unserved
served
3000
Population (million)
2500 2502
2000
1804
1500
1000
500 475
611
0 wastewater from Yaounde city. Already more than
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Fig. 1 Trends in improved sanitation of urban areas (JMP
2006)
settlements are very high. Data show that in a number
of African mega-cities, these settlements harbor the
majority of the urban population: 70% in Dar-es-
salaam, (Chaggu 2004), 77% in Blantyre, 80% in
Luanda (Palamuleni 2002), and 60% in Kampala
(WSP/NWSC 2000). Although data on these informal
settlements, or slums, are highly inaccurate (UN-
HABITAT 2003), there is evidence that basic sanita-
tion coverage in slum areas is much lower than the
average for urban areas. The problem of sanitation in
slums is critical and complex because of a high
population density, poor urban infrastructure, lack of
space, lack of secure tenure, and sustained poverty.
1.1 Uncontrolled wastewater disposal leads
to pathogen spreading and eutrophication
The improvement of water and sanitation in develop-
ing countries is largely driven by the need to reduce
the incidence and prevalence of infectious diseases
caused by pathogenic micro-organisms (Lawrence
et al. 2000). The majority of pathogens that affect
humans originate from faeces and are transmitted by
the faecal-oral route. Pathogen transmission may
occur through a variety of routes including food,
water, poor personal hygiene and flies. Thus, in order
to reduce the health burden caused by infectious
diseases, interventions are required in excreta disposal
(to remove faeces from the environment) and water
supply (to prevent consumption of water containing
pathogens).
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Author's personal copyRev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2009) 8:305–311
Another driver for the need to improve sanitation in
3176 developing countries is eutrophication of surface
water resources. For instance, in a recent study, the
Ministry of Water and Environment of Uganda
reported that large urban centres contribute with
72% of the pollution loading into Lake Victoria shores
compared to 13% by industries and 15% by fishing
villages (MWE 2007). Kemka et al. (2006) showed
that Yaounde Municipality Lake in Cameroon is
692
experiencing hypertrophic eutrophication as a result
of the inflow of increasing quantities of domestic
2010 2015 2020
30 years ago, Marshall and Falconer (1973), Robarts
and Southall (1977) and Thornton and Nduku (1982)
showed that serious eutrophication in Lake Mcllwaine
(Zimbabwe; now known as Lake Chivero) was a result
of increased sewage discharge. More recently, Nhapi
and Tirivarombo (2004) demonstrated the eutrophy-
ing influence of the Marimba River, discharging into
Lake Chivero (Zimbabwe). This river receives treated
wastewater from the Crowborough Sewage Treatment
Works in Harare. Bere (2007) reported high nutrient
concentrations in the Chinyika River, a tributary of
the Mazowe River (Zimbabwe), as a result of sewage
inflow from the Hatcliffe Sewage Works. De Villiers
(2007) reported increased nutrient input due to
anthropogenic activities in the Berg River (South
Africa). Oberholster et al. (2009) studied the influence
of toxic cyanobacterial blooms on algal populations in
Lake Krugersdrift (South Africa). One of the major
causes of eutrophication here is the nutrient rich
inflow of water from the Modder River, which
receives treated domestic and industrial effluent from
the city of Bloemfontein. Another example in South
Africa is the Hennops River (Oberholster et al. 2008),
which receives treated effluent from the Hartbeesfon-
tein Sewage Purification Works, and causes eutrophi-
cation in the Rietvlei nature reserve wetland area. The
Borkena River in Ethiopia is hypertrophic due to
inflow of wastewater from the towns of Dessie and
Kombolcha (Beyene et al. 2009). Interestingly, these
towns do not possess sewer lines, sewage treatment
plants, or proper solid waste disposal sites, and inflow
of nutrient masses is relatively uncontrolled. A similar
situation of uncontrolled disposal of wastewater from
informal settlements to surface water was reported for
the Umtata River in South Africa (Fatoki et al. 2001)
and the Orogodo River in Nigeria (Arimoro et al.
2007). The latter receives an uncontrolled inflow of
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2009) 8:305–311Author's personal copy 307

nutrient masses from the towns of Agbor, Owa-Ofie,
Ekuma-Abovo and Oyoko, before it ends up in the
swamps between Obazagbon-Nugu and the oil rich
town of Oben in Edo State, southern Nigeria. Kula-
bako et al. (2004, 2007 and 2008) reported on the
anthropogenic pollution occurring below the Bwaise
III Parish in Kampala (Uganda), a suburb slum area,
and the relation with uncontrolled discharge of
nutrients via groundwater into Lubigi swamp, causing
eutrophication of the swamp and surface waters
downstream of the swamp.
solutions to provide excreta and grey-water
management in a typical slum area.
