FACILITATING LEARNING

LEARNING
- involves the acquisition of new elements of knowledge, skills, beliefs and specific behavior, may mean one
or more of all these things:
 Learning is a process by which behavior is either modified or wholly changed through experience, practice
or training.
 The act of gaining knowledge (to learn something), the knowledge gained by virtue of that act (that which is
known) the process of gaining knowledge (learning how). Banner and Cannon, 1997
 It is an ongoing process of continued adaptation to our environment, assimilation of new information and
accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge.

LEARNING THEORIES

They are sets of conjectures and hypotheses that explain the process of learning or how learning takes place.

I. BEHAVIORAL/LEARNING THEORY
 Operates on the principle of S-R
 Prefers to concentrate on actual behavior
 Conclusions are based on observations of external manifestations of Learning

1. Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

Includes the following:

 Stimulus Generalization – A process by which the conditioned response transfers to other stimuli that are
similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
 Discrimination – a process by which one learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner
because of previous experiences.
 Extinction- the process by which a conditioned response is lost.

 Classical means “in an established manner.”

 Believes that an individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned response

 Unconditioned Stimulus – automatically produces an emotional or psychological response.

 Unconditioned Response – naturally occurring emotional or physiological response.
 Neutral Stimulus – a stimulus that does not elicit a response.
 Conditioned Stimulus – evokes an emotional or physiological response after an animal has been
conditioned.
 Conditioned Response – a learned response to a previously neutral condition

2. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism

 Puts more emphasis on the response of the organism, not limiting himself to the association between the
stimulus and the response.

a. Law of Readiness - readiness is an important condition of learning. A learner may be satisfied or

frustrated depending on his/her stage of readiness. The learner should be biologically prepared.
b. Law of Exercise – explains that any connection is strengthened in proportion to the number of times it
occurs and in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection. Practice alone is not
enough for improvement.
c. Law of Effect – when an organism’s response is accompanied or followed by a satisfactory state, the
strength of the connection is increased. If an annoying state accompanies or follows the response, the
strength of the connection is decreased. Rewards, success, or positive reinforcements further learning,
while punishments, failure, or negative experiences hinder it.

3. Burrhus Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

 Stresses the consequence of behavior in order to learn.

 Proved that reinforcement is a powerful tool in shaping and controlling behavior inside and outside
the classroom.
  Operant Conditioning- using pleasant and unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of
behavior.
 Reinforcer – any consequence that strengthens a behavior
o Primary Reinforcer – related to basic needs
o Secondary Reinforcer – value of something is acquired when associated with a primary
reinforcer.
 Positive Reinforcer – consequence given to strengthen a behavior.
 Negative Reinforcer – release from an unpleasant situation to strengthen a behavior.

Classifies Reinforcements into:

 Verbal - praise, encouragement
 Physical - touches, pats, hugs
 Non-Verbal - smiles, winks, warm looks
 Activity - being allowed to play games, to listen to music, etc.
 Token - points, chips, stars
 Consumable - cookies, soda, chocolates

4. Albert Bandura’s Social/Observational Learning Theory

 States that learning takes place when one person observes and then imitates the behavior of
others
 Known for his “Bobo doll” experiment
 People learn through observation, simulation, modelling which means watching (observing),
another called a model and later imitating the model’s behaviour.
 Concentrates on the power of example
 Stresses the importance of models because the observer-learner may:
a. acquire new responses
b. strengthen or weaken every existing response
c. cause the reappearance of responses that have apparently been forgotten

Four Phases:
I. Attention – Mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behaviour. Observer must attend to and
recognize the distinctive features of the model’s response.
II. Retention – Reproduction of the desired behavior implies that the student symbolically retain that
observed behavior.
III. Motor Reproduction Process – After observation, have students demonstrate as soon as
possible. Correct behavior can be reinforced while incorrect ones altered.
IV. Motivational Process – Although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modelled
behavior, there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable.

