CHAPTER I 5.1 Final 32618

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
Introduction
Water is a necessity to sustain life. The availability of its sources as well as
the quality determines where people can live. It should be accessible to everyone,
free from contaminants that can cause diseases, and enough for consumption.
Though the Earth is covered of 70 percent of water, only 2.5 percent of it is
fresh. The rest contains salt or saline and ocean-based. And 1 out of 2.5 percent
is easily accessible. Even then, with much of it trapped in glaciers and snowfields.
In essence, only 0.007 percent of the planet's water is available to fuel and feed
its 6.8 billion people. (National Geographic, 2015)
United Nations said that water use has grown at more than twice the rate of
population increase in the last century and at the same time unsafe water kills
more people than violence and wars each year. (United Nations, 2010)
Many factors may affect the source of water. It may include the geography,
climate change, rapid evolution of technology, competition for resources,
engineering and regulations related to water. Some regions may be abundant in

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freshwater while others face drought or water pollution.
With the rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization, it
reduces the quality of Philippine waters, especially in densely populated areas and
regions of industrial and agricultural activities are in. The discharge of domestic
and industrial wastewater and agricultural runoff has caused extensive pollution of
the receiving water-bodies. This effluent is in the form of raw sewage, detergents,
fertilizer, heavy metals, chemical products, oils, and even solid waste. Each of
these pollutants has a different noxious effect that influences human livelihood and
translates into economic costs. Excessive amounts of microbes or chemicals
derived from human and animal wastes, agricultural runoff, industrial chemicals,
and even natural pollutants, make some water unsafe to drink and cause water-
related diseases. If water sources are not protected, or are unexpectedly
contaminated for any reason, the quality of drinking water suffers.
Other barriers to a safe and secure drinking water supply may include an
absence of local expertise in the construction and maintenance of water systems,
a lack of the necessary financial resources for their construction and other
conflicts, and natural disasters. (National Academy of Sciences, 2007). These
natural disasters such as floods, hurricanes, and tsunamis often disrupt and pollute
water supplies, and spread diseases that magnify the original event’s impact many
times over.
Visual inspection cannot determine if water is of appropriate quality. Simple
procedures such as boiling or the use of a household activated carbon filter are
not sufficient for treating all the possible contaminants that may be present in water
from an unknown source. Even natural spring water must now be tested before
determining what kind of treatment. When it comes to preserving and protecting
water resources, a little knowledge goes a long way. In many communities, a lack
of basic knowledge about sanitation and hygiene practices results in the
needless contamination of critical water resources. This can become a cyclical
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problem; sick children are robbed of the health and education which could have
empowered them to improve their own lives.
In relation to the aforementioned situation, the researchers propose to apply
the principles of engineering and other sciences to build a machine that can
process raw water to make it potable. The study will focus on the design and
development of a water system that will utilize different techniques. The techniques
will include filtration, sediments, resin, granulated activated carbon and activated
carbon block filtration and ultraviolet lamp disinfection.
Background of the Study
Water plays a vital role in maintain life. From plants to animals, almost all
living things are made of water. Every living thing would die if it weren’t for water.
There are many ways that human utilize it. Aside from drinking, it is used as well
in cooking, gardening, growing for food, washing, livestock and many more. It is
one of the most precious resource. That is why it is very important to conserve
water. Water supplies face environmental pressures as well as human ones.
Rainfall is variable from season to season and can be unreliable. Climatic trends
such as El Niño and La Niña, in which both are experienced in the Philippines, can
bring plentiful rains in some years and drought in others.
Access to clean and adequate water remains an acute seasonal problem in
urban and coastal areas in the Philippines. The National Capital Region (Metro
Manila), Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog, and Central Visayas are the four urban
critical regions in terms of water quality and quantity. (Philippines: Environment
Monitor 2003).
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As of 2010, 16% of Filipino households lacked access to clean and potable
water, the National Statistical Coordination Board reported. According to the latest
National Nutrition Survey (NNS), half of Filipino households, as of 2011, did not try
to make their drinking water safe.
The Department of Health has recognized the contribution that household
water treatment and safe storage can make to improving drinking water quality and
preventing disease, both on a routine basis and as part of an emergency response.
