Jeremy Bentham

Jeremy Bentham (/ˈbɛnθəm/; 15 February 1748 [O.S. 4 February 1747][2] – 6

Jeremy Bentham
June 1832) was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer regarded as
the founder of modern utilitarianism.[3][4]

Bentham defined as the "fundamental axiom" of his philosophy the principle that
"it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right
and wrong."[5][6] He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy
of law, and a political radical whose ideas influenced the development of
welfarism. He advocated individual and economic freedoms, the separation of
church and state, freedom of expression, equal rights for women, the right to
divorce, and (in an unpublished essay) the decriminalising of homosexual
acts.[7][8] He called for the abolition of slavery, capital punishment and physical
punishment, including that of children.[9] He has also become known as an early
advocate of animal rights.[10][11][12][13] Though strongly in favour of the
extension of individual legal rights, he opposed the idea of natural law and
natural rights (both of which are considered "divine" or "God-given" in origin),
calling them "nonsense upon stilts".[3][14] Bentham was also a sharp critic of Portrait by Henry William Pickersgill
legal fictions.
Born 15 February 1748
Bentham's students included his secretary and collaborator James Mill, the London, England,
latter's son, John Stuart Mill, the legal philosopher John Austin, as well as Kingdom of Great
Robert Owen, one of the founders of utopian socialism. He "had considerable Britain
influence on the reform of prisons, schools, poor laws, law courts, and Died 6 June 1832 (aged 84)
Parliament itself."[15] London, England,
United Kingdom
On his death in 1832, Bentham left instructions for his body to be first dissected,
and then to be permanently preserved as an "auto-icon" (or self-image), which Education The Queen's College,
would be his memorial. This was done, and the auto-icon is now on public Oxford (BA 1763; MA
display at University College London (UCL). Because of his arguments in 1766)
favour of the general availability of education, he has been described as the Era 18th-century philosophy
"spiritual founder" of UCL. However, he played only a limited direct part in its 19th-century philosophy
foundation.[16]
School Utilitarianism
Legal positivism
Liberalism
Contents Epicureanism

Biography Main Political philosophy,

Early life interests philosophy of law,
Abortive prison project ethics, economics
Correspondence and contemporary influences
Notable Greatest happiness
Westminster Review ideas principle
Old age
Death and the auto-icon
Influences

Work
 Utilitarianism Protagoras · Epicurus · John Locke ·
Economics David Hume · Montesquieu ·
Law reform
Helvétius · Hobbes · Beccaria ·
Animal rights
Adam Smith
Gender and sexuality
Privacy Influenced
Fictional entities John Stuart Mill · Thomas Hodgskin
Bentham and University College London · William Thompson · Henry
Bibliography Sidgwick · Michel Foucault · Peter
Publications Singer · John Austin · Robert Owen ·
Posthumous publications H. L. A. Hart · Francis Y. Edgeworth
Bowring (1838–1843)
· A. V. Dicey[1] · Étienne Dumont
Stark (1952–1954)
Bentham Project (1968–present) Signature

Legacy
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Biography

Early life
Bentham was born on 15 February 1748 in Houndsditch, London,[17] to a
wealthy family that supported the Tory party. He was reportedly a child prodigy:
he was found as a toddler sitting at his father's desk reading a multi-volume
history of England, and he began to study Latin at the age of three.[18] He learnt
to play the violin, and at the age of seven Bentham would perform sonatas by
Handel during dinner parties.[19] He had one surviving sibling, Samuel Bentham
(1757-1831), with whom he was close.

He attended Westminster School; in 1760, at age 12, his father sent him to The
Queen's College, Oxford, where he completed his bachelor's degree in 1763 and
his master's degree in 1766. He trained as a lawyer and, though he never
practised, was called to the bar in 1769. He became deeply frustrated with the
complexity of English law, which he termed the "Demon of Chicane".[20] When
the American colonies published their Declaration of Independence in July 1776,
the British government did not issue any official response but instead secretly
commissioned London lawyer and pamphleteer John Lind to publish a
rebuttal.[21] His 130-page tract was distributed in the colonies and contained an
Portrait of Bentham by the studio of
essay titled "Short Review of the Declaration" written by Bentham, a friend of
Thomas Frye, 1760–1762
Lind, which attacked and mocked the Americans' political philosophy.[22][23]

Abortive prison project

In 1786 and 1787, Bentham travelled to Krichev in White Russia (modern Belarus) to visit his brother, Samuel, who was engaged
in managing various industrial and other projects for Prince Potemkin. It was Samuel (as Jeremy later repeatedly acknowledged)
who conceived the basic idea of a circular building at the hub of a larger compound as a means of allowing a small number of
managers to oversee the activities of a large and unskilled workforce.[24][25]

Bentham began to develop this model, particularly as applicable to prisons, and outlined his ideas in a series of letters sent home
to his father in England.[26] He supplemented the supervisory principle with the idea of contract management; that is, an
administration by contract as opposed to trust, where the director would have a pecuniary interest in lowering the average rate of
mortality.[27] The Panopticon was intended to be cheaper than the prisons of his time, as it required fewer staff; "Allow me to
construct a prison on this model," Bentham requested to a Committee for the Reform of Criminal Law, "I will be the gaoler. You
will see ... that the gaoler will have no salary—will cost nothing to the nation." As the watchmen cannot be seen, they need not be
on duty at all times, effectively leaving the watching to the watched. According to Bentham's design, the prisoners would also be
used as menial labour, walking on wheels to spin looms or run a water wheel. This would decrease the cost of the prison and give
a possible source of income.[28]

The ultimately abortive proposal for a panopticon prison to be built in England was one among his many proposals for legal and
social reform.[29] But Bentham spent some sixteen years of his life developing and refining his ideas for the building and hoped
that the government would adopt the plan for a National Penitentiary appointing him as contractor-governor. Although the prison
was never built, the concept had an important influence on later generations of thinkers. Twentieth-century French philosopher
Michel Foucault argued that the panopticon was paradigmatic of several 19th-century "disciplinary" institutions.[30] Bentham
remained bitter throughout his later life about the rejection of the panopticon scheme, convinced that it had been thwarted by the
King and an aristocratic elite. It was largely because of his sense of injustice and frustration that he developed his ideas of
"sinister interest"—that is, of the vested interests of the powerful conspiring against a wider public interest—which underpinned
many of his broader arguments for reform.[31]

On his return to England from Russia, Bentham had commissioned drawings

from an architect, Willey Reveley.[32] In 1791, he published the material he had
written as a book, although he continued to refine his proposals for many years
to come. He had by now decided that he wanted to see the prison built: when
finished, it would be managed by himself as contractor-governor, with the
assistance of Samuel. After unsuccessful attempts to interest the authorities in
Ireland and revolutionary France,[33] he started trying to persuade the prime
minister, William Pitt, to revive an earlier abandoned scheme for a National
Penitentiary in England, this time to be built as a panopticon. He was eventually
successful in winning over Pitt and his advisors, and in 1794 was paid £2,000 for
preliminary work on the project.[34]

The intended site was one that had been authorised (under an act of 1779) for the
Elevation, section and plan of
earlier Penitentiary, at Battersea Rise; but the new proposals ran into technical
Bentham's panopticon prison, drawn
legal problems and objections from the local landowner, Earl Spencer.[35] Other
by Willey Reveley in 1791.
sites were considered, including one at Hanging Wood, near Woolwich, but all
proved unsatisfactory.[36] Eventually Bentham turned to a site at Tothill Fields,
near Westminster. Although this was common land, with no landowner, there were a number of parties with interests in it,
including Earl Grosvenor, who owned a house on an adjacent site and objected to the idea of a prison overlooking it. Again,
therefore, the scheme ground to a halt.[37] At this point, however, it became clear that a nearby site at Millbank, adjoining the
Thames, was available for sale, and this time things ran more smoothly. Using government money, Bentham bought the land on
behalf of the Crown for £12,000 in November 1799.[38]
From his point of view, the site was far from ideal, being marshy, unhealthy, and too small. When he asked the government for
more land and more money, however, the response was that he should build only a small-scale experimental prison—which he
interpreted as meaning that there was little real commitment to the concept of the panopticon as a cornerstone of penal reform.[39]
Negotiations continued, but in 1801 Pitt resigned from office, and in 1803 the new Addington administration decided not to
proceed with the project.[40] Bentham was devastated: "They have murdered my best days."[41]

