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oxygen (ao = 1) in place of air. But once the nature of the oxidizing agent is
chosen it cannot be increased.
The activity of the product can however be decreased by combining it with
oxide of opposite chemical character, i.e. an acid oxide product is mixed
with basic oxide and vice-versa.
As far as the physical requirement of the oxide product is concerned it
should be readily separable from the iron melt.
This is achieved by keeping the slag and the metal both as thin liquids so
that the metal being heavier settles down and the slag floats on top in the
form of two immiscible liquids which can be separated readily.
If the oxide products of iron refining reactions are examined, silicon and
phosphorus form acid oxides and hence a basic flux is needed to form a
suitable slag for their effective removal.
The higher the proportion of base available the lesser will be the danger of
backward reaction. For manganese elimination, since manganese oxide is
basic, an acid flux will be required. The nature of the process itself has
made the task little simpler.
During refining, being the largest bulk, iron itself gets oxidised to some
extent as (FeO) which is basic in nature. It is possible to adjust the
contents of silicon and manganese in pig iron such that the amounts of
(FeO + MnO) formed during refining would be able to form a slag
essentially of the type FeOMnOSi02 and fix up silica in it.
In such a slag P20S is not stable because (FeO + MnO) together
are not strong enough bases to fix it up in slag.
In order to oxidise phosphorus in preference to iron, a strong
external base like CaO and/or MgO is needed in sufficient
proportion to form a basic slag to hold P20S without any danger
of its reversion.
Phosphorus is best eliminated by a slag of the type CaOFeO
P205 It is quite interesting to note that such a slag is also
capable·of removing sulphur from iron melt to a certain extent.
The steelmaking processes can now be divided into two broad
categories :
(i) when silicon is the chief impurity to be eliminated from iron and that
phosphorus and sulphur need not be eliminated and,
(ii) when phosphorus and, to some extent, ,sulphur are the chief impurities
to be eliminated along with even silicon.
The elimination of manganese will take place under both the categories.
of bond
Solid- -Liquid
Na2O 0.18 0.65 6 6 to 8
K=
[ a ][ a ]
Fe O Thus [ a O ] ∝ ( a FeO )
(a ) FeO
Since slags are employed to remove sulphur from
metal, chemistry of sulphur in silicate slags
becomes interesting.
Sulphide is soluble in silicate melts but elemental
(a ) p
S 2−
1
2 x
S 2−
.γ
S 2−
p O2
1
2
(a ) p
O2
K= = (19)
x pS
O 2− H2 O 2− 2
The sulphur affinity of a slag, presented as molar
sulphide capacity is defined by the equation:
1
p O2 2 x 2−
C S = x 2−
′ = K O (20)
S pS γ 2−
2 S
or a more useful term wt % sulphide capacity5 for
technologist is defined as
1
p O2 2
C S = (wt% S) (21)
pS
2
Thus under similar conditions a slag with a high Cs will
definitely hold sulphur more strongly than the other with
a low Cs and hence will prove to be a better desulphuriser
in a metallurgical process.
Molten silica is a poor electrical conductor3. However its
conductivity increases to a great extent by addition of basic
oxides e.g. CaO, FeO or MnO as flux.
This increase is due to the formation of ions.
The conductivity values serve as a measure of degree of
ionization of the slag. The electrical conductivity of slags
depends on the number of ions present and the viscosity of
liquid slag in which they are present.
Thus conductivity will be greater in liquid state and further
increases with the temperature.
In general thermal conductivity of slag is very low but heat
losses are much higher due to convection.
Viscosity of slags are controlled by composition and
temperature. The viscosity , of a slag of a given
composition decreases exponentially with increase of
temperature according to the Arrhenius equation:
η = A exp (E η/ RT)
a SiO 2 a SiO 2
∴ [ % Si ][ % O ] =
2
= 2.8 × 10 −5
2
( 21)
f Si f O2 . K f Si f O
The extremely low activity of silica in basic steelmaking slag poses
no danger of preferential reduction of silica like that of phosphorus
removal.