Insufficient water and the consumption of contaminated water are usually the first
and main causes of ill health to affect displaced populations during and after a
disaster. Clean and safe water is a critical need for citizens and first responders
immediately in a relief operation. Unfortunately, the availability of water from public
water systems is often compromised in the aftermath of such an event.
The desired beneficiary of this study will be the Provincial Disaster Risk
Reduction Management Council of Batangas which spearheads the relief
operations during an event of calamity in the province. It is the agency tasked to
prepare for, and respond to, natural calamities, like typhoons and earthquakes. It
also monitors human-induced emergencies, such as armed conflicts and maritime
accidents. The focus in the response phase is on meeting the basic needs of the
people until more permanent and sustainable solutions can be found.
Without significant aid, such as the establishment of temporary distribution
of water by vehicle, the victims of war and natural disasters may find living with
little water a bitter legacy of an already-catastrophic event. Therefore, the design
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and development of a water treatment system would be a great help in response
in such events.
Objectives of the Study
The main thrust of this study is to design and develop a water treatment
system using filtration and disinfection.
Specifically, this study aims to:
1. Design a water treatment system using widely available materials and
considering the following:
1.1 materials specification and
1.2 system components
2. Fabricate a water treatment system using sediment filtration, resin
filtration, granulated activated carbon filtration, activated carbon block
filtration and ultraviolet lamp disinfection according to design specifications
and requirements created.
3. Conduct preliminary testing of the prototype to establish the following
parameters:
3.1 operating capacity
3.2 operating time
3.3 operating pressure
4. Test the performance of the prototype in terms of:
4.1 filtration rate
4.2 filtration efficiency
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4.3 ultraviolet lamp disinfection efficiency
4.4 production rate
5. Test the properties of the treated water in terms of:
5.1 Physical properties
5.1.1 turbidity
5.1.2 colour
5.1.3 total dissolved solids
5.2 Chemical properties
5.2.1 sulfate
5.2.2 manganese
5.2.3 chloride
5.2.4 pH
5.3 Microbiological properties
5.3.1 total coliform
5.3.2 fecal coliform
5.3.3 heterotrophic platelet count
6. Test the effectiveness of filtration on various and number of filter
mediums in filtering raw water.
7. Conduct cost-benefit analysis to determine the economic viability of the
project.
8. Develop an operation and maintenance manual for the water treatment
machine using activated carbon filtration, UV lamp filtration and solar
disinfection
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Significance of the Study
The results of the study contributed to different aspects of the society.
To the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, this study
benefited them in their promotion of conserving out water resources.
To the Department of Health, this study helped them in their campaign on
health promotion and disease prevention.
To the Provincial Risk Reduction and Management Council of Batangas,
this machine can be utilized during disaster response.
To society, isolated communities used this machine in the production of
class A water.
To the Mechanical Engineering Department of Batangas State University,
this study opened new ideas in processing mud water to make it usable.
To the future researchers, this study served as a guide and useful
references.
Finally, this study further enhanced and developed the researcher’s
technical and practical knowledge and hone their abilities, which they gained while
researching, developing, and designing this study.
Scope and Delimitations of the Study
The study mainly focused on the design and development of water
treatment system using sediments, resin, granulated activated carbon and
activated carbon block filtration and ultraviolet lamp disinfection. The water that
was processed by the machine was limited to raw water from Brgy. Kinalaglagan,
Mataasnakahoy, Batangas. The filters that were used were sediments, resin,
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granulated activated carbon and activated carbon block filter which were
commercially available.
This study included design of the schematic layout of the machine,
evaluation of the cost-estimate of materials and fabrication of machine and other
miscellaneous costs, the fabrication of the primary machine designed, and
assessment and evaluation of the machine’s performance. A lesser fabrication
cost and maintenance cost was applied but the mechanical efficiency was still in
acceptable rating.
Preliminary test was done to establish parameters such as operating
capacity, operating time, and operating pressure to evaluate the actual
performance of the machine. The filtration rate, filtration efficiency, ultraviolet lamp
disinfection efficiency and production rate were also determined. The product
output of the machine was Class A water which was tested for acceptability in
terms of physical which includes turbidity, colour and total dissolved solids;
chemical which includes sulfate, manganese, chloride, pH; and microbiological
which includes total coliform, fecal coliform and heterotrophic platelet count.
The desired output of the study was a water treatment system and an
operation manual that will be used by the future beneficiary.