Nevertheless, a few years later the government revived the idea of a National Penitentiary, and in 1811 and 1812 returned
specifically to the idea of a panopticon.[42] Bentham, now aged 63, was still willing to be governor. However, as it became clear
that there was still no real commitment to the proposal, he abandoned hope, and instead turned his attentions to extracting
financial compensation for his years of fruitless effort. His initial claim was for the enormous sum of nearly £700,000, but he
eventually settled for the more modest (but still considerable) sum of £23,000.[43] An Act of Parliament in 1812 transferred his
title in the site to the Crown.[44]

More successful was his cooperation with Patrick Colquhoun in tackling the corruption in the Pool of London. This resulted in
the Thames Police Bill of 1798, which was passed in 1800.[a] The bill created the Thames River Police, which was the first
preventive police force in the country and was a precedent for Robert Peel's reforms 30 years later.[46]

Correspondence and contemporary influences

Bentham was in correspondence with many influential people. In the 1780s, for example, Bentham maintained a correspondence
with the aging Adam Smith, in an unsuccessful attempt to convince Smith that interest rates should be allowed to freely float.[47]
As a result of his correspondence with Mirabeau and other leaders of the French Revolution, Bentham was declared an honorary
citizen of France.[48] He was an outspoken critic of the revolutionary discourse of natural rights and of the violence that arose
after the Jacobins took power (1792). Between 1808 and 1810, he held a personal friendship with Latin American revolutionary
Francisco de Miranda and paid visits to Miranda's Grafton Way house in London. He also developed links with José Cecilio del
Valle.[49][50]

Westminster Review
In 1823, he co-founded The Westminster Review with James Mill as a journal for the "Philosophical Radicals"—a group of
younger disciples through whom Bentham exerted considerable influence in British public life.[51][52] One was John Bowring, to
whom Bentham became devoted, describing their relationship as "son and father": he appointed Bowring political editor of The
Westminster Review and eventually his literary executor.[53] Another was Edwin Chadwick, who wrote on hygiene, sanitation and
policing and was a major contributor to the Poor Law Amendment Act: Bentham employed Chadwick as a secretary and
bequeathed him a large legacy.[54]

Old age
An insight into his character is given in Michael St. John Packe's The Life of John Stuart Mill:

During his youthful visits to Bowood House, the country seat of his patron Lord Lansdowne, he had passed his
time at falling unsuccessfully in love with all the ladies of the house, whom he courted with a clumsy jocularity,
while playing chess with them or giving them lessons on the harpsichord. Hopeful to the last, at the age of eighty
he wrote again to one of them, recalling to her memory the far-off days when she had "presented him, in
ceremony, with the flower in the green lane" [citing Bentham's memoirs]. To the end of his life he could not hear
of Bowood without tears swimming in his eyes, and he was forced to exclaim, "Take me forward, I entreat you, to
the future—do not let me go back to the past."[55]
A psychobiographical study by Philip Lucas and Anne Sheeran argues that he may have had Asperger's syndrome.[56] Bentham
was an atheist.[57] González 2012, p. 81 writes, "In sum, with Hume's agnosticism and Bentham's atheism, the fundamental
voluntarist thesis about the gulf between the divine and the human mind reaches new depths, and this serves to reinforce and
radicalise the rejection, begun by Pufendorf, of Grotian rights-theory as the appropriate means of formulating the conventionalist
theory of the moral life." And Crimmins 1990, p. 283 notes, "Making allowance for Adams's cautious phrasing, this is a concise
statement of Bentham's secular positivism, but it is also important to note the conviction with which Bentham held his atheism."

Death and the auto-icon

Bentham died on 6 June 1832 aged 84 at
his residence in Queen Square Place in
Westminster, London, England. He had
continued to write up to a month before
his death, and had made careful
preparations for the dissection of his
body after death and its preservation as
an auto-icon. As early as 1769, when
Bentham's Public dissection
Bentham was 21 years old, he made a
will leaving his body for dissection to a
family friend, the physician and chemist George Fordyce, whose daughter, Maria Sophia
(1765–1858), married Jeremy's brother Samuel Bentham.[17] A paper written in 1830,
Bentham's auto-icon
instructing Thomas Southwood Smith to create the auto-icon, was attached to his last will,
dated 30 May 1832.[17]

On 8 June 1832, two days after his death, invitations were distributed to a select
group of friends, and on the following day at 3 p.m., Southwood Smith delivered
a lengthy oration over Bentham's remains in the Webb Street School of Anatomy
& Medicine in Southwark, London. The printed oration contains a frontispiece
with an engraving of Bentham's body partly covered by a sheet.[17]

Afterward, the skeleton and head were preserved and stored in a wooden cabinet Jeremy Bentham's severed head, on
called the "Auto-icon", with the skeleton padded out with hay and dressed in temporary display at UCL
Bentham's clothes. Originally kept by his disciple Thomas Southwood Smith,[58]
it was acquired by University College London in 1850. It is normally kept on
public display at the end of the South Cloisters in the main building of the college; however, for the retirement of Sir Malcolm
Grant as provost of the College in 2013, it was brought to attend his final council meeting. This was the only time that the body
has been taken to a UCL council meeting; there is a persistent myth that he is taken to all meetings.[59] Bentham's body was only
taken to that one meeting because of the persistent myth about Bentham's attendance, and the curator at the time, Nick Booth,
thought it would be a good idea for Bentham to attend once. This will never happen again, as there is a risk that the beetles in the
carpet could contaminate the body and slowly consume it.[60]

Bentham had intended the Auto-icon to incorporate his actual head, mummified to resemble its appearance in life. Southwood
Smith's experimental efforts at mummification, based on practices of the indigenous people of New Zealand and involving
placing the head under an air pump over sulfuric acid and drawing off the fluids, although technically successful, left the head
looking distastefully macabre, with dried and darkened skin stretched tautly over the skull.[17] The auto-icon was therefore given
a wax head, fitted with some of Bentham's own hair. The real head was displayed in the same case as the auto-icon for many
years, but became the target of repeated student pranks. It is now locked away securely.[61]
In 2017, plans were announced to re-exhibit the head and at the same time obtain a DNA sample for sequencing with the goal of
identifying genetic evidence of autism.[62]

In 2018, Jeremy Bentham's auto-icon was on display in New York City at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Breuer location.

Work

Utilitarianism
Bentham's ambition in life was to create a "Pannomion", a complete utilitarian code of law. He not only proposed many legal and
social reforms, but also expounded an underlying moral principle on which they should be based. This philosophy of
utilitarianism took for its "fundamental axiom", it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and
wrong".[63] Bentham claimed to have borrowed this concept from the writings of Joseph Priestley,[64] although the closest that
Priestley in fact came to expressing it was in the form "the good and happiness of the members, that is the majority of the
members of any state, is the great standard by which every thing relating to that state must finally be determined".[65]

The "greatest happiness principle", or the principle of utility, forms the cornerstone of all Bentham's thought. By "happiness", he
understood a predominance of "pleasure" over "pain". He wrote in The Principles of Morals and Legislation:

Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone
to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right
and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do,
in all we say, in all we think ...[66]

Bentham was a rare major figure in the history of philosophy to endorse psychological egoism.[67]

Bentham was a determined opponent of religion. Crimmins observes: "Between 1809 and 1823 Jeremy Bentham carried out an
exhaustive examination of religion with the declared aim of extirpating religious beliefs, even the idea of religion itself, from the
minds of men."[57]

Bentham suggested a procedure for estimating the moral status of any action, which he called the hedonistic or felicific calculus.
Utilitarianism was revised and expanded by Bentham's student John Stuart Mill. Mill sharply criticized Bentham's view of human
nature, which failed to recognize conscience as a human motive. Mill considered Bentham's view "to have done and to be doing
very serious evil."[68] In Mill's hands, "Benthamism" became a major element in the liberal conception of state policy objectives.