In basic steelmaking process the silicon content of pig iron should
be kept as low as possible to decrease the lime consumption with
the prime objective of controlling the required basicity for
phosphorus removal at a minimum slag volume.
In case of high silicon entering the basic steelmaking furnace
double slag practice has to be adopted.
Alternatively, external desiliconisation of the hot metal has to be
done outside the blast furnace before charging it in a basic
steelmaking furnace.
About 50 to 75% of the manganese in the burden gets
reduced along with the pig iron resulting its
manganese content between 0.5 to 2.5%.
During steelmaking major amount of manganese is
lost into the slag and very little is utilized to meet the
specifications.
Some manganese is required to control the
deleterious effects of sulphur and oxygen and also for
improvement of mechanical properties of the steel.
Hence conditions for maximum recovery of manganese
can be derived by considering the equilibria:
(Fe2+) + [Mn] = (Mn2+) +[Fe]
(FeO) +[ Mn] = (MnO) + [Fe]
( a Mn 2 + ) [ a Fe ] ( χ Mn 2 + ) f Fe [ % Fe ]
K= = ( 23)
( a Fe 2 + ) [ a Mn ] ( χ Fe 2 + ) f Mn [ % Mn ]
( χ Mn 2 + ) [ % Fe ]
or K ′ = ( 24 )
( χ Fe 2 + ) [ % Mn ]
K= 4
Applying Temkin rule : (13)
a[2P ] .a[5O ] .a (3O 2 − )
χ PO
2
3−
= 4
(14 )
[ f P % P ] [ f O % O ] 5 χ O3
2
2−
The dephosphorising index, D P which is the ratio of phosphorus in slag to that in metal, is given as
( χ PO 3− )
[ % O]5/ 2 ( χ O
1/ 2
∴ DP = 4
= K′ )3 / 2 (15)
[ % P] 2−
From the figure it is clear that D P
increases with increase in the (FeO)
content upto 15% due to the high
oxidizing power.
pCO pCO
∴[%C ][%O ] = =
K fc fo K
2[N] = N2 (g)
electromagnetic induction
Introduction of gas for stirring provides interface which
facilitates degassing.
In general pumping is carried out to attain the ultimate
Adequate degassing is
obtained
in 20-30 cycles in 15-20
minutes.
High carbon steels like rail steels (0.65%-0.74% C, 0.6%-1.0%
Mn, 0.27-0.30% Si), ball-bearing steel (1.0% C, 1.2% Cr), etc. are
also manufactured in the LD converter by the catch carbon
technique. In this technique, dephosphorization is accelerated
and completed before decarburization. Extra lime and fluorspar
are charged and the lance is raised to a higher position for
maintaining a soft blow condition till phosphorus removal is
completed. Thereafter, decarburization is continued by a
harder blow till the bath carbon content drops to the desired
level.
Alternatively, blowing may be continued to complete both
dephosphorization and decarburization. Required amount of
carburizer is then added to the low carbon steel bath to raise
the carbon content to the desired level. However, this method
involves a risk of increasing the inclusion and nitrogen
contents in the steel. These are picked up from the carburizer
(e.g., petroleum coke or graphite). For production of low alloy
steel, the alloying elements are usually added in the ladle
during tapping the steel.
As will be evident from the discussion [Mn] from the bath is
lost in the slag. (MnO) thus formed quickly combines with (SiO 2
to form (2MnO· Si02). Thus, there is a reduction in the Mn
content in the bath in the initial period of the blow. As the slag
basicity increases due to lime dissolution, (MnO) is gradually
released and is reduced by carbon during intensive carbon
oxidation according to the following reactions:
(MnO) +[C] → [Mn]+{CO}
[Mn] content in the bath increases again. As the intensity of the
carbon-oxygen reaction decreases towards the end of the
blow,. manganese is reoxidized from the bath. As a result, the
bath manganese content drops again. This accounts for the
characteristic 'manganese hump' in the LD converter reaction
diagram.