II. COGNITIVE THEORIES AND METACOGNITION

 Main focus is on memory

 Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes
 Believe in non-observable behaviors

1. David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception Theory

 Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already knows.
 May occur through:
o Reception
o Rote learning
o Discovery learning
 Concerned with how students learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual
presentations in a school setting.
 Meaningful learning results when information is acquired by linking the new information in the learner’s
own cognitive structure.
 Meaningful learning occurs when new experiences are related to what a learner already knows.
 A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers (different from
overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas) which help to link new learning material
with existing related ideas
Difference between Reception and Discovery Learning

 Reception Learning – is concerned about presenting the ideas to be learned by the learner in a well-
organized fashion, while
 Discovery Learning – focuses on having the learner identify the key ideas and store this information on his
own.

2. Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory or Inquiry Method/ Theory of Instruction

 Posits that learning is more meaningful to learners when they have the opportunity to discover on their own
the relationships among the concepts or to actively search for a solution to a problem.
 An approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and
manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or performing experiments. The idea is that
students are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own.
 Calls his view of learning “instrumental conceptualism”
 Implies learning by discovering the solution
 Contends that students should be given a wide variety of examples of certain facts and information and
encourage them to discover the answer or the underlying rules or principles.
 An approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and
manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or by performing experiments. The idea is
that students are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own.
 Emphasizes that students should learn to recognize a problem, characterize what a solution would be like,
search for relevant information, develop a solution strategy, and execute the chosen strategy.
 Believes that “you can’t teach people everything they need to know.” The best thing to do is to position them
where they can find what they need to know when they need to know it.

3. Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Learning/ Problem –Solving Theory Insight

 The capacity to discern the true nature of situation

 The imaginative power to see into and understand immediately
 Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing, and structuring perception until a solution is
arrived at.

4. Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s Information Processing Theory

 The individual learns when the human mind takes in information (encoding), performs operation in it, stores
the information (storage), and retrieves it when needed (retrieval).

Memory – the ability to store information so that it can be used at a later time.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

 Consists of what is in our consciousness at any given time. Constitutes the raw material needed for thinking
which is referred to as “working memory.”
 New information is retained only for about 20 seconds or so. Limited not only in the length of time it can hold
information but also in its capacity – 5 to 9 new items of information.
 Chunking (grouping of separate bits of information in a meaningful way) improves capacity for short-term
memory.
 Without continued rehearsal and use, this information is generally lost from memory in about 20 seconds.
 The value of short-term memory is that it enables us to store information long enough to make sense of the
words and data we are dealing with at a certain moment.
 When we have rehearsed and transformed input into meaningful information, it then has a chance of being
encoded in the long-term memory.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
 Passive, unconscious process as differentiated from Short-Term Memory (active, dynamic, conscious).
 Information enters slowly, not easily accessible, can be stored in unlimited amounts, is retained indefinitely,
not easily disrupted.
Cognitive psychologists have identified the three components of Long-Term Memory:
 Episodic Memory – associated with our recall of particular times and places and a storage place for many
personal experiences.
 Semantic Memory – knowledge of general facts, principles and concepts that are not connected to a
particular time and place. Organized in networks of connected ideas or relationships.
 Procedural Memory – refers to “knowing how” as opposed to “knowing what.”
Causes of Forgetting
 a) Retrieval Theory- forgetting is due to inability to recall the information.
 b) Decay Theory- information stored in LTM gradually fades when it is not used.
 c) Interference Theory- forgetting in LTM is due to the influence of other episodes of learning.
 d) Distortion of Memory Traces Theory – Forgetting is due to inaccuracies during the stage of
remembering
 E) Motivated Forgetting Theory – Forgetting is due to the person’s desire to forget.

Teaching for Transfer (Gagne)

 Transfer – means to convey or cause to pass from one place, person or thing to another; to direct (a
person) elsewhere for help or information.
 Retention – the ability to recall or recognize what has been learned or experienced.
 Interference – an act or instance of hindering, distracting, or impeding.
 Forgetting – the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an individual’s long-term
memory.