Bentham's critics have claimed that he undermined the foundation of a free society by rejecting natural rights.[69] Historian
Gertrude Himmelfarb wrote "The principle of the greatest happiness of the greatest number was as inimical to the idea of liberty
as to the idea of rights."[70]

In his exposition of the felicific calculus, Bentham proposed a classification of 12 pains and 14 pleasures, by which we might test
the "happiness factor" of any action.[71] Nonetheless, it should not be overlooked that Bentham's "hedonistic" theory (a term from
J. J. C. Smart), unlike Mill's, is often criticised for lacking a principle of fairness embodied in a conception of justice. In Bentham
and the Common Law Tradition, Gerald J. Postema states: "No moral concept suffers more at Bentham's hand than the concept of
justice. There is no sustained, mature analysis of the notion..."[72] Thus, some critics object, it would be acceptable to torture one
person if this would produce an amount of happiness in other people outweighing the unhappiness of the tortured individual.
However, as P. J. Kelly argued in Utilitarianism and Distributive Justice: Jeremy Bentham and the Civil Law, Bentham had a
theory of justice that prevented such consequences. According to Kelly, for Bentham the law "provides the basic framework of
social interaction by delimiting spheres of personal inviolability within which individuals can form and pursue their own
conceptions of well-being".[73] It provides security, a precondition for the formation of expectations. As the hedonic calculus
shows "expectation utilities" to be much higher than natural ones, it follows that Bentham does not favour the sacrifice of a few to
the benefit of the many. Law professor Alan Dershowitz has quoted Bentham to argue that torture should sometimes be
permitted.[74]

Bentham's An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation focuses on the principle of utility and how this view of
morality ties into legislative practices. His principle of utility regards "good" as that which produces the greatest amount of
pleasure and the minimum amount of pain and "evil" as that which produces the most pain without the pleasure. This concept of
pleasure and pain is defined by Bentham as physical as well as spiritual. Bentham writes about this principle as it manifests itself
within the legislation of a society. He lays down a set of criteria for measuring the extent of pain or pleasure that a certain
decision will create.

The criteria are divided into the categories of intensity, duration, certainty, proximity, productiveness, purity, and extent. Using
these measurements, he reviews the concept of punishment and when it should be used as far as whether a punishment will create
more pleasure or more pain for a society. He calls for legislators to determine whether punishment creates an even more evil
offence. Instead of suppressing the evil acts, Bentham argues that certain unnecessary laws and punishments could ultimately lead
to new and more dangerous vices than those being punished to begin with, and calls upon legislators to measure the pleasures and
pains associated with any legislation and to form laws in order to create the greatest good for the greatest number. He argues that
the concept of the individual pursuing his or her own happiness cannot be necessarily declared "right", because often these
individual pursuits can lead to greater pain and less pleasure for a society as a whole. Therefore, the legislation of a society is
vital to maintain the maximum pleasure and the minimum degree of pain for the greatest number of people.

Economics
Bentham's opinions about monetary economics were completely different from
those of David Ricardo; however, they had some similarities to those of Henry
Thornton. He focused on monetary expansion as a means of helping to create
full employment. He was also aware of the relevance of forced saving,
propensity to consume, the saving-investment relationship, and other matters
that form the content of modern income and employment analysis. His monetary
view was close to the fundamental concepts employed in his model of utilitarian
decision making. His work is considered to be an early precursor of modern
welfare economics.

Bentham stated that pleasures and pains can be ranked according to their value
or "dimension" such as intensity, duration, certainty of a pleasure or a pain. He
was concerned with maxima and minima of pleasures and pains; and they set a
precedent for the future employment of the maximisation principle in the
economics of the consumer, the firm and the search for an optimum in welfare
economics.[75]

Bentham advocated "Pauper Management" which involved the creation of a

chain of large workhouses.[76][77]

Defence of Usury, 1788

Law reform
Bentham was the first person to be an aggressive advocate for the codification of
all of the common law into a coherent set of statutes; he was actually the person who coined the verb "to codify" to refer to the
process of drafting a legal code.[78] He lobbied hard for the formation of codification commissions in both England and the
United States, and went so far as to write to President James Madison in 1811 to volunteer to write a complete legal code for the
young country. After he learned more about American law and realised that most of it was state-based, he promptly wrote to the
governors of every single state with the same offer.

During his lifetime, Bentham's codification efforts were completely unsuccessful. Even today, they have been completely rejected
by almost every common law jurisdiction, including England. However, his writings on the subject laid the foundation for the
moderately successful codification work of David Dudley Field II in the United States a generation later.[78]

Animal rights
Bentham is widely regarded as one of the earliest proponents of animal rights.[13] He argued and believed that the ability to
suffer, not the ability to reason, should be the benchmark, or what he called the "insuperable line". If reason alone were the
criterion by which we judge who ought to have rights, human infants and adults with certain forms of disability might fall short,
too.[79] In 1789, alluding to the limited degree of legal protection afforded to slaves in the French West Indies by the Code Noir,
he wrote:

The day has been, I am sad to say in many places it is not yet past, in which the greater part of the species, under
the denomination of slaves, have been treated by the law exactly upon the same footing, as, in England for
example, the inferior races of animals are still. The day may come when the rest of the animal creation may
acquire those rights which never could have been witholden from them but by the hand of tyranny. The French
have already discovered that the blackness of the skin is no reason a human being should be abandoned without
redress to the caprice of a tormentor. It may one day come to be recognised that the number of the legs, the
villosity of the skin, or the termination of the os sacrum are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a
sensitive being to the same fate. What else is it that should trace the insuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason or
perhaps the faculty of discourse? But a full-grown horse or dog, is beyond comparison a more rational, as well as
a more conversable animal, than an infant of a day or a week or even a month, old. But suppose the case were
otherwise, what would it avail? The question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer?[80]

Earlier in that paragraph, Bentham makes clear that he accepted that animals could be killed for food, or in defence of human life,
provided that the animal was not made to suffer unnecessarily. Bentham did not object to medical experiments on animals,
providing that the experiments had in mind a particular goal of benefit to humanity, and had a reasonable chance of achieving that
goal. He wrote that otherwise he had a "decided and insuperable objection" to causing pain to animals, in part because of the
harmful effects such practices might have on human beings. In a letter to the editor of the Morning Chronicle in March 1825, he
wrote:

I never have seen, nor ever can see, any objection to the putting of dogs and other inferior animals to pain, in the
way of medical experiment, when that experiment has a determinate object, beneficial to mankind, accompanied
with a fair prospect of the accomplishment of it. But I have a decided and insuperable objection to the putting of
them to pain without any such view. To my apprehension, every act by which, without prospect of preponderant
good, pain is knowingly and willingly produced in any being whatsoever, is an act of cruelty; and, like other bad
habits, the more the correspondent habit is indulged in, the stronger it grows, and the more frequently productive
of its bad fruit. I am unable to comprehend how it should be, that to him to whom it is a matter of amusement to
see a dog or a horse suffer, it should not be matter of like amusement to see a man suffer; seeing, as I do, how
much more morality as well as intelligence, an adult quadruped of those and many other species has in him, than
any biped has for some months after he has been brought into existence; nor does it appear to me how it should
 be, that a person to whom the production of pain, either in the one or in the other instance, is a source of
amusement, would scruple to give himself that amusement when he could do so under an assurance of
impunity.[81]