A basic and highly reactive slag is necessary to attain
desulphurization and dephosphorization in LD steel making at
the turndown stage. Hence the physical and chemical
characteristics of the lime used are of utmost importance.
Some common quality criteria for steel making lime are listed
below:
Chemical composition
Size distribution
Reactivity
Loss on ignition
Moisture content
Si02 in the lime reduces the CaO activity due to the formation of
larger amount of slag by fixing up about two times its mass of
CaO. This is detrimental both from "yield" and "cost" points of
view.
The sulphur content in lime should be as low as possible. An
MgO content of approximately 3.5% in lime is thought to be
beneficial because an MgO content of around 5% in the slag
has been found to hinder the formation of dicalcium silicate,
thereby ensuring a faster lime dissolution in the slag. However,
lowering of melting point and the viscosity of slag due to
increased proportion of MgO can result in early slopping. An
adequate level of MgO in slag also ensures less corrosion of
the vessel refractories because of its known properties of
neutralizing the FeO level of the bath.
Formation of slag as early as possible during the blow requires a
uniform and rapid dissolution of lime. A size range of +8 to -40 mm,
minimum proportion of fines in the lime charge and soft burnt lime
promote early slag formation. A soft burnt lime is highly porous,
having a large specific area. This results in its favorable reactivity.
Thermal dissociation reaction of unreacted CaC03 is endothermic.
It adversely affects the heat balance of the converter and leads to
operating problems. Similarly, a moisture content in lime directly
affects the heat balance of the vessel because of temperature
losses during its disintegration. It also acts as a potent source of
hydrogen in steel. Hence both loss on ignition (LOI) and moisture
content of lime should be low.
The lining of oxygen converters is usually made up of three
layers of bricks. First an inner layer of magnesite or burnt
dolomite brick is made. Gaps between the brick and the shell
are filled with tardolomite ramming mass. The same ramming
composition is used for making up the second intermediate
layer. The upper working layer is made of magnesia carbon
brick.
The performance of refractories is generally evaluated by the
life of the lining or by the consumption of refractories per ton
of steel produced. However, this is greatly influenced by the
severity of service conditions that prevail during operation.
In brief, these are:
Furnace atmosphere, Composition of slag, Mechanical
stresses ,Thermal shock, Effect of high temperature, Geometry
of the vessels, Operational procedure or the blowing technique
Quality of hot metal, Quality of refractories.
A rapid sequence of blows, without pause, increases the lining life. A
high silicon hot metal produces a silica rich slag which increases the
wear of basic lining. At high temperature, the corrosive attack of the
slag is enhanced. Combustion of the CO generated inside the vessel
also raises the temperature in the upper zone of the furnace. This
enhances lining wear in the region. The distance of the oxygen lance
from the bath has a considerable effect on the refractory wear. Usually,
a high position of the lance leads to a reduced wear of the furnace
bottom, but it increases wear at the top and upper part of converter.
However, with the introduction of the multi-hole lance nozzles, the
oxygen is evenly distributed on the bath surface. This has solved the
problem of preferential bottom or top lining wear.
The early refractory lining for LD vessel was based generally
on doloma, magnesia or magnesia-chrome of the same quality
as used in the earlier steel making processes, e.g., Bessermer,
open hearth, etc. However, the high basicity of the LD
converter slag and the high temperature of the bath promoted
rapid wear of the refractories. Modern LD converters are,
therefore, lined with magnesia-carbon refractories. The total
Fe20s, Si02 and Al20s content in the magnesia refractory should
be low-definitely less than 4.0%-to improve its resistance to
slag attack. Sea water magnesia is usually added along with
natural magnesia to enrich the MgO content in the brick
Care would be taken to lower the B20s content in sea
water magnesia to a level at which it does not affect
the high temperature properties. The presence of
submicroscopic carbon particles in magnesia
carbon refractories inhibits penetration of slag into
the refractory.
