Earth and Life Science Aryabhata and Ja’faribn Muhammad Abu Ma’shar
al-Balkhi described the elliptical orbits around the
ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
THE UNIVERSE
Theories and Models of the Universe
Scientists test ideas through experiments and
observation or through the scientific method.
A. Creationism
From the Book of Genesis
God separated light from darkness and basically
created everything in a span of six days.
B. Cyclical or Oscillating Universe
(15th Century BCE)
From the ancient Hindu text Rigveda
A “cosmic egg” or Brahmanda, which contains the
whole universe, expands out of a single
concentrated point called a Bindu before
subsequently collapsing again.
C. Primordial Universe (5th Century BCE)
Greek philosopher Anaxagoras
The original state of the cosmos was a primordial
mixture in which the ingredients existed in
infinitesimally small fragments of themselves; a
‘nous’ or mind made the celestial bodies move.
D. Atomic Universe (5th Century BCE)
From the School of Atomism founded by
Leucippus and Democritus
They said that the Universe was composed of
atoms.
E. Aristotelian Universe (4th Century BCE)
Aristotle
Geocentric universe – A fixed, spherical Earth is at
the center surrounded by concentric celestial
spheres of planets and stars and the four classical
elements which were acted on by two forces –
gravity, which is the tendency of earth and water to
sink, and levity, which is the tendency of air and
fire to rise.
F. Heliocentric Universe (3rd Century BCE)
Aristarchus of Samos
Describes Earth as revolving annually about the sun
in a circular orbit along with a sphere of fixed stars,
as opposed to the sun orbiting the Earth.
Seleucus of Selucia used tides to explain
heliocentricity and the influence of the Moon.
Sun in the 5th and 9th century respectively.
G. Ptolemaic Universe (2nd Century CE)
Roman-Egyptian mathematician and
astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus
Describes a geocentric model of the universe based
on the theory of Aristotle in which the planets and
the rest of the universe orbit a stationary Earth in
circular epicycles.
H. Partially heliocentric universe
(15th – 16th Century BCE)
Somayaji Nilakantha of the Kerala School of
Astronomy and Mathematics in Southern
India
A computational system for a partially heliocentric
planetary model in which the planets Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn orbited the Sun,
which in turn orbited the Earth.
I. Copernican Universe (1543)
Polish astronomter Nicolaus Copernicus ft.
Maragha of Ibn al-Shatir
His publication of scientific theory of heliocentrism
demonstrating that the emotions of celestial objects
can be explained without putting the Earth at rest in
the center of the universe stimulated further
scientific investigations and became a landmark in
the history of modern science.
Thomas Digges in 1576 popularized Copernicus’
ideas and also extends them by positing the
existence of multitude of stars extending to infinity.
Giordano Bruno in 1584 suggested that even the
solar system is not the center of the universe.
J. Johannes Kepler (1605)
Abandoned the classical assumption of circular
orbits in favor of elliptical orbit.
K. Cartesian Vortex (mid-17th century)
French philosopher Rene Descartes
Outlines a model of the universe with many of the
characteristics of Newton’s Static, infinite universe.
The vacuum of space was not empty.
L. Einsteinian Universe (early 20th century)
Albert Einstein
A static, dynamically stable universe which was
neither expanding nor contracting, He added
cosmological constant to his general theory of
relativity equations to counteract the dynamical
effects of gravity, which would have caused the
universe to collapse.
M. Big-Bang Theory (1929)
Georges Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre
The universe originated from a singularity between
13-15 billion years ago.
N. Steady State universe (1948)
Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold and Herman
Bondi
Predicts a universe that expands bud does not
change its density with matter being inserted into
the universe as it expands in order to maintain a
constant density.
O. Multiverse (1983)
Russian-American Andrei Linde
Inflationary universe with his chaotic inflation
theory. The theory sees our universe as just one of
many “bubbles” that grew as part of multiverse.
Hugh Everett III and Bryce DeWitt had initially
developed and popularized the “many worlds”
formulation of the multiverse in the 1960s and
1970s.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Beliefs about the Solar System
1. Geocentricity – The Earth was the center of
the solar system and the planets including
the sun and moon revolves around it,
2. Heliocentricity – The sun was the center of
the solar system and the planets revolve
around it.
Note: In the 18th century, our understanding became
more than just descriptive, they became scientific.
Building up on inertia and angular velocity.
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
1. Nebular Hypothesis
Immanuel Kant and Pierre-Simon Laplace said that
the gas, dusts and clouds moving in a vortex formed
the cosmic bodies. The gravity of the particles
caused them to start colliding, ultimately forming
planets. The Sun was already formed and rotating
and its atmosphere extending beyong the distance at
which the farthest planet would be created. The Sun
ould start to coal and contract.
2. Planetesimal and Tidal Theory
Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin and Forest Ray
Moulton said that huge tides on the surface of our