Gender and sexuality

Bentham said that it was the placing of women in a legally inferior position that made him choose, at the age of eleven, the career
of a reformist.[82] Bentham spoke for a complete equality between sexes. Bentham nevertheless thought women inferior to men
regarding such qualities as "strength of intellectual powers" and "firmness of mind".[83]

The essay Paederasty (Offences Against One's Self)[7] (c. 1785) argued for the liberalisation of laws prohibiting homosexual
sex.[84] The essay remained unpublished during his lifetime for fear of offending public morality. Some of Benthams writings on
'sexual non-conformity' were published for the first time in 1931,[85] but Paederasty was not published until 1978.[86] Bentham
does not believe homosexual acts to be unnatural, describing them merely as "irregularities of the venereal appetite". The essay
chastises the society of the time for making a disproportionate response to what Bentham appears to consider a largely private
offence—public displays or forced acts being dealt with rightly by other laws. When the essay was published in the Journal of
Homosexuality in 1978, the "Abstract" stated that Bentham's essay was the "first known argument for homosexual law reform in
England".[7]

Privacy
For Bentham, transparency had moral value. For example, journalism puts power-holders under moral scrutiny. However,
Bentham wanted such transparency to apply to everyone. This he describes by picturing the world as a gymnasium in which each
"gesture, every turn of limb or feature, in those whose motions have a visible impact on the general happiness, will be noticed and
marked down".[87] He considered both surveillance and transparency to be useful ways of generating understanding and
improvements for people's lives.[88]

Fictional entities
Bentham distinguished among fictional entities what he called "fabulous entities" like Prince Hamlet or a centaur, from what he
termed "fictitious entities", or necessary objects of discourse, similar to Kant's categories,[89] such as nature, custom, or the social
contract.[90]

Bentham and University College London

Bentham is widely associated with the foundation in 1826 of London University (the institution that, in 1836, became University
College London), though he was 78 years old when the University opened and played only an indirect role in its establishment.
His direct involvement was limited to his buying a single £100 share in the new University, making him just one of over a
thousand shareholders.[91]

Bentham and his ideas can nonetheless be seen as having inspired several of the actual founders of the University. He strongly
believed that education should be more widely available, particularly to those who were not wealthy or who did not belong to the
established church; in Bentham's time, membership of the Church of England and the capacity to bear considerable expenses
were required of students entering the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. As the University of London was the first in
England to admit all, regardless of race, creed or political belief, it was largely consistent with Bentham's vision. There is some
evidence that, from the sidelines, he played a "more than passive part" in the planning discussions for the new institution,
although it is also apparent that "his interest was greater than his influence".[91] He failed
in his efforts to see his disciple John Bowring appointed professor of English or History,
but he did oversee the appointment of another pupil, John Austin, as the first professor of
Jurisprudence in 1829.

The more direct associations between Bentham and UCL—the College's custody of his
Auto-icon (see above) and of the majority of his surviving papers—postdate his death by
some years: the papers were donated in 1849, and the Auto-icon in 1850. A large painting
by Henry Tonks hanging in UCL's Flaxman Gallery depicts Bentham approving the plans
of the new university, but it was executed in 1922 and the scene is entirely imaginary.
Since 1959 (when the Bentham Committee was first established) UCL has hosted the
Bentham Project, which is progressively publishing a definitive edition of Bentham's
writings. Henry Tonks' imaginary
scene of Bentham approving
UCL now endeavours to acknowledge Bentham's influence on its foundation, while the building plans of London
avoiding any suggestion of direct involvement, by describing him as its "spiritual University
founder".[16]

Bibliography
Bentham was an obsessive writer and reviser, but was constitutionally incapable,
except on rare occasions, of bringing his work to completion and publication.[56]
Most of what appeared in print in his lifetime (see list of published works
online)[94] was prepared for publication by others. Several of his works first
appeared in French translation, prepared for the press by Étienne Dumont, for
example, Theory of Legislation, Volume 2 (Principles of the Penal Code) 1840,
Weeks, Jordan, & Company. Boston. Some made their first appearance in
English in the 1820s as a result of back-translation from Dumont's 1802
collection (and redaction) of Bentham's writing on civil and penal legislation.

Publications
Bentham, Jeremy (1787). Panopticon or the Inspection-House – via
Wikisource.
On the Liberty of the Press, and Public Discussion (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=VWVBAAAAcAAJ). Hone. 1821. The back of No. 19, York Street
Schofield, Philip; Pease-Watkin, Catherine; Blamires, Cyprian, eds. (1848). In 1651 John Milton moved
(2002). Rights, Representation, and Reform: Nonsense upon Stilts into a "pretty garden-house" in Petty
and Other Writings on the French Revolution (https://books.google.c France. He lived there until the
om/books?id=3C1NRsqMt4cC). Oxford: University Press. ISBN 978- Restoration. Later it became No. 19
0-19-924863-6. York Street, belonged to Jeremy
Bentham (who for a time lived next
Bowring, John, ed. (1834). Deontology or, The science of morality (ht
door), was occupied successively by
tps://archive.org/stream/deontologyorthes01bentuoft/#page/n5/mod
James Mill and William Hazlitt, and
e/2up). Vol. 1. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green and
finally demolished in 1877.[92][93]
Longman. p. 101.
"Gulphs in Mankind's Career of Prosperity: A Critique of Adam Smith
on Interest Rate Restrictions" (http://econjwatch.org/articles/gulphs-in-mankind-s-career-of-prosperity-a-critique-o
f-adam-smith-on-interest-rate-restrictions). Econ Journal Watch. Fairfax. 5 (1): 66. January 2008.
An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. 1780 – via Wikisource.
A fragment on government. 1776 – via Wikisource. This was an unsparing
criticism of some introductory passages relating to political theory in William
Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England. The book, published
anonymously, was well received and credited to some of the greatest minds
of the time. Bentham disagreed with Blackstone's defence of judge-made law,
his defence of legal fictions, his theological formulation of the doctrine of
mixed government, his appeal to a social contract and his use of the
vocabulary of natural law. Bentham's "Fragment" was only a small part of a
Commentary on the Commentaries, which remained unpublished until the
twentieth century.
Crompton, Louis, ed. (2008) [1785]. "Offences Against One's Self:" (http://ww
w.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/eresources/exhibitions/sw25/bentham/index.html).
Journal of Homosexuality. 3 (4): 389–406. doi:10.1300/J082v03n04_07 (http
s://doi.org/10.1300%2FJ082v03n04_07). ISSN 0091-8369 (https://www.world
cat.org/issn/0091-8369).
Short Review of the Declaration. 1776 – via Wikisource. An attack on the
United States Declaration of Independence. Jeremy Bentham House in
Bentham, Jeremy (1816). Defence of Usury; shewing the impolicy of the Bethnal Green, East
present legal restraints on the terms of pecuniary bargains in a letters to a London; a modernist
friend to which is added a letter to Adam Smith, Esq. LL.D. on the apartment block named after
discouragement opposed by the above restraints to the progress of inventive the philosopher
industry (https://archive.org/details/defenceofusurysh00bentiala) (3rd ed.).
London: Payne & Foss. Bentham wrote a series of thirteen "Letters"
addressed to Adam Smith, published in 1787 as Defence of Usury. Bentham's main argument against the
restriction is that "projectors" generate positive externalities. G.K. Chesterton identified Bentham's essay on
usury as the very beginning of the "modern world". Bentham's arguments were very influential. "Writers of
eminence" moved to abolish the restriction, and repeal was achieved in stages and fully achieved in England in
1854. There is little evidence as to Smith's reaction. He did not revise the offending passages in The Wealth of
Nations, but Smith made little or no substantial revisions after the third edition of 1784.
Essay on Political Tactics containing six of the Principal Rules proper to be observed by a Political Assembly In
the process of a Forming a Decision: with the Reasons on Which They Are Grounded; and a comparative
application of them to British and French Practice: Being a Fragment of a larger Work, a sketch of which is
subjoined (https://books.google.com/?id=UclOAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1) (First ed.). London: T. Payne. 1791.
Emancipate Your Colonies! Addressed to the National Convention of France A° 1793, shewing the uselessness
and mischievousness of distant dependencies to an European state. London: Robert Heward. 1830 – via
Wikisource.
Anarchical Fallacies; Being an examination of the Declaration of Rights issued during the French Revolution (htt
p://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1921#lf0872-02_head_411) (London ed.). 1796. Retrieved 8 January 2016. An attack
on the Declaration of the Rights of Man decreed by the French Revolution, and critique of the natural rights
philosophy underlying it.
Traités de législation civile et pénale (1802, edited by Étienne Dumont. 3 vols)
Punishments and Rewards (1811)
Panopticon versus New South Wales: or, the Panopticon Penitentiary System, Compared. Containing, 1. Two
Letters to Lord Pelham, Secretary of State, Comparing the two Systems on the Ground of Expediency. 2. Plea for
the Constitution: Representing the Illegalities involved in the Penal Colonization System. Anno 1803, printed: now
first published (1812)
A Table of the Springs of Action . (https://books.google.com/?id=b0kdAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP5) London: sold by R.
Hunter. 1817.
"Swear Not At All" (1817)
Plan of Parliamentary Reform, in the form of Catechism with Reasons for Each Article, with An Introduction
shewing the Necessity and the Inadequacy of Moderate Reform (https://books.google.com/?id=CUYPAAAAYAAJ
&pg=PP9). London: R. Hunter, successor to Mr. Johnson. 1817.
 Church-of-Englandism and its Catechism Examined: Preceded by the Structures on the Exclusionary System, as
pursued in the National Society of Schools: Interspersed with Parallel Views of the English and Scottish
Established and Non-Established Churches: And Concluding with Remedies Proposed for Abuses Indicated: and
An Examination of the Parliamentary System of Church Reform Lately Pursued, and Still Pursuing: Including the
Proposed New Churches (https://books.google.com/?id=reVSAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP9). London: Effingham Wilson.
1818.
The Elements of the Art of Packing, as applied to special juries particularly in cases of libel law (https://books.goo
gle.com/?id=FM0DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP5). London: Effingham Wilson. 1821.
The Influence of Natural Religion upon the Temporal Happiness of Mankind (1822, written with George Grote and
published under the pseudonym Philip Beauchamp)
Not Paul But Jesus (1823, published under the pseudonym Gamaliel Smith)
The Book of Fallacies from Unfinished Papers of Jeremy Bentham (https://books.google.com/?id=KuEqAAAAMA
AJ&pg=PR1) (First ed.). London: John and H.L. Hunt. 1824.
Dumont, M., ed. (1825). A Treatise on Judicial Evidence Extracted from the Manuscripts of Jeremy Bentham, Esq
(https://books.google.com/?id=tMsDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3) (1st ed.). London: Baldwin, Cradock, & Joy.
Rationale of Judicial Evidence, specially applied to English Practice, Extracted from the Manuscripts of Jeremy
Bentham, Esq (https://books.google.com/books?id=3i9x3jfeNgkC&pg=PR3). I (First ed.). London: Hunt & Clarke.
1827.