The capacity of graphite to reduce wear is based upon its
large wetting angle for oxide melts. The melt can
penetrate the bricks only when the graphite is burnt
away. near the hot face owing to diffusion of oxygen in
between blows during a campaign. Thus, the infiltration
zone progressively advances, resulting in a continuous
wear of the lining. The slag resistance of magnesia
particles is improved by its high bulk density, low
impurity content and large crystal size of MgO particles.
LD refractory lining life has been greatly enhanced in recent
years by adopting the slag splashing technology. In this
technology, a portion of the slag is retained in the vessel after
tapping. A low FeO and a high MgO slag is desirable for slag
splashing. Such improvement in slag condition is achieved
through addition of dolomite lime after tapping. Slag splashing
is accomplished by injecting nitrogen into a conditioned slag at
a given flow-rate and lance height. The existing oxygen-lancing
equipment is used.
By varying lance height and nitrogen flow-rates, slag can be
selectively targeted and blown into particular areas of the
furnace. This is schematically illustrated in Figure given below.
The process time for slag splashing is between 1 and 4
minutes. A well-designed nitrogen slag splashing programme
can extend furnace lining life to 8,000 heats. Once slag
splashing is started, it would be done on a regular basis. Slag
splashing presents some operating challenges like lance shell
DEOXIDATION METHODS
AND PRACTICES
By
Dr. S.Sarkar
Associate Professor
Dept. of Metallurgical and
Materials Engg.
National institute of Technology,
Rourkela
PLAN OF PRESENTATION
Introduction
Deoxidation methods
Choice of deoxidisers
Removal of deoxidation product
Deoxidation equilibria
Silicon – manganese deoxidation
Complex deoxidisers
Deoxidation practices
INTRODUCTION
Contrary to iron making steelmaking is practiced in
oxidizing conditions.
In all the steelmaking processes either air or oxygen is
blown or surplus air/oxygen is provided to facilitate
quick oxidation of impurities.
Under these conditions oxygen easily gets dissolved in
the steel melt.
During solidification of steel castings excess oxygen is
evolved because of very low solid solubility and is one
of causes of defective casting.
This excess oxygen has to be eliminated for production
of sound casting. The process of removal of residual
oxygen of the refined steel called deoxidation
CONT…
DEOXIDATION METHODS
1. Diffusion deoxidation
When dissolved oxygen is lowered down by
diffusion of oxygen from the steel melt to the
slag in the steelmaking furnace, the method is
called Diffusion deoxidation.
This can also be done outside the furnace under
vacuum according to the reaction:
2[O] → O2 (g)
But the method can be used effectively to a
limited extent.
CONT…
DEOXIDATION METHODS
2. Precipitation deoxidation
The residual oxygen is allowed to react with
elements having higher affinity for oxygen
(compared to what iron has for oxygen) to form
oxide products.
The product being lighter than steel rises to the
top surface and can be easily removed.
Precipitation deoxidation is practiced
extensively because it is very effective in
decreasing oxygen content of steel.
PRECIPITAION DEOXIDATION -
CHOICES OF DEOXIDISER
Thermodynamically best
deoxidinsing element
(deoxidiser) should have the
least amount of dissolved
oxygen [O] left in equilibrium
with its own lowest
concentration in the steel
melt.
Al and Si are very effective in
deoxidation of steel and
hence they are used
extensively.
Al, Si and Mn are reasonably
cheap and hence used as
common deoxidizers.
CHOICE OF DEOXIDISER
Some times Zr, Ti, V, Nb etc. are used in
deoxidation of steel but they are costlier than
common deoxidisers.
The residual content of the deoxidiser in steel
after deoxodation should not adversely affect the
mechanical properties of steel.
The rate of deoxidation i.e. formation of oxide
products must be fast.
Since kinetic data on deoxidation are very limited
thermodynamic consideration play major role in
selection of deoxidisers and estimation of
residual content of the deoxidisers in steel at the
end of deoxidation.