Conceptual Framework
This study dealt on the design and development of water treatment system
sediment filtration, resin filtration, granulated activated carbon filtration, activated
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carbon block filtration and ultraviolet lamp disinfection. The Conceive-Design-
Implement-Operate Model was used as the conceptual framework of this study.
This study dealt on the design and development of water treatment system
using sediment filtration, resin filtration, granulated activated carbon filtration,
activated carbon block filtration and ultraviolet lamp disinfection. The conceptual
framework of this study was presented based on the CDIO (Conceive-Design-
Implement-Operate) Model. The framework involved the conceptualization and
design of the machine. The design dealt mostly with how the machine is supposed
to work and its output as well as the processes and procedures involved resulting
in the said output. The principles of the operation were included. Figure 1 shows
the research paradigm of the study.
The conceive stage considered the knowledge requirements necessary for
the study namely the knowledge about the raw material that was used, acceptable
quality of drinking water and procedures for the operation and processes.
Design stage included the design and development process in which
system components and the material specifications are considered. It was
comprised of the design layout of the machine and the evaluation of the different
materials and equipment needed for the machine fabrication. The proposed design
was created a model and simulated through a Solid works program.
For the implementation stage, the fabrication of the machine was discussed,
the preliminary testing of the machine was performed to test its limitations and
output capacity as well as to find if there will be some adjustments that needs to
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be made. The performance testing wasconducted for each experiment to ensure
that the design parameters are established well
In the operation stage, the prototype of the water treatment machine was
included and an operation procedure and maintenance manual was provided for
the proper use and maintenance of the machine.
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CONCEIVE DESIGN IMPLEMENT OPERATE
Hardware
Requirements
 Machine shop
 Proper materials and
equipment for
fabrication
Design Variables: Fabrication
Knowledge
Requirements  Design layout  Design specification
 Fabrication of the Prototype Evaluation
 Acceptable potable prototype Preliminary Testing
drinking water quality  Materials  Developed Water
in terms of physical, specification  Operating capacity Treatment System
chemical and  System components  Operating time  Class A Water
microbiological  Dimensions  Operating Presure  Operation and
 Principles and theory Maintenance Manual
regarding water Software Final Testing
treatment Requirements
 Existing technology  Filtration rate
about the topic  SolidWorks  Filtration efficiency
 Activated carbon
filtration rate
 Ultraviolet lamp
disinfection efficiency
 Production rate
Figure 1. Research Paradigm of the Study

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Definition of Terms
Presented herewith are the definition of terms this study governs which
were crucial in the understanding of the different concepts, procedures and
theories regarding the study.
Acceptability. Something that is tolerable but not necessarily desired. In
this study, this refers physical or chemical quality of water that conforms to the
standards of Philippines Standards on Drinking Water
Activated carbon. A water treatment medium, found in block, granulated,
or powder form, which is produced by heating carbonaceous substances such as
bituminous coal or cellulose-based substance such as wood or coconut shell in the
absence of air, creating a highly porous adsorbent material. In this study, this refers
to the secondary filtering medium for removal of particles in water.
Disinfection. The treatment of water to inactivate, destroy and /or remove
pathogenic disease producing bacteria, viruses, cysts, and other microorganisms
for the purpose of making the water microbiologically safe for human consumption.
In this study, this refers to the process done during ultraviolet and solar
disinfection.
Color. A shade or tint which is imparted to water by substances which are
in true solution and thus cannot be removed by mechanical filtration. Color is most
commonly caused by dissolved organic matter, but it may be produced by
dissolved mineral matter. In the study it refers to a physical quality to be consider
for acceptable drinking water.
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Effluent. The outflow from any water processing system or device. In this
study, this refers to the water that leaves the system or process.
Filtration Rate. It is the time of any various mechanical, physical or
biological operations that separates solids from fluids by adding a medium through
which the fluid can pass. In this study, in which water is filtered in sand and
activated carbon. The figure obtained, expressed as a percent by dividing the
volume of product water produced by the total volume (cc) of feed water fed to the
particular unit or system.
Freshwater. Water with less than 0.5 parts per thousand dissolved salts
which may be found in lakes, rivers, and ground water. In this study, this refers to
the raw material that will be used to produce Class A water.