Posthumous publications
On his death, Bentham left manuscripts amounting to an estimated 30 million words, which are now largely held by UCL's
Special Collections (c. 60,000 manuscript folios) and the British Library (c.15,000 folios).

Bowring (1838–1843)
John Bowring, the young radical writer who had been Bentham's intimate friend and disciple, was appointed his literary executor
and charged with the task of preparing a collected edition of his works. This appeared in 11 volumes in 1838–1843. Bowring
based much of his edition on previously published texts (including those of Dumont) rather than Bentham's own manuscripts, and
elected not to publish Bentham's works on religion at all. The edition was described by the Edinburgh Review on first publication
as "incomplete, incorrect and ill-arranged", and has since been repeatedly criticised both for its omissions and for errors of detail;
while Bowring's memoir of Bentham's life included in volumes 10 and 11 was described by Sir Leslie Stephen as "one of the
worst biographies in the language".[95] Nevertheless, Bowring's remained the standard edition of most of Bentham's writings for
over a century, and is still only partially superseded: it includes such interesting writings on international[b] relations as Bentham's
A Plan for an Universal and Perpetual Peace written 1786–89, which forms part IV of the Principles of International Law.

Stark (1952–1954)
In 1952–1954, Werner Stark published a three-volume set, Jeremy Bentham's Economic Writings, in which he attempted to bring
together all of Bentham's writings on economic matters, including both published and unpublished material. Although a
significant achievement, the work is considered by scholars to be flawed in many points of detail,[96] and a new edition of the
economic writings is currently in preparation by the Bentham Project.

Bentham Project (1968–present)

In 1959, the Bentham Committee was established under the auspices of University College London with the aim of producing a
definitive edition of Bentham's writings. It set up the Bentham Project[97] to undertake the task, and the first volume in The
Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham was published in 1968. The Collected Works are providing many unpublished works, as well
as much-improved texts of works already published. To date, 31 volumes have appeared; the complete edition is projected to run
to around seventy. The volume Of Laws in General (1970) was found to contain many errors and has been replaced by Of the
Limits of the Penal Branch of Jurisprudence (2010)[98] In June 2017, Volumes 1–5 were re-published in open access by UCL
Press.

To assist in this task, the Bentham papers at UCL are being digitised by crowdsourcing their transcription. Transcribe Bentham is
an award-winning crowdsourced manuscript transcription project, run by University College London's Bentham Project,[99] in
partnership with UCL's UCL Centre for Digital Humanities, UCL Library Services, UCL Learning and Media Services, the
University of London Computer Centre, and the online community. The project was launched in September 2010 and is making
freely available, via a specially designed transcription interface, digital images of UCL's vast Bentham Papers collection—which
runs to some 60,000 manuscript folios—to engage the public and recruit volunteers to help transcribe the material. Volunteer-
produced transcripts will contribute to the Bentham Project's production of the new edition of The Collected Works of Jeremy
Bentham, and will be uploaded to UCL's digital Bentham Papers repository,[100] widening access to the collection for all and
ensuring its long-term preservation. Manuscripts can be viewed and transcribed by signing-up for a transcriber account at the
Transcription Desk,[101] via the Transcribe Bentham website.[102]

Free, flexible textual search of the full collection of Bentham Papers is now possible through an experimental handwritten text
image indexing and search system,[103] developed by the PRHLT research center in the framework of the READ project.

Legacy
The Faculty of Laws at University College London occupies Bentham House, next to the main UCL campus.[104]

Bentham's name was adopted by the Australian litigation funder IMF Limited to become Bentham IMF Limited on 28 November
2013, in recognition of Bentham being "among the first to support the utility of litigation funding".[105]

See also
List of civil rights leaders
List of liberal theorists
Philosophy of happiness
Rule according to higher law – Principle that no law may be enforced by the government unless it conforms with
certain universal principles of fairness, morality, and justice.
Rule of law – Political situation where every citizen is subject to the law

Notes
a. An Act for the More Effectual Prevention of Depredations on the River Thames (39 & 40 Geo 3 c 87)[45]
b. a word Bentham himself coined (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/tools/neologisms)