REMOVAL OF DEOXIDATION
PRODUCTS
The mechanically entrapped oxide products in steel
are called nonmetallic inclusions which deteriorate the
mechanical properties.
DEOXIDATION EQUILIBRIA
A generalised form of chemical equilibrium dealing
with the deoxidation product in contact with steel melt
may be represented as:
x [M] + y [O] = MxOy (s, l )
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering
NIT Rourkela
As a standard guide the temperature rise attainable by
oxidation of 0·01 % of each of the element dissolved in
liquid iron at 1400°C by oxygen at 25°C is calculated
assuming that no heat is lost to the surroundings and
such data are shown below .
OXYGEN BOTTOM MAXHUTTE PROCESS(OBM)
BOTTOM BLOWING VS TOP BLOWING
Oxidation of carbon : Bottom blowing increases sharply the
intensity of bath stirring and increases the area of gas-metal
boundaries (10-20 times the values typical of top blowing) .
Since the hydrocarbons supplied into the bath together with
oxygen dissociate into H2, H2O and CO2 gas bubbles in the
bath have a lower partial pressure of carbon monoxide (Pco )
All these factors facilitate substantially the formation and
evolution of carbon monoxide, which leads to a higher rate of
decarburization in bottom blowing
CONT..
The degree of oxidation of metal and slag
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering
NIT Rourkela
SECONDARY STEELMAKING
Primary steelmaking is aimed at fast melting
and rapid refining. It is capable of refining at
a macro level to arrive at broad steel
specifications, but is not designed to meet
the stringent demands on steel quality, and
consistency of composition and temperature
that is required for very sophisticated grades
of steel. In order to achieve such
requirements, liquid steel from primary
steelmaking units has to be further refined in
the ladle after tapping. This is known as
Secondary Steelmaking.
RESORTED TO ACHIEVE ONE OR MORE
OF THE FOLLOWING REQUIREMENTS :
improvement in quality
improvement in production rate
decrease in energy consumption
use of relatively cheaper grade or
alternative raw materials
use of alternate sources of energy
higher recovery of alloying elements.
QUALITY OF STEEL
Lower impurity contents .
Better cleanliness. (i.e. lower inclusion
contents)
Stringent quality control. (i.e. less
variation from heat-to-heat)
Microalloying to impart superior
properties.
Better surface quality and
homogeneity in the cast product.
CLEAN STEEL
Vacuum treatments
Decarburisation techniques
Injection metallurgy
Plunging techniques
Post-solidification treatments.
VARIOUS SECONDARY PROCESS
AND THEIR CAPABILITIES
VACUUM DEGASSING PROCESSES
Molten steel is contained in the ladle. The two legs of the vacuum
chamber (known as Snorkels) are immersed into the melt. Argon is
injected into the up leg.
Rising and expanding argon bubbles provide pumping action and lift the
liquid into the vacuum chamber, where it disintegrates into fine droplets,
gets degassed and comes down through the down leg snorkel, causing
melt circulation.
The entire vacuum chamber is refractory lined. There is provision for
argon injection from the bottom, heating, alloy additions, sampling and
sighting as well as video display of the interior of the vacuum chamber.
RH-OB PROCESS
Why RH-OB Process?
To meet increasing demand for cold-rolled steel sheets with improved
mechanical properties, and to cope with the change from batch-type to
continuous annealing, the production of ULC steel (C < 20 ppm) is
increasing.
A major problem in the conventional RH process is that the time
required to achieve such low carbon is so long that carbon content at
BOF tapping should be lowered. However, this is accompanied by
excessive oxidation of molten steel and loss of iron oxide in the slag.
It adversely affects surface the quality of sheet as well.
Hence, decarburization in RH degasser is to be
speeded up. This is achieved by some oxygen blowing
(OB) during degassing.
Smarajit Sarkar
Department of Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering
NIT Rourkela