Influent. The stream of water to be treated as it flows into any kind of water
treatment unit or device, such as hard water into a water softener or turbid water
into a filter. In this study, this refers to the water that enters the system or process.
Microwatt-Seconds per Square Centimeter. A unit of measurement of
intensity and retention or contact time in the operation of ultraviolet systems. In this
study, it is the unit of measurement of radiation emitted by the ultra violet lamp
Operating Temperature. The manufacturer's recommended feed water or
inlet water temperature for a water treatment system. In this study, this refers to
the temperature maintained in the ultra violet lamp process.
Production rate. The amount in cubic centimeter of product water the
system produces per minute or especially for reverse osmosis per 24 hour period.
In this study, this refers to the total volume of effluent treated water per unit of time.
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Turbidity a cloudiness or haziness of water or other fluid caused by
individual particles that are too small to be seen without magnification.
Operating capacity. The capability of a technological system to perform as
intended. In this study, this refers to the capability of machine to process mud
water, pond water or river water to potable water
Operating time. It is the measured or measurable period during which an
action, process, or condition exists or continues. In this study, it refers to the time
used to convert mud water, pond water or river water to Class A water.
Resin. Removes chlorine or organic contaminants from water.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presented the conceptual literature, research literature which
was crucial for the understanding of the present research study.
Conceptual Literature
This contains the literary section from different sources and their studies
which gave sufficient information related to the study.
I. Water
Water (H2O, HOH) is the most abundant molecule on Earth's surface,
composing 70-75% of the Earth's surface as liquid and solid state in addition to
being found in the atmosphere as a vapor. It is in dynamic equilibrium between
the liquid and vapour states at standard temperature and pressure. (Boundless,
2016)
Water is primarily a liquid under standard conditions, which is not predicted
from its relationship to other analogous hydrides of the oxygen family in
the periodic table, which are gases such as hydrogen sulphide.
The elements surrounding oxygen in the periodic table, nitrogen, fluorine,
phosphorus and chlorine, all combine with hydrogen to produce gases under
standard conditions. The reason that water forms a liquid is that oxygen is
more electronegative than all of these elements with the exception of fluorine.
Table 1 shows the properties of water.
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Table 1
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
Molecular Formula H2O
White solid, or almost colorless,
Appearance transparent, with a slight hint of blue,
crystalline solid or liquid
1000 kg/m3, liquid
Density and Phase
917 kg/m3, solid
Melting point 0 °C, 32 °F (273.15 K)
Boiling point 100 °C, 212 °F (373.15 K)
Triple point 273.16 K, 611.73 Pa
Specific heat cp= 1850 J/(kg·K)
capacity (gas) cv= 3724 J/(kg.K)
Specific heat
4186 J/(kg·K)
capacity (liquid)
Specific heat
2060 J/(kg·K)
capacity (solid)
Acidity (pKa) 15.74
Basicity (pKb) 15.74
Viscosity 0.001 Pa·s at 20 °C
Source: www.webpages.uidaho.edu
Table 1 shows the properties of water at standard reference state. At this
circumstance, it is a nearly colorless, tasteless, and an odorless liquid. Many
substances dissolve in water and it is commonly referred to
as the universal solvent; because of this, water in nature and in use is rarely clean,
and may have some properties different than those in the laboratory.
II. Water Supply
Before water is supplied on households, it undergoes different processes to
ensure the quality of water is safe for consumption. In the Philippines, the main
sources of water include river, lakes, river basins and ground water reservoirs.
Table 2 shows three levels used to designate water systems in the Philippines.
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Table 2
Levels of Water System in the Philippines
Level Description
Stand-alone water points, including
1 shallow wells, hand pumps, rainwater
collector
Piped water supply with a commercial
2 water point , such as spring system or
borewell
Piped water Supply with a private water
3
point, such as a house connection.
Source: Identifying Elements of Sustainabilty 2004
According to a 2005 World Bank study entitled “Philippines: Meeting
Infrastructure Challenges,” approximately 5,000 service providers exist in the
Philippines. Most of them only provide water, while sanitation is still expected to
be a private responsibility. (World Bank, 2005)
In a study conducted by David and Inocencio 1996 entitled “Understanding
Household Demand and Supply of Water: Metro Manila Case”, water supplied in
households for domestic uses is dependent in the income class. Households with
higher income relies on private water systems for their supply of water, on the other
hand, households with lower income relies on vended water. As of 2010, 16% of
Filipino households lacked access to clean and potable water, the National
Statistical Coordination Board reported. In 2011, half of Filipino Households, did
not try to make their drinking water safe as reported by the National Nutrition
Survey or NNS. Annually, around 6,000 Filipinos die prematurely from such
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diseases. In fact, diarrhea is the country’s second leading cause of death, the
Department of Health (DOH) stressed.