sun resulted in erupted matter. The smaller masses
quickly cooled to become planeteimals.
3. Protoplanets Theory
Gerard Kuiper said that a nebula or protosun
surrounded by a thin shell of gaseous matter
extending to the edges of the solar system. The
nebula ceased to rotate uniformly and under the
influence of turbulence and tidal action, broke into
whirlpools pf gas called protoplanets within a
rotating mass. The protoplanets condensed to form
planets.
THE PLANETS
1. Terrestrial Planets – Rocky surfaces and
inside the asteroid belt:
a. Mercury – 88 earth days with no
natural satellite.
b. Venus – hottest planet; thick, toxic
atmosphere of more than 96% CO2
causing greenhouse effect. Second-
brightest in the sky after the moon.
c. Earth – our home; oblate spheroid;
our moon is the largest satellite
among terrestrial planets.
d. Mars – One-third the gravity of
Earth; red color from iron on its soil;
moons are Phobos and Deimos
2. Jovian Planets – aka Gaseous Planets;
outside the belt; composed of gases and a
metallic core.
a. Jupiter – largest planet, two and a
half times more massive than all the
other planets. Internal heat creates
features such as cloud bands and the
Great Red Spot. Has a thin ring
system composed mainly of dust
particles; 67 satellites; e.g.
Ganymede, Castillo, Io, and Europa,
showing similarities to terrestrial
planets.
b. Saturn – second largest; extensive
ring system made up of small ice and
rock particles; less dense than water;
62 satellites composed largely with
ice e.g. Titan, the second largest moo
in the solar system.
c. Uranus – Lightest of the outer
planets; is tipped 98 degrees on its
side; 27 known satellites, e.g.
Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel and
Miranda.
 d. Neptune – the most distant planet;
slightly smaller than Uranus but it is
more massive and denser; has a thin
collection of rings; with 14 known
satellites, largest of which is Triton;
famous for its Great Dark Spot.
Summary:
- Cartesian Vortex made particles combine to
form things such as the sun.
- Collision of two star threw off debris that
formed planets.
- Gases on the solar system rotate on some
cores that later form into protoplanets.
Trivia, Criteria of the IAU for a full-sized planet:
- In orbit around a sun.
- Has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic
equilibrium (a nearly round shape)
- Cleared the neighborhood
EARTH SYSTEMS
Compositional Layer – Crust, Mantle, Core
Mechanical Lyer – Lithosphere, Asthenosphere.
Mesosphere, Inner and Outer Core
Crust – large rocks divided into oceanic and
continental, Fe, O, Mg, Al primary composition, for
oceanic, granite and sedimentary and metamorphic
for the latter. 50-70 km in depth.
Mantle – mostly solid rocks and minerals and
marked by malleable semi-solid magma; 85% of
weight of planet; First 50 miles is hard rock, 150
miles is super heated solid rock.
Core – Entirely made up of Fe and Ni. Other
elements are siderophiles or dissolves in iron, also
known as precious metals.
Outer Core – largest and second to the last year of
our planet; about 2200 km thick, superheated liquid
molten lava of iron and nickel. 4500 to 5500
degrees Celsius. Low viscosity.
Inner Core – Exceedingly hot, mostly iron, 250 km
wide. 5000 to 6000 C. Strong pressure causes the
metal to stay solid. Plasma behaving as solid.
Seismic waves – caused by breaking down of rocks
or explosions; P-wave passes, S-wave stops.
Lithosphere – not a continuous layer, divided into
plates moving in relation to one another. Pangaea
by Alfred Wegener.
Hydrosphere – Everything water, frozen part is
Cryosphere. 97% salt water, 3% fresh water, 1/3 is
solid and exists in ice sheets, 2/3 is potable.
Ocean Zones (Horizontal)
Coastal zones – High tide low tide exposure. Sea
stars, sea urchins, some species of coral.
Pelagic zones – Always covered with water. Neritic
lies above the continental shelf, to a depth of 200 m.
Oceanic zone. Sunlight penetrates the water, many
sea animals are here.
Ocean Zones (Vertical)
Epipelagic zone or the sunlight zone – seals, sea
turtles, sea lions, rays and sharks. 0-200 m
Mesopelagic zone or the twilight zone – Dim light.
Lilly fish, octopus and squids. 200-1000 m
Bathypelagic zone or the midnight zone – 1000 -
4000 m, No sunlight. Animals lack eyes e.g.
viperfish, anglerfish, stripe eel and tripod fish
Abyssopelagic or the abyss – 4000-6000 m. Deep
sea. Invertebrates such as shrimps, small squids and
hagfish.
Hadalpelagic zone or the trenches – 6000-bottom.
Deepest part of the ocean. Deep water trenches and
canyons. Sea cucumbers and tube worms.
Atmosphere – thin layer of gas enveloping our
planet. Greenhouse gases traps heat.
Layers of the Atmosphere
Troposphere – lowest, 80% of atmospheric mass.
Most of the water vapor is here. Assoc. with all
weather and cloud types. 0-10 km
Stratosphere – Up to 50 km high. Ozone layer.
Mesosphere – extends 50-85 km. Meteors burn in
this region. The coldest region in the atmosphere (is
the upper atmosphere).
Thermospehre – extends 85-500 km. Aurora and
satellites orbit here. Temperature can rise as high as
1500 C.
Exospehre – upper limit of our atmosphere. Extends
from top of thermosphere up to 10000 km.
Biosphere – contains all life. Geophysical
standpoint, it is the global ecological system,
integrating life with the other spheres. Edward
Suess coined this in 1875.
Biomes – classified by the vegetation and Gold, silver, and copper are good conductors of
adaptations of organisms to that particular climate. electricity.
World’s major communities.