Forgetting
 Decay (lack of use) and interference (new information interferes with remembering old information) appears
to be the primary means by which information is lost in the short-term memory.
 Information stored in the long-term memory is never completely lost although it may be difficult to retrieve.
 Interference causes forgetting in both long-term and short-term memory, that is, newer information and
experiences can interfere with or cloud older memories.
Types of Interference
 Proactive Inhibition – previous knowledge makes it difficult to remember new knowledge.
Types of Interference
 Retroactive Inhibition – assimilation of new information gets in the way of remembering already stored
information.
 Transfer- when something previously learned influences the learning of the new material.

Transfer of Learning (Types):

a. Lateral Transfer- occurs when the individual is able to perform a new task about the same level.
(e.g. solving word problems given in text and later solving a similar problem on the board)
b. Vertical Transfer- occurs when the individual is able to learn more advanced/ complex skills
(e.g. being able to add and multiply; being able to read and write)
c. Specific Transfer- when a specific skill, fact or rule is applied to a similar situation.
d. General Transfer- applying principles previously learned to dissimilar situations.
5. Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning
 -any task or skill can be broken down to simpler skills which can still be further broken down to more simple
tasks or skills.
Nine Events of Instruction
1. Gaining Attention
2. Informing Learner of Objective/s
3. Recalling Prior Knowledge
4. Presenting Material
5. Providing Guided Learning
6. Eliciting Performance
7. Providing Feedback
8. Assessing Performance
9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer

6. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory

Intelligence - 1) The ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in a culture; 2) A set of
skills that make it possible for a person to solve problems in life; and 3) The potential for finding or creating
solutions for problems, which involves gathering new knowledge.
Achievement- refers to the previous learning of a person in a certain subject area; his already accomplished
skills.
Multiple Intelligence – capacity of a person to make use of or adopt two or more intelligences; All people have
different kinds of intelligences; hence, the use of the word multiple.
The ninth intelligence is called existential, a concern with ultimate issues. The final, and obvious, candidate
for inclusion in Howard Gardner’s list is moral intelligence, a concern with those rules, behaviors and attitudes
that govern the sanctity of life – in particular, the sanctity of human life and, in many cases, the sanctity of any
other living creatures and the world they inhabit’.
7. Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory
 View- focused on the psychological field of life space of an individual.
 Life Space Concept- Accurate conclusions are drawn by observing both overt and covert behavior.
 An individual must see things from the subject’s point of view at a given moment.
8. Urie Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems/ Environmental Contexts Theory
 Learning is greatly affected by the kind of environment we are in.
 Learners are understood within the context of their environment. These environmental contexts are
interrelated.

Environmental Contexts: Major Levels

a. Microsystem - innermost level – contains the structure that has direct contact with the child. A pattern of
activities, social roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person in a given face-to-
face setting with particular physical, social, and symbolic features that invite or permit more complex
interaction with, and activity in, the immediate environment.
b. Mesosystem – connections between the structures of the child’s microsystem. Comprises the linkages and
processes taking place between two or more settings containing the developing person. A system of
microsystems.
c. Exosystem – 3rd level – A social system which indirectly affects the child. Comprises the linkages and
processes taking place between two or more settings, at least one of which does not contain the developing
person, but in which events occur that indirectly influence processes within the immediate setting in which
the developing person lives.
d. Macrosystem – outermost level in which all other systems are embedded such as values, customs, laws,
beliefs, and resources of a culture/ society. Consists of overarching pattern of micro-, meso- and
exosystems characteristic of a given culture or subculture. It may be thought of as a societal blueprint for a
particular culture or subculture.
e. Chronosystem – this system includes changes or consistencies in a person’s lifespan. Encompasses
change or consistency over time not only in the characteristics of the person but also of the environment in
which that person lives. It is the evolution of the four other systems over time. If the relationships in the
immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his
environment resulting to behavioral deficiencies. Learning tends to regress/slow

9. Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism

 Cognitive development is viewed as dependent on social interaction. The child is socially dependent at
the beginning of his cognitive life and becomes increasingly independent in his thinking through many
experiences in which adults or older peers help or offer help.
 it emphasizes how meaning and understanding grow out of social encounters.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) –gap between actual and potential encounters.
 Actual Development – what children can do on their own
 Potential Development – what children can do with help

Scaffolding - competent assistance or support through mediation of the environment (significant others) in
which cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioral development can occur.
 Systematic, deductive reasoning permits individuals to consider many possible solutions to a problem
and pick the correct answer.
 The child acquires new skills and information with the zone of proximal development (ZPD), the level at
which a child finds a task too difficult to complete alone, but which he can accomplish with the
assistance or support of an adult or older peer
 This theory suggests that in addition to providing a stimulating environment , early childhood educators
need to promote discovery, explaining and providing suggestions to suit each child’s zone of proximal
development.

Specific Strategies for Memory Enhancement

 Use mnemonic devices. One is the successive-comparison system which is based on the idea that if
two ideas are blended vividly in the mind, recalling one of them will automatically lead to recall.
 Over learn the material. Retention of new material can be enhanced if practice
or review continues beyond the first errorless reproduction of the new information.
 Distribute, study and practice new material (similar to medicine – can be
taken in large or small doses).
  Sleep after studying, not before.

General Principles of Learning

 Learning by doing is more effective than just sitting and listening
 Concepts should be presented in varied or different ways
 Learning is aided by formulating and asking questions
 Effort is put forth when tasks are challenging
 The principle of readiness is related to the learner’s stage of development
 Learners learn from their own behavior.
 Learning is most effective when correct responses are reinforced immediately.
 The frequency of reinforcement determines how well a response will be learned
and retained.
 Practicing a response in a variety of settings increases both retention and
transferability.
 Motivated conditions influence the effectiveness of positive reinforcement and
play a key role in increasing the level of performance.
 Meaningful learning is more permanent and more transferable than rote learning.
 People learn more effectively when they learn at their own pace.
Teaching Strategies That Can Enhance Retention and Learning
 Make sure you have students’ attention and look for ways to keep it.
 Help students see relationship between information they have learned previously
and the new information.
 Give students opportunities for repetitive study and for review.
 Reduce memorization to a minimum; keep meaning and comprehension at a
maximum.

MOTIVATION
 An internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire or want)
that serves to activate or energize behavior and gives it direction.
 Although motivation cannot be seen directly, it can be inferred from behavior which we ordinarily refer to as
ability. Ability refers to what an individual can do or is able to do and motivation (or lack of it) refers to what a
person wants to do.
 In order to do this effectively, it is necessary to understand that motivation comes in two forms.