1. Follett 2000, p. 7.
2. Johnson, Will (2012). "Ancestry of Jeremy Bentham" (https://sites.google.com/site/countyhistorian/ancestry-of-jer
emy-bentham). countyhistorian. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
3. Sweet, William (n.d.). "Bentham, Jeremy" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/bentham/). Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
4. "Jeremy Bentham" (http://utilitarianphilosophy.com/jeremybentham.eng.html). utilitarianphilosophy.com. n.d.
Retrieved 11 June 2018.
5. Bentham 1977, p. 393.
6. Burns 2005, pp. 46–61.
7. Bentham 2008, pp. 389–406.
8. Campos Boralevi 2012, p. 37.
 9. Bedau 1983, pp. 1033-1065.
10. Sunstein 2004, pp. 3-4.
11. Francione 2004, p. 139: footnote 78
12. Gruen 2003.
13. Benthall 2007, p. 1.
14. Harrison 1995, pp. 85-88.
15. Roberts, Roberts & Bisson 2016, p. 307.
16. "UCL Academic Figures" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101218055822/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/about-ucl/inspiring-
minds/academic-figures). Archived from the original (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/about-ucl/inspiring-minds/academic-fig
ures) on 18 December 2010.
17. Rosen, F. (2014) [2004]. "Bentham, Jeremy". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford
University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/2153 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F2153).(Subscription or
UK public library membership (http://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public) required.)
18. "Jeremy Bentham" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070101105009/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/info/jb.ht
m). University College London. Archived from the original (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/info/jb.htm) on 1
January 2007. Retrieved 4 January 2007.
19. Warren 1969.
20. Stephen 2011, pp. 174-5.
21. Dupont & Onuf 2008, pp. 32–33.
22. Armitage 2007.
23. Anonymous 1776, p. 3.
24. Semple 1993, pp. 99–100.
25. Roth, Mitchel P (2006), Prisons and prison systems: a global encyclopedia (https://books.google.com/books?id=
RTH31DgbTzgC&pg=PA33), Greenwood, p. 33, ISBN 9780313328565
26. Semple 1993, pp. 99–101.
27. Semple 1993, pp. 134–40.
28. Bentham 1995, pp. 29–95.
29. Bentham 1787.
30. Foucault 1977, pp. 200, 249–256.
31. Schofield, Philip (2009). Bentham: a guide for the perplexed. London: Continuum. pp. 90–93. ISBN 978-0-8264-
9589-1.
32. Semple 1993, p. 118.
33. Semple 1993, pp. 102–4, 107–8.
34. Semple 1993, pp. 108–10, 262.
35. Semple 1993, pp. 169–89.
36. Semple 1993, pp. 194–7.
37. Semple 1993, pp. 197–217.
38. Semple 1993, pp. 217–22.
39. Semple 1993, pp. 226–31.
40. Semple 1993, pp. 236–9.
41. Semple 1993, p. 244.
42. Semple 1993, pp. 265–79.
43. Semple 1993, pp. 279–81.
44. Penitentiary House, etc. Act: 52 Geo. III, c. 44 (1812).
45. French, Stanley (n.d.). "The Early History of Thames Magistrates' Court" (http://www.thamespolicemuseum.org.u
k/h_magistrates_1.html). Thames Police Museum. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
46. Everett 1966, pp. 67–69.
47. Persky 2007, p. 228.
48. Bentham 2002, p. 291.
49. Darío, Rubén (1887). "La Literatura en Centro-América" (http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-86857.
html). Revista de artes y letras (in Spanish). Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. XI: 591. MC0060418. Retrieved
25 March 2019. "In Guatemala there was Valle, a man of vast intellect, friend of Jeremías Bentham, with whom
he corresponded frequently. Bentham sent him shortly before dying a lock of his hair and a golden ring, shiny as
José Cecilio's style."
50. Laura Geggel (11 September 2018). "Oddball Philosopher Had His Mummified Body Put on Display … and Now
His Rings Are Missing" (https://www.livescience.com/63551-philosopher-jeremy-bentham-missing-rings.html).
Live Science. Retrieved 26 March 2019. "We can safely assume that [Guatemalan philosopher and politician]
José del Valle received one, as he is featured wearing it in a portrait," Causer said. "Interestingly, on the
bookshelf of that portrait is one of Bentham’s works, as well as a Spanish translation of Say’s 'Traité d’économie
politique.' It’s a neat, tangible link between Bentham, Say and del Valle."
51. Hamburger 1965.
52. Thomas 1979.
53. Bartle 1963.
54. Everett 1968, p. 94.
55. Packe 1954, p. 16.
56. Lucas & Sheeran 2006, pp. 26–27.
57. Crimmins 1986, p. 95.
58. Marmoy, C.F.A. "The 'Auto-Icon' of Jeremy Bentham at University College, London" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20070210065136/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/info/marmoy.htm). University College London. Archived
from the original (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/info/marmoy.htm) on 10 February 2007. Retrieved
3 March 2007. "It seems that the case with Bentham's body now rested in New Broad Street; Southwood Smith
did not remove to 38 Finsbury Square until several years later. Bentham must have been seen by many visitors,
including Charles Dickens."
59. Smallman, Etan (12 July 2013). "Bentham's corpse attends UCL board meeting" (https://metro.co.uk/2013/07/12/
181-year-old-corpse-of-jeremy-bentham-attends-ucl-board-meeting-3879586/). Metro. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
60. Das, Subhadra (curator) (19 November 2018). The Boring Talks (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p05t3gr2/ep
isodes/downloads) [#25 Jeremy Bentham's 'Auto-Icon'] (podcast). BBC.
61. "UCL Bentham Project" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101112065654/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/wh
o/autoicon). University College London. Archived from the original (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/who/aut
oicon) on 12 November 2010. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
62. Sarah Knapton (2 October 2017). "Severed head of eccentric Jeremy Bentham to go on display as scientists test
DNA to see if he was autistic" (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2017/10/02/severed-head-eccentric-jeremy-b
entham-go-display-scientists/). Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 9 October 2017.
63. Bentham 1776, Preface (2nd para.).
64. Bentham 1821, p. 24.
65. Priestley 1771, p. 17.
66. Bentham 1789, p. 1, Ch. I.
67. May, Joshua (n.d.). "Psychological Egoism" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/psychego/). Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
68. Mill, John Stuart Early Essays of John Stuart Mill (London, 1897) pp. 401-404
69. Smith, George H. (26 June 2012). "Jeremy Bentham's Attack on Natural Rights" (https://www.libertarianism.org/p
ublications/essays/excursions/jeremy-benthams-attack-natural-rights). Libertarianism.org. Retrieved 11 June
2018.
70. Himmelfarb 1968, p. 77.
71. Bentham 1789, Ch, IV.
72. Postema 1986, p. 148.
 73. Kelly 1990, p. 81.
74. Dershowitz, Alan M. (18 September 2014). "A choice of evils: Should democracies use torture to protect against
terrorism?" (https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2014/09/17/torture-tool-fight-against-terrorist-groups-like-isis/1
Tfqfk1Amck7Rh9kEra8IN/story.html). The Boston Globe. Retrieved 11 June 2018.
75. Spiegel 1991, pp. 341–343.
76. Bentham, Jeremy (1843). "Tracts on Poor Laws and Pauper Management" (http://bev.berkeley.edu/PE%20100/O
n%20Pauper%20Laws%20-%20Bentham.pdf) (PDF). bev.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
77. Himmelfarb 1968, pp. 74-75.
78. Morriss 1999.
79. Bentham 1879.
80. Bentham 1879, Ch. 17.
81. Bentham, Jeremy (9 March 1825). "To the Editor of the Morning Chronicle" (http://find.galegroup.com/bncn/retriev
e.do?sgHitCountType=None&scale=1.00&orientation=&sort=DateAscend&docLevel=FASCIMILE&prodId=BNWS
&tabID=T012&subjectParam=Locale%2528en%252C%252C%2529%253ALQE%253D%2528jn%252CNone%2
52C6%2529%25221ZUA%2522%253AAnd%253ALQE%253D%2528da%252CNone%252C10%252903%252F0
9%252F1825%2524&searchId=R5&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchType=AdvancedSearchForm&current
Position=4&qrySerId=Locale%28en%2C%2C%29%3ALQE%3D%28jn%2CNone%2C6%29%221ZUA%22%3AA
nd%3ALQE%3D%28da%2CNone%2C10%2903%2F09%2F1825%24&retrieveFormat=MULTIPAGE_DOCUMEN
T&subjectAction=DISPLAY_SUBJECTS&inPS=true&userGroupName=ucl_ttda&sgCurrentPosition=0&docId=BC
3207301704&docId=&docLevel=FASCIMILE&workId=&relevancePageBatch=&contentSet=LTO&callistoContent
Set=&docPage=article&mcode=&issueNum=&recNum=CT3207301703&newScale=0.33&newOrientation=0BA32
07301703). Morning Chronicle. London. p. 2.(subscription required)
82. Williford 1975, p. 167.
83. Bentham 1879, p. 48.
84. Campos Boralevi, 2012, p. 40.
85. Campos Boralevi, 2012, p. 37.
86. Journal of Homosexuality, v.3:4(1978), p.389-405; continued in v.4:1(1978)
87. Bentham 1834, p. 101.
88. McStay, Andrew (8 November 2013). "Why too much privacy is bad for the economy" (http://theconversation.co
m/why-too-much-privacy-is-bad-for-the-economy-19998). The Conversation. Retrieved 25 August 2014.
89. Cutrofello 2014, p. 115.
90. Murphy 2014, p. 61–62.
91. Harte 1998, pp. 5–8.
92. Stephen 1894, p. 32.
93. Grayling 2013, "19 York Street".
94. Anon (n.d.). "Published Works of Jeremy Bentham" (https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/bentham/
benbib.htm). socialsciences.mcmaster.ca. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
95. Bartle 1963, p. 27.
96. Schofield 2009a, pp. 475-494.
97. "Bentham Project" (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Bentham-Project/).
98. Schofield 2013, p. 51–70.
99. "The Bentham Project" (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project). Ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
100. "UCL digital Bentham collection" (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/library/bentham). Ucl.ac.uk. 20 August 1996. Retrieved
26 April 2012.
101. "Transcribe Bentham: Transcription Desk" (http://www.transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk/td/Transcribe_Bentham).
Transcribe-bentham.da.ulcc.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
102. "Transcribe Bentham" (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham). Ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
103. "PRHLT text indexing and search interface for Bentham Papers" (http://prhlt-carabela.prhlt.upv.es/bentham/).
prhlt.upv.es.
104. "About UCL Laws" (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/laws/faculty/index.shtml). University College London. 2009. Retrieved
11 April 2014.
105. "About us" (http://www.imf.com.au/about-us). Bentham IMF Limited. 2013. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
References
Armitage, David (2007). The Declaration of
Independence: A Global History (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=0lYI1yGO38gC). Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02282-9.
Bartle, G. F. (1963). "Jeremy Bentham and John
Bowring: a study of the relationship between
Bentham and the editor of his Collected Works".
Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. 36
(93): 27–35. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
2281.1963.tb00620.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2F
j.1468-2281.1963.tb00620.x).
Bedau, Hugo Adam (1983). "Bentham's Utilitarian
Critique of the Death Penalty" (http://scholarlycom
mons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?a