Biomes of Life

Aquatic – Freshwater (ponds, lakes, rivers, etc.) and

marine (ocean, estuaries, etc.).

Forests – Includes tropical, temperate, boreal and

taiga.

Desert – low rainfall (50 cm/year).

Tundras – coldest of all biomes, low biotic diversity

and simple vegetation structure.

Ionosphere – Aurora borealis and the movement of

radio waves.

MATERIALS AND RESOURCES Mining – extraction of valuable minerals or other

MINERALS AND ROCKS geological materials from earth.

Mineral – inorganic, chemical formula, solid in 1. Surface mining

nature. E.g. Coal is a mineral. a. Open-pit mining – circular steps or
benches built around the
Rock – aggregate of one or more minerals. circumference of the pit
Physical Properties of Minerals b. Cutting long narrow strips on the
rock above the mineral deposit.
1. Luster Waste is called overburden.
2. Hardness c. Quarrying – use of explosives
3. Color and Streak inserted in the holes which are
4. Crystal Form/Habit drilled in the rock above the mineral
5. Cleavage deposit, construction materials like
6. Fracture aggregate, limestone, marble cement
7. Specific Gravity and lime.
8. Other Properties 2. Subsurface mining

Crystal structure – describes the orderly geometric Northern Luzon and Mindanao have large deposits
spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal of gold with silver.
structure of a mineral. Lattice.
Rock Cycle
Hardness – refers to the mineral resistance to
scratching.

Color and Streak – color is obvious, mineral gems

are rare and used to make jewel, streak refers to
color in powdered form.

Transparency and Lustro – Luster can be metallic,

vitreous, pearly, dull, greasy and silky.

Cleavage – How a mineral breaks along weakness

plane.

Iron – Magnetic, e.g. magnetite

Carbonate minerals react with HCl.