Types of Motivation
1. Extrinsic Motivation – when students work hard to win their parents’ favor, gain
teachers’ praise or earn high grades, their reasons for work and study lie primarily outside themselves.
 Is fueled by the anticipation and expectation of some kind of payoff from an external source.
 Teacher is assertive and students are passive.
 Can have a powerful effect on behavior. People work for a pay check, not just because they like working.
 If students are preoccupied with rewards, they might not pay so much attention as they should to what they
are supposed to be learning.
 If students perceive themselves as completing assignment solely to attain rewards, they may develop a
“piecework mentality” or “minimum strategy” in which they concentrate on maximizing rewards by meeting
minimum standards rather than by doing an excellent job as its own reward.
2. Intrinsic Motivation – when students study because they enjoy the subject and
desire to learn it, irrespective of the praise won or grades earned, the reason for learning resides primarily
inside or upon them.
 Is fuelled by one’s own goal or ambitions.
 Self-starting, self-perpetuating and requires only an inward interest to keep the motivational machinery
going.
 The use of rewards as extrinsic motivation has sometimes been found to increase intrinsic motivation,
something that is likely to happen when the rewards are contingent on the quality of performances as
opposed to simply participating in an activity.
 The environment can be used to focus the student’s attention to what needs to be learned.
 Incentives motivate learning.
 Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directed than is external motivation, which must be
repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards.
General Ways of Motivating People
 By enticement
 By force
 By identification or ego-involvement
Principles of Motivation
 Listening is most effective when an individual is ready to learn; that is, when he/she wants to know
something.
 Motivation is enhanced by the manner or way in which the instructional material is organized.
Drive Theory (Clark Hull)
 Drive is a condition of arousal or tension that motivates behavior.
 Drives most typically have been considered to involve physiological survival needs: hunger, thirst,
sleep, pain, sex.
 A drive results from the activation of a need.
 Need – a physiological deficiency that creates a condition of disequilibrium in the body.
Self-Efficacy (Albert Bandura)
 Self-efficacy – It is the belief that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of action required
to manage prospective situations.
 Self-efficacy relates to a person’s perception of his ability to reach a goal while self-esteem relates
to a person’s sense of self-worth.
 Self-efficacy affects people’s behavior including their:
a. choice of activities
b. goals
c. efforts and persistence
d. learning and achievement
Self-Efficacy (Albert Bandura)
 Self-efficacy – It is the belief that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of action required
to manage prospective situations.
 Self-efficacy relates to a person’s perception of his ability to reach a goal while self-esteem relates
to a person’s sense of self-worth.
 Self-efficacy affects people’s behavior including their:
1. choice of activities
2. goals
3. efforts and persistence
4. learning and achievement
Self-Determination (E. Deci)
 Thinking meaningfully and creatively about certain tasks
 Experiencing pleasure in one’s activities
 Achieving at a higher level
We have the capacity to take risks or challenges that can enrich our lives and develop ourselves more.
There are several variables that influence people’s sense of self determination one way or the other, such as:
 Choices
 Threats and deadlines
 Controlling statements
 Extrinsic rewards
 Surveillance and evaluation

Expectancies and Values (Atkinson)

Motivation to perform is affected by two variables:
 Expectancy – People must believe that they can accomplish a task; that is, they should have an
expectancy about what they want to achieve.
 Value – People should likewise place an importance or value in what they are doing
Factors Affecting Expectancy:
 Previous triumphs and failures
 Perceived difficulty of a task
 One’s general work habits
Factors Affecting Expectancy
 Environmental resources
 Quality of instruction
 Anticipated effort necessary to succeed
Values
Values are equally subjective in nature. Some activities are valued due to:
 personal characteristics that a person yearns for;
 their being seen as means to a desired goal;
 the fact that they bring happiness
Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)
  Attributions pertain to people’s various explanations for success and failure – their beliefs about
what causes attributions.
 Dimensions underlying people’s attributions. People can explain events in many different ways. For
example, a tennis player may attribute his wins and successes in matches to things like – luck, health,
effort, mood, strengths and weaknesses of his opponents, climate, his fans, etc.

Attributions of people are affected by three dimensions:

1. Locus (Place) – Internal vs. External
2. Temporal Stability: Stable vs. Unstable
3. Controllability: Controllable vs. Uncontrollable
Techniques in Motivating Learners
 Challenge them. Offer students opportunities to undertake real challenges. Encourage them to take
intellectual risks.
 Build on strengths first. Seize opportunity to use their talents to achieve success.
 Offer choices. Offering choices develop ownership. When a child makes decisions he is more likely
to accept ownership and control of the results.
 Provide a secure environment. Permit children to fail without penalty. Learning how to deal with
failure is critical for developing motivation and successful learning.
 Teach them how to make their tasks more manageable. Narrowing the topic to a challenging but
manageable size is very important for developing motivation.
 Teach students to evaluate themselves. Self-evaluation needs to address the questions: “What
was done well?” and “How can it be improved?”
Competition – can enhance or reduce motivation depending on how it is used. It is good for some, but it may
result in a few winners and many losers