rticle=6388&context=jclc). The Journal of Criminal
Law and Criminology. 74 (3): 1033–65.
doi:10.2307/1143143 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F
1143143). JSTOR 1143143 (https://www.jstor.org/
stable/1143143).
Benthall, Jonathan (2007). "Animal liberation and rights".
Anthropology Today. 23 (2): 1–3.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00494.x (https://do
i.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8322.2007.00494.x).
ISSN 0268-540X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0
268-540X).*Burns, J. H. (2005). "Happiness and
Utility: Jeremy Bentham's Equation". Utilitas. 17
(01): 46–61. doi:10.1017/S0953820804001396 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0953820804001396).
ISSN 0953-8208 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0
953-8208).
Burns, J. H. (1989). "Bentham and Blackstone: A
Lifetime's Dialectic". Utilitas. 1: 22.
doi:10.1017/S0953820800000042 (https://doi.org/
10.1017%2FS0953820800000042).
Campos Boralevi, Lea (2012). Bentham and the
Oppressed (https://books.google.com/books?id=
BccgAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37). Walter de Gruyter.
ISBN 978-3-11-086983-5.
Crimmins, James E. (1986). Bentham on Religion:
Atheism and the Secular Society. Journal of the
History of Ideas. 47. University of Pennsylvania
Press. pp. 95–110. doi:10.2307/2709597 (https://
doi.org/10.2307%2F2709597). JSTOR 2709597
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709597).
Crimmins, James E. (1990). Secular Utilitarianism: Social
Science and the Critique of Religion in the
Thought of Jeremy Bentham (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=fxzXAAAAMAAJ). Clarendon
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-827741-5.
Cutrofello, Andrew (2014). All for Nothing: Hamlet's
Negativity (https://books.google.com/books?id=HI
cRBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115). MIT Press.
ISBN 978-0-262-52634-0.
Dinwiddy, John (2004). Bentham: selected writings of
John Dinwiddy. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4520-8.
Dupont, Christian Y.; Onuf, Peter S., eds. (2008).
Declaring Independence: The Origin and
Influence of America's Founding Document :
Featuring the Albert H. Small Declaration of
Independence Collection (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=AtIXNAAACAAJ). Charlottesville, VA:
University of Virginia Library. ISBN 978-0-
9799997-0-3.
Everett, Charles Warren (1969). Jeremy Bentham.
London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
ISBN 0297179845. OCLC 157781 (https://www.w
orldcat.org/oclc/157781).
Follett, R. (2000). Evangelicalism, Penal Theory and the
Politics of Criminal Law: Reform in England,
1808-30 (https://books.google.com/books?id=qV
WEDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7). Palgrave Macmillan.
ISBN 978-1-4039-3276-1.
Foucault, Michel (1977). Discipline and Punish: the Birth
of the Prison (https://books.google.com/books?id
=7lo5Op8Pq-AC). Translated by Alan Sheridan.
Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 9780140137224.
Francione, Gary (2004). "Animals: Property or Persons".
In Sunstein, Cass R.; Nussbaum, Martha C.
(eds.). Animal Rights: Current Debates and New
Directions (https://books.google.com/books?id=e
7FME0btkH0C&pg=PA139). Oxford University
Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-515217-3.
González, Ana Marta (2012). Contemporary
Perspectives on Natural Law: Natural Law as a
Limiting Concept (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=uaHm1SIzwg0C). Ashgate Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-4094-8566-7.
Grayling, A. C. (2013). "19 York Street" (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=5bUzAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT89&
lpg=PT89#v=onepage&q&f=false). The Quarrel of
the Age: The Life and Times Of William Hazlitt.
Gruen, Lori (1 July 2003). "The Moral Status of Animals"
(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-animal/).
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Gunn, J. A. W. (1989). "Jeremy Bentham and the Public
Interest". In Lively, J.; Reeve, A. (eds.). Modern
Political Theory from Hobbes to Marx: Key
Debates. London. pp. 199–219.
Hamburger, Joseph (1965). Intellectuals in Politics: John
Stuart Mill and the Philosophic Radicals (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=NTmQAAAAIAAJ).
Yale University Press.
Harris, Jonathan (1998). "Bernardino Rivadavia and
Benthamite 'discipleship' ". Latin American
Research Review. 33: 129–49.
Harrison, Ross (1983). Bentham. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-9526-0.
Harrison, Ross (1995). "Jeremy Bentham" (https://www.u
tilitarian.net/bentham/about/1995----.htm). In
Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to
Philosophy. Oxford University Press. pp. 85–88.
Hart, Jenifer (July 1965). "Nineteenth-Century Social
Reform: A Tory Interpretation of History". Past &
Present (31): 39–61. JSTOR 650101 (https://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/650101).
Harte, Negley (1998). "The owner of share no. 633:
Jeremy Bentham and University College London".
In Fuller, Catherine (ed.). The Old Radical:
representations of Jeremy Bentham. London:
University College London.
Himmelfarb, Gertrude (1968). Victorian Minds. New York.
Kelly, Paul J. (1990). Utilitarianism and distributive
justice: Jeremy Bentham and the civil law (https://
books.google.com/books?id=_1CPAAAAMAAJ).
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-825418-
8.
Anonymous (1776). An Answer to the Declaration of the
American Congress (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=iHNbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA3). London: T.
Cadell.
Lucas, Philip; Sheeran, Anne (2006). "Asperger's
Syndrome and the Eccentricity and Genius of
Jeremy Bentham" (http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1322
989/1/008_Lucas_and_Sheeran__2006_.pdf)
(PDF). Journal of Bentham Studies. 8.
Morriss, Andrew P. (1999). "Codification and Right
Answers" (https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPag
e?handle=hein.journals/chknt74&div=20&id=&pa
ge=). Chic.-Kent L. Rev. 74: 355.
McStay, Andrew (2014). Privacy and Philosophy: New
Media and Affective Protocol (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=wvG8oAEACAAJ). Peter Lang.
ISBN 978-1-4331-1898-2.
Murphy, James Bernard (2014). The Philosophy of
Customary Law (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=WuokAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61). Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-937062-7.
Packe, Michael St. John (1954). The Life of John Stuart
Mill (https://books.google.com/books?id=T9PQAA
AAMAAJ). London: Secker and Warburg.
Persky, Joseph (1 January 2007). "Retrospectives: From
Usury to Interest". The Journal of Economic
Perspectives. 21 (1): 228.
doi:10.1257/jep.21.1.227 (https://doi.org/10.125
7%2Fjep.21.1.227). JSTOR 30033709 (https://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/30033709).
Postema, Gerald J. (1986). Bentham and the Common
Law Tradition (https://books.google.com/books?id
=_aKxAAAAIAAJ). Oxford U. P. ISBN 978-0-19-
825505-5.
Priestley, Joseph (1771). An Essay on the First Principles
of Government: And on the Nature of Political,
Civil, and Religious Liberty (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=HIAFAAAAMAAJ). London: J.
Johnson.
Roberts, Clayton; Roberts, David F.; Bisson, Douglas
(2016). A History of England (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=UoqTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA307).
Volume II: 1688 to the Present (6th ed.). London
and New York: Routledge. p. 307. ISBN 978-1-
315-50960-0.
Robinson, Dave; Groves, Judy (2003). Introducing
Political Philosophy. Cambridge: Icon Books.
ISBN 1-84046-450-X.
Rosen, F. (1983). Jeremy Bentham and Representative
Democracy: A Study of the "Constitutional Code".
Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-822656-X.
Rosen, Frederick (1990). "The Origins of Liberal
Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and Liberty". In
Bellamy, R. (ed.). Victorian Liberalism:
Nineteenth-century Political Thought and
Practice. London. p. 5870.
Rosen, Frederick (1992). Bentham, Byron, and Greece:
constitutionalism, nationalism, and early liberal
political thought. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
ISBN 0-19-820078-1.
Rosen, Frederick, ed. (2007). Jeremy Bentham.
Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-2566-7.
Schofield, Philip (2006). Utility and Democracy: The
Political Thought of Jeremy Bentham. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820856-
3.
Schofield, Philip (2009). Bentham: a guide for the
perplexed. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-
8264-9589-1.
Schofield, Philip (2009). "Werner Stark and Jeremy
Bentham's Economic Writings". History of
European Ideas. 35 (4): 475–94.
doi:10.1016/j.histeuroideas.2009.05.003 (https://d
oi.org/10.1016%2Fj.histeuroideas.2009.05.003).
Schofield, Philip (2013). "The Legal and Political Legacy
of Jeremy Bentham". Annual Review of Law and
Social Science. 9 (1): 51–70.
doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-102612-134101
(https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-lawsocsci-10
2612-134101).
Semple, Janet (1993). Bentham's Prison: a Study of the
Panopticon Penitentiary. Oxford: Clarendon
Press. ISBN 0-19-827387-8.
Spiegel, Henry William (1991). The Growth of Economic
Thought (https://books.google.com/books?id=oXJ
kjfVCOLoC&pg=PA341) (3rd ed.). Duke
University Press. ISBN 0-8223-0973-4.
Stephen, Leslie (1894). "Milton, John (1608–1674)" (http
s://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Milton,_John_(1608-167
4)_(DNB00)). In Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of
National Biography. 38. London: Smith, Elder &
Co. p. 32.
Stephen, Leslie (2011). The English Utilitarians.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 9781108041003.
Sunstein, Cass R. (2004). "Animal Rights". In Sunstein,
Cass R.; Nussbaum, Martha C. (eds.). Animal
Rights: Current Debates and New Directions (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=e7FME0btkH0C&
pg=PA3). Oxford University Press, USA.
ISBN 978-0-19-515217-3.
Thomas, William (1979). The Philosophic Radicals: Nine
Studies in Theory and Practice, 1817-1841 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=nBaDAAAAMAA
J). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
822490-7.
Twining, William (1985). Theories of Evidence: Bentham
and Wigmore (https://archive.org/details/theorieso
feviden00twin). Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press. ISBN 0-8047-1285-9.
Vergara, Francisco (1998). "A Critique of Elie Halévy;
refutation of an important distortion of British
moral philosophy" (http://fvergara.com/Halevy.pdf)
(PDF). Philosophy. London: Royal Institute of
Philosophy. 73 (1): 97–111.
Vergara, Francisco (2011). "Bentham and Mill on the
"Quality" of Pleasures" (http://www.fvergara.com/
QUALITY.doc). Revue d'études benthamiennes.
Paris. ISSN 1760-7507 (https://www.worldcat.org/
issn/1760-7507).
Williford, Miriam (1975). "Bentham on the Rights of
Women". Journal of the History of Ideas. 36 (1):
167. doi:10.2307/2709019 (https://doi.org/10.230
7%2F2709019). ISSN 0022-5037 (https://www.wo
rldcat.org/issn/0022-5037).