Metamorphic rocks > Magma cools and solidifies,
may occur beneath the Earth or at the surface
through volcanic eruption, resulting in…
Igneous Rocks > Undergoes weathering, eroded
materials become sediments.
Sediments > Undergoes lithification to become
sedimentary rokcs when compacted and cemented.
Once the sediments are buried deep into the Earth,
they will change back into metamorphic rocks
which can form magmas.
Rock Types
Igneous rocks – crystallization and sedimentation of
molten rock, makes up 80% of the crust. E.g.
Obsidian
Volcanic rocks, pumice – Erupted from a
volcano, particularly in the ocean.
Plutonic rocks – slowly cooling magma
below the surface, granite
Sedimentary rocks – 70% of earths surface. Formed
from consolidation of materials or from life
processes.
Detrital – from weathered rocks
Chemical – organic and inorganic, shells
and skeletons of dead marine organisms, chemical
processes.
Metamorphic rocks – derived from preexisting
rocks, has foliated textures brought by pressure,
mica an chlorite. Non-foliated are marble and
quartzite, ha no layering.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Renewable: Generated within short period of time
Biomass – plant materials or animal waste utilized
to produce biofuels such as ethanol or biodiesel.
Solar Energy – Photovoltaic cell panes,, converting
solar radiation into energy. The intensity is low in
the surface however.
Wind energy – Harnessed with windmills or
turbines wherin the kinetic energy of the wind is
converted into electricity. Rotational energy.
Hydroelectric – along with fossil fuels and nuclear
fuels, Dams are used for this purpose. May supply
irrigation or help in flood control, recreation,
navigation and fish farming.
Geothermal energy – Heat from within earth.
Creating steam to turn turbines.
Non-renewable: Takes long periods to regenerate
Fossil fuel – the world’s main energy source.
Includes coal, oil, and natural gas. Ancient remains
of organisms buried within sediments prior to
complete decomposition. Solar energy stroed in the
form of organic matter.
Coal – buried plant material
Lignite – Recently buried
Bituminous, soft coal, more energy
Anthracites – hardest coal, great heat
Oil and Natural Gas – Contains hydrocarbons. Oil
and natural gas have been technically termed
petroleum or crude oil.
WATER RESOURCES
71% of surface is covered with water. 97% is salt
water, majority is locked up in glaciers and ice caps.
Only 3% fresh water.
Groundwater – subsurface water. Occupies cracks
and pore spaces into the bedrock and between
sediments. Aquifers, huge geologic water
reservoirs.
Unconfined – exposed to atm
Confined – Confined by aquitard
Surface water – replenished by precipitation, loss
through evaporation
Water Conservation and Management in the PH
1. P.D. No. 424 (1974) – National Water
Resources Council to coordinate and
integrate water resources development in the
country for social and economic progress
and to meet present and future needs for
water.
2. P.D. No. 1067 (1776) – Water Code
consolidating al laws governing water
ownership, appropriation, use, conservation.
3. E.O. No. 222 (1995) – Presidential
Committee on water conservation and
Demand Management, quality and quantity
of water, nationwide info. Campaign.
4. The National Water Crisis Act of 1995
(R.A. No. 8041) – water problems are
addressed
 5. Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 –
Comprehensive Water Quality management,
uses and conservation of water, domestic,
municipal, irrigation, power generation,
fisheries, industrial and etc.
LAND RESOURCES (SOIL)
Soil – product of rock weathering which supports
plant, animal, and microorganisms. Upper layer of
earth, black or brown material.
Pedagogenesis – Soil development
Climate – The temperature and moisture level are
two important variables that influence soil
formation
Living organisms – organic matter accumulation,
profile mixing, nutrient cycling
Parent Material – which minerals are present in the
soil
Topograhy – runoff of water can hinder soil
formation because of constant erosion
Composition of soil – mineral particles, water, air,
and organic matter, humus roots and life.
Soil Profile – Horizons - OAEBCR
O, surface, A, mineral and humus, E, light colored,
eluvation and leaching, B, minerals from above, C
partially altered parent material, R, original parent
matrial
Eluvation – movement of fine mineral particles or
dissolved substances downwards
Soil Types:
Sandy – granular and has the biggest particles,
prevents roots from rooting
Silty – most fertile soil, between sandy and chalky
Clay – rich in mineral content, fine grain material
Sub-Types of Soil:
Loamy – good for gardening, right amount of sand,
silt and clay
Peaty – has much more organic matter
Chalky – large amount of stone, alkaline
Characteristics of Soil:
Texture – size distribution of the mineral particles
in soil.
pH – affect fertility through solubility of nutrients,
>5.5, nutrients are more soluble. High pH, nutrients
are insoluble. Maximum fertility at 6.0 to 7.2
Color – Red due to iron, yellow due to aluminum,
humus causes black
Humans and Soil
Farming – plowing, turning over to aerate soil and
bring nutrients to surface
Fertilizers – Dolomite lime gives magnesium and
calcium. Excess M causes loss in soil compaction.
Pesticides – can affect soil physically and
chemically. Water penetration and life in soil.
Construction and Development – digging of soil,
washed and blown away affects soil profile
Mining – digging can cause soil loss, deterioration
of profile and quality. Leaching is a process in
mining which involves the use of chemicals to
extract minerals.
Waste disposal – improper disposal can cause soil
contamination.
Soil Conservation
Contour farming – rice terraces, reduces erosion
Strip cropping – alternating rows of plants, heavy
and loose rooted
Crop rotation – conserving nutrients for specific
plants, avoids depletion
Composting – fertilizer
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
Waste management – is the generation, prevention,
characterization, monitoring, treatment, handling,
reuse and residual disposition of solid wastes.
Solid waste – generally made up of objects or
particles that accumulate on the site where they are
produced. There are various types of solid waste
such as mining, agri, industrial and municipal.
Mining waste – large amounts of rock and soil, left
on the surface at the mine site. Milling the rocks
produces tailings, placed in water, then pumped
Agricultural Waste – from harvesting and
processing of crops and trees
Industrial solid waste – demolition waste, scraps
from manufacturing, and ash from combustion,
hazardous waste, requires special landfills

Municipal solid waste – people no longer want

Disposal Methods

1. Landfill –cheapest and most convenient,

risks contaminating groundwater,
constructed above an impermeable clay
layer lined with an impermeable membrane,
the everyday deposit of fresh garbage is
covered with a layer of soil to prevent it
from blowing around.
2. Incineration – burning of waste, thermal
treatment, first treated before vented, may be
used for generating energy
3. Mulch and Compost – organic materials
used to cover the soil, transforming them
into humus
4. Source reduction – designing,
manufacturing, purchasing, and reusing
materials so that the amount of waste or
toxicity is reduced.
5. Recycling – collecting and processing
materials that would otherwise be thrown
away as trash and turning them into new
products.