84 T&D 390-1

January 1985, pp. 181-193

Distribution Transformer No-Load
B^H2 Losses
D. S. Takach, Senior Member, IEEE
UPPER Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Jefferson
INSULATOR City, MO
R. L. Boggavarapu, Member, IEEE
Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA
Background
LOWER
The subject of losses in electrical machines, particularly
V, INSULATOR losses associated with electrical steels used in these ma¬
chines, has gained in importance in the last several years
because of dramatic increases in the cost of producing
electrical power. Losses in electrical steels found in trans¬
SECONDARY formers alone have been estimated to be over 41 x 109 kwhr
TERMINALS 3 per year. The evaluated cost of transformer no-load loss can,
in some cases, exceed the first cost of the transformer. Thus,
\ the subjects of transformer no-load losses, the factors that
FTTT DAMPERS
influence them and their measurement assume greater impor¬
tance.
Transformer no-load losses are sensitive to a number of
Fig. 1. Fig. 2. factors in its operating environment. Two factors that are of
particular importance, and addressed in this paper, are
waveform distortion and operating temperature. Any distor¬
tion in the exciting voltage will alter the measured no-load
losses from those under sinusoidal conditions. Higher core
temperature could reflect in lower measured no-load losses.
Transformer test facilities, in general, will have power
supplies and metering equipment with different impedances
which produce different amounts of distortion in the excita¬
tion voltage. Also, the transformer manufacturing sequence
can leave the cores at different temperatures during the test
for no-load losses. Hence, the measured no-load losses could
be different for different distortions of the voltage and at
different temperatures. For comparison and evaluation pur¬
poses, it is advantageous to be able to convert these losses to
standard reference conditions of sinusoidal excitation and
reference temperature. It is the object of this paper to develop
methods for achieving such conversion.

Summary
The no-load losses measured during the test are assumed
to consist essentially of core losses, i.e., hysteresis and eddy
current losses. Eddy current losses deduced from experi¬
ments are generally higher than those calculated from the
classical theory. The difference between these two quantities
is called the "anomalous" loss. A brief review of these losses
is given, although in most of the analyses the no-load losses
are assumed to consist of hysteresis and eddy current losses.
The calculation of losses in magnetic materials for distorted
flux waveforms is rather complex. Several attempts have
been made in recent years to convert the losses measured
under non-sinusoidal excitation conditions to a common base
of losses under sinusoidal excitation conditions. A brief
Fig. 3. 2 CTs side by side with comparison of the heights of review of the work done by previous investigators and the
the centres of gravity. correction methods they proposed are given.
The effect of temperature on no-load losses is illustrated
through two sets of experiments. In the first set, hysteresis
loss and total loss on Epstein samples of 12 mil RGO and HGO
steels were obtained as a function of temperature in the range
of 20°C to 200°C. The results showed that hysteresis loss is
constant with temperature, and eddy current loss decreased
with increasing temperature. In the other set, no-load losses
of a number of distribution transformers, ranging in size from
10 through 50 KVA, were measured in the temperature range
of 20°C to 100°C. The results showed that the losses
decreased with increasing temperature. Results for both sets
of experiments are illustrated in Fig. 1.
44 .IEEE Power Engineering Review, January 1985
 From these sets of experimental results, a method of 84 T&D 392-7
converting the no-load losses to any reference temperature January 1985, pp. 194-199
from those measured at any other temperature are devel¬
oped. Also, a general method for converting no-load losses
measured at any ambient temperature and with distorted
waveform to standard conditions of reference temperature Digital Control and Instrumentation
and sinusoidal excitation is developed. for Step-Voltage Regulators
P(T) P,+P2
=
{Ma+To-20) Pm(T,) T. N. Samuel, Member, IEEE
(1/a+7~-20) (1/a+7b-20) McGraw-Edison Co., Zanesville, OH
P^+kP2 iMa+Ti-20)
tn

N. K. Nohria, Member, IEEE

Four methods to separate the no-load losses into hysteresis
and eddy current loss components are described. These
methods may be used to separate the losses either in
electrical steel samples or in the cores of complete transform¬
ers.
To facilitate comparison of transformers from different
manufacturers, it would be helpful to express the no-load
losses at standard conditions of reference temperature and
sinusoidal excitation. Although the subject is complex, it is
expected that greater attention will be focused at developing
methods to convert the no-load losses from those measured
at ambient conditions to the standard conditions.
Discusser: Ramasis S. Girgis.
McGraw-Edison Co., Franksville, Wl
This paper discusses the basic design and operation of a
digital control computer to operate a step-voltage regulator
and acquire system data. This control.which is the first fully
digital device for controlling distribution equipment is in¬
tended for use on an automated distribution system.
Calculations of System Variables
After input analog signals (voltage and current) are digi¬
tized, they
processed by Discrete Fourier Transform to
are
give rms values of voltage and current. The Fourier integral

X(o) -r x{t)e~iu)t dt

0.26 is converted into discrete form by giving the time and

frequency discrete values and placing finite limits on the
summation. With it) normalized and the number of time
samples (A/) made equal to the number of frequency samples
{k), the process yields the Discrete Fourier Transform:
12 MIL
EPSTEIN SAMPLE *
-jlimk
X(«=2 x(n)e
KVA-12 MIL .
From this, the voltage and current can be expressed in
KVA-12 MIL * rectangular coordinates. Using these coordinates and the fact
that the current is sampled at a fixed time with respect to the
voltage, an expression can be developed to calculate the
KVA-11 MIL a power factor (i.e., cosine of angle between voltage and
current). Referring to Fig. 1,
60 KVA-11 MIL Sin a Cos (x
IV (avbm-ambv)+ IV
¦
Cos <t> =
.7rr- ,w iavam + bvbm)

10 KVA-0 MIL o
With voltage, current, and power factor, other system
variables.kW, kvar, and kVA.can be calculated. Although
instantaneous measurements of these quantities are valu¬
26 KVA-9 MIL ?
able, demand readings of both ongoing as well as maximum
and minimum values are needed. Demand readings are
normally given by meters with an exponential response. A
pseudo-exponential response can be obtained with the fol¬
0 60 100 lowing relationship:
TEST TEMPERATURE <°C) /</+(/,-/</)1//V->/.
Fig. 1. Comparison of Epstein Samples and Distribution
Transformer Loss Variation With Temperature at BM 1.0 = Where:
Tes/a, RGO Steel. N =A divisor related to averaging time.
The data available with this control include all system
variables in both instantaneous and demand form.

Control Configuration
The control bit is built on a modular principle using an 8-bit
microprocessor and standard hardware. Modular construc¬
tion (Fig. 2) allows for standardized modules for basic
functions and specific modules for control of different de¬
vices (LTCs, capacitors, regulators).
In addition to extensive data acquisition, the control
IEEE Power Engineering Review, January 1985 - 45