Further reading
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Benthamism" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02482b.htm). Catholic
Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bentham, Jeremy" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Brit
annica/Bentham,_Jeremy). Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Macdonell, John (1885). "Bentham, Jeremy" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bentham,_Jeremy_(DNB00)). In
Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. 4. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
Jeremy Bentham, "Critique of the Doctrine of Inalienable, Natural Rights" (http://www.ditext.com/bentham/bentha
m.html), in Anarchical Fallacies, vol. 2 of Bowring (ed.), Works, 1843.
Jeremy Bentham, "Offences Against One's Self: Paederasty" (http://librivox.org/offences-against-ones-self-paede
rasty-by-jeremy-bentham/), c. 1785, free audiobook from LibriVox.

External links
Portraits of Jeremy Bentham (https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=mp00378) at the
National Portrait Gallery, London
Works by Jeremy Bentham (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Bentham,+Jeremy) at Project Gutenberg
 Works by or about Jeremy Bentham (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Bentham%2
C%20Jeremy%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Jeremy%20Bentham%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Bentham%
2C%20Jeremy%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Jeremy%20Bentham%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Bentha
m%2C%20J%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Jeremy%20Bentham%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Bentha
m%2C%20Jeremy%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Jeremy%20Bentham%22%29%20OR%20%28%221748-
1832%22%20AND%20Bentham%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Jeremy Bentham (https://librivox.org/author/290) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Transcribe Bentham (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/transcribe-bentham) initiative run by the Bentham Project has its own
website with useful links
The curious case of Jeremy Bentham (https://random-times.com/2018/07/11/the-curious-case-of-jeremy-bentha
m/) at Random-Times.com (http://Random-times.com)
Jeremy Bentham (http://www.epistemelinks.com/Main/Philosophers.aspx?PhilCode=Bent), categorised links
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/b/bentham.htm) has an extensive
biographical reference of Bentham.
"Jeremy Bentham at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe 2007" (http://www.livingphilosophy.org.uk/philosophy/Jeremy_
Bentham/) A play-reading of the life and legacy of Jeremy Bentham.
Jeremy Bentham (https://curlie.org/Society/Philosophy/Philosophers/B/Bentham,_Jeremy) at Curlie

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jeremy_Bentham&oldid=918400992"

This page was last edited on 28 September 2019, at 13:39 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.