2. To determine the financial, institutional, and
sociological mechanisms or boundary conditions
for successful implementation of sustainable
sanitation solutions in this urban slum and to
use the lessons learned in other slum areas.
3. To determine the effect of slums and of environ-
mentally sustainable sanitation in slums on
groundwater and surface water quantity and
quality.

1.2 Millennium development goal 7

2 Research methodology and implementation
Recognising the importance of sanitation, in 2000, the
United Nations (UN) devoted one of the Millennium
2.1 Study area: Bwaise III Parish, Kampala,
Development Goals (MDGs) to sanitation. More
Uganda
specifically, Goal #7 aims to decrease by half the
proportion of people without access to basic sanitation.
In Uganda, increased urbanization and industrializa-
As was already noted above, this has proved to be a
tion in recent years, especially in the city of Kampala,
significant challenge for the world but in particular for
has led to an increase in the city’s population and
Sub-Saharan Africa. Most African nations have
development of informal settlements (Kulabako et al.
developed plans to reach the MDG’s but the plans
2007). The resident population in Kampala city is
remain on paper and are many times not actively
estimated at 1.2 million with an annual average
implemented. Considerable investments are needed to
growth rate of 3.8% (UBOS 2002). The informal
meet the MDG #7, and with this pressing need for
suburb settlements in the city are located in valleys and
action there is a huge risk that the focus will fall simply
wetlands with a high water table, are predominantly
on the provision of latrines/toilets, overlooking what is
inhabited by the urban poor and have inadequate basic
needed for sanitation systems and the related services
services such as water supply and sanitation (excreta,
to be sustainable from a broader perspective. Provid-
solid waste, sullage and storm water management). In
ing unsustainable sanitation systems will only be a
the informal settlements, where a great majority of the
short-term solution that will inevitably lead to long-
population uses shallow groundwater, its quality has
term problems. It is therefore wise to consider the
become a widespread concern. Studies suggest a link
sustainability of proposed sanitation systems before
between the incidence of cholera, acute diarrhoea and
investments are made. A sustainable sanitation system
use of contaminated protected springs (Howard et al.
is defined as a sanitation system that protects and
2003). In addition, due to poor sanitation, disease
promotes human health, does not contribute to envi-
outbreaks (malaria, cholera, typhoid, etc.) are pre-
ronmental degradation or depletion of the resource
valent, especially during rainy seasons as a result of
base, is technically and institutionally appropriate,
flooding (Plan International Uganda 2001). Shallow
economically viable and socially acceptable (Bracken
groundwater polluted with high concentrations of
et al. 2005).
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and high numbers
of coliforms is a potential major environmental
1.3 Research objectives
problem. Where preferential flow paths exist, signif-
icant quantities of phosphorus can be lost in drainage
Within the critical and complex problem domain
waters causing downstream eutrophication of surface
of sanitation in slums, our objectives are:
waters.
1. To identify and implement low cost integrated Bwaise III Parish (Fig. 2) is located in the northern
environmentally sustainable technical sanitation part of Kampala city, in Kawempe Division,

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308 Author's personal copyRev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2009) 8:305–311
approximately 4 km from the city centre. It is a low-
lying area (mostly a reclaimed wetland) with a high
water table (\1.5 m). Bwaise III, a typical urban poor
settlement in the city, is largely unplanned with lack of
basic services, poor road access and deplorable hous-
ing. It has one of the highest population growth rates in
Kampala District with an annual average rate of 9.6%
more than twice the city’s average growth rate (3.7%)
and a high population density of about 27,000 persons/
km2 (UBOS 2002). Grey water, storm water, excreta
and solid waste management practices are grossly
inadequate, resulting in poor environmental sanitation
(Fig. 3).
2.2 Technical sanitation solutions
Selection and application of low cost process tech-
nologies adapted to local conditions is vital.
Fig. 2 Impression of the Bwaise III Parish, a typical high
population slum area in Kampala (photo: Robinah Kulabako)
Fig. 3 Raised pit latrine (left),
and a solid waste disposal site
(right), both in the Bwaise III
Parish (photos: Robinah
Kulabako)
123
Application of process technology to concentrated
and separated waste streams also concentrates risks
and limits negative environmental impacts. This
contributes towards recycling and closing the loop
for material flows that are part of the Ecological
Sanitation (EcoSan) and Decentralized Sanitation and
Reuse (DeSaR) concepts that view waste as a resource
(Lettinga et al. 2001). Biofilm methods and anaerobic
processes are tools that can be applied for environ-
mental protection and for resource recovery. Biofilm
based systems have been found suitable for grey water
treatment with respect to removal of organic matter
(COD) and pathogens (Maksimović and Tejada-
Guibert 2001). Previous studies with filter media have
reported limited removal of nutrients and high
removal efficiencies for COD and Total Suspended
Solids (Ridderstolpe 2007; Zuma et al. 2009).
The SCUSA project will assess the suitability of a
multi-media filter made of locally available materials
for grey water treatment with focus on phosphorus and
pathogen removal under different process conditions.
This is a natural treatment system with potential for
application in slums areas when optimized for multi-
contaminant removal without use of energy and
chemicals. In addition, anaerobic co-digestion of
sludge and organic solid waste also offers advantages
for management of excreta and digestible organic
solid waste generated in urban slums. This part of
SCUSA will provide more insight on the effect of
surface area/particle size ratio and nature of an
insoluble substrate on hydrolysis during anaerobic
digestion under field conditions. In addition, it will
 Author's personal copy
Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2009) 8:305–311
also investigate ways of providing a barrier for
pathogens during reuse of the resultant stabilized
sludge to minimize microbial risks to health.
2.3 Financial, institutional, and sociological
mechanisms for successful implementation
Sanitation in Africa’s slums depends to a large extent
on the financial and socio-economic characteristics of
the population. Important factors are their rural
origin, their income level and the period they have
spent in the capital. Income is determined by the
networks in which the migrants function and the
employment status of the inhabitants, which is often
related to their education. To get a better impression
of the economic, socio economic, and institutional
structures in the neighbourhood, the SCUSA project
will undertake surveys as a basis for improving solid
waste collection and the sanitation situation. Together
with the sanitation expert of the SCUSA project, the
financial and economic characteristics of the various
sanitation solutions will be compared, analyzed and
prioritized, including the determination of boundary
conditions for success. After the implementation of
the various sanitation solutions, as mentioned above,
an in-depth analysis of the socio-economic impacts
on the citizens utilizing these sanitation solutions will
be undertaken. In order to achieve financial sustain-
ability, various systems for micro-crediting the san-
itation solutions will be studied. Finally, the
possibilities for upgrading the various implemented
sanitation solutions will be explored. Part of this task
is to assess, at city level, how sanitation and
environmental issues are dealt with and what the
roles of the different actors are.
2.4 Slums within the hydrologic cycle
We will start with carrying out a hydrological
systems analysis of the entire Bwaise III parish and
its surroundings and a baseline reconnaissance anal-
ysis will be done to increase our understanding of the
functioning of the hydro(geo)logical system of the
area. Thereto, space and time dependent data on
flowfield, chemistry, and geology will be collected. In
addition, water balance studies will be carried out for
a number of selected micro-catchments within the
slum. In these micro-catchments the various sanita-
tion solutions will be implemented. These studies
309
also include actual flow path analyses, including
velocities and travel times, which are key to under-
standing transport of solutes in water and the overall
water balance. This will also involve the use of
various tracers. The next step is then to elucidate time
and space dependent nutrient loads discharging the
area. The findings of nutrient and water budgets from
the sub-catchments will be upscaled to the entire
watershed in the study area. To understand the
relation with hydrochemistry, and to be better able
to predict and assess health hazards, associated with
transport of pathogens in the subsurface, based on
hydrochemical and hydrogeological conditions, var-
ious samples of ground and surface water will be
taken to characterize pathogenic indicator organisms
using the real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Our hypothesis is that the occurrence of various
structures present at the surface of those indicator
organisms is related with environmental conditions
(hydrochemistry, geology, flow field).
3 Expected results and impacts
At the end of the SCUSA project, we hope to be able
to indicate the most sustainable sanitation solutions in
urban slums, including the most important parameters
determining and guaranteeing sustainability. Our
approach is multidisciplinary, and should therefore
yield answers with a financial, social, technical, and
environmental view on the extremely complex field
of sanitation in urban slums. The increased insight in
the parameters driving sustainable sanitation should
allow us to upscale our results into entire slum areas,
and into a more city-wide approach on how to view
the carry out sustainable sanitation in slums.
4 Consortium
The Consortium consists of:
• UNESCO-IHE. More specifically, the scientific
cores on Hydrology and Water Resources, Pollution
and Prevention Control, and Municipal Water and
Infrastructure.
• Makerere University. More specifically, the Insti-
tute of Environment and Natural Resources, the
Department of Civil Engineering, the Department
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of Geology, the Department of Sociology, and the
Faculty of Economics and Management.
• City Environment Department of the Kampala
City Council.
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