Data from the Philippines Environment Monitor (PEM) last 2003 show that
while some regions are endowed with high potential source of surface water,
others have limited supplies, as shown in the table below.
Table 3
Potential Groundwater and Surface Water Sources in the Philippines
Water Groundwater Surface Water Total Water

Resources potential Potential Resources
Region Potential
Northern 2,116 29,000 31,116
Mindanao
Southern 1,758 18,700 20,458
Mindanao
Western Visayas 1,144 14,200 15,344
Southeastern 2,375 11,300 13,675
Mindanao
Western 1,082 12,100 13,182
Mindanao
Eastern Visayas 2,557 9,350 11,907
Cagayan Valley 2,825 8,510 11,335
Central Luzon 1,721 7,890 9,611
Southern Tagalog 1,410 6,370 7,780
Ilocos 1,248 3,250 4,495
Bicol 1,085 3,060 4,145
Central Visayas 879 2,060 2,939
TOTAL 20,200 125,780 145,990
Source: Philippine Environment Monitor, 2003
As noted in the table above, Region II or Cagayan Valley has the highest
potential source of groundwater, while Region X or Northern Mindanao has the
highest potential source of surface water. On the other hand, Central Visayas has
the lowest potential source for both groundwater and surface water.
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Access to clean and adequate water remains an acute seasonal problem in
urban and coastal areas in the Philippines. The National Capital Region (Metro
Manila), Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog, and Central Visayas are the four urban
critical regions in terms of water quality and quantity. The Government’s monitoring
data indicates, just over a third or 36 percent of the country’s river systems are
classified as sources of public water supply, up to 58 percent of groundwater
sampled is contaminated with coliform and needs treatment, approximately 31
percent of illness monitored for a five-year period were caused by water-borne
sources; and many areas are experiencing a shortage of water supply during the
dry season.
The country is endowed with rich natural resources, including water, which
are essential for the country’s economic development and in meeting its
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Water resources of the Philippines
include inland freshwater (rivers, lakes, and groundwater), and marine (bay,
coastal, and oceanic waters). Overall, there is sufficient water but not enough in
highly populated areas, especially during dry season.
III. Classification of Water
In the Philippines classification is a very important component of water
quality management since the application of effluent standards are dependent on
this classification. Three activities are involved namely: establishments of water
bodies beneficial use, identification of water quality indicators (or criteria pollutants)
and water quality suitable for each use. (DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series
of 1990). The classification helps water managers and planners to develop proper
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water quality management programs and provide the standards to protect aquatic
life and human use of specific water bodies. (DENR, 2014). Table 4 shows the
water usage and classification in the Philippines. This administrative order classifies
water bodies into five (5) classes, i.e. AA, A, A, C.
Table 4
Water Usage and Classifications in the Philippines
Classification Beneficial Use

Public Water Supply Class 1. This class is intended primarily
for waters having watersheds which are uninhabited and
Class AA otherwise protected and which require only approved
disinfection in order to meet the National standards for Drinking
Water (NSDW) of the Philippines.
Public Water Supply Class 2. For sources of water supply that
Class A will require complete treatment (coagulation, sedimentation,
filtration, and disinfection) in order to meet the NSDW.
Recreational Water Class 1. For primarily contact recreation
Class B such as bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc. (particularly those
designated for tourism purpose.)
a. Fishery Water for the propagation and growth of fish and
other aquatic resources.
b. Recreational water class 2 (boating, etc)
Class C
c. Industrial Water supply class 1 (from manufacturing
processes after treatment.
1. For agriculture, irrigation, live stocks watering, etc.)

2. Industrial Water supply class 2 (e.g. cooling, etc.)Other
Class D 3. Inland waters by their quality belong to this classification.
Source: DENR Administrative Order No. 34 Series of 1990

Table 4 shows the classification of water in the Philippines. With this
classification, the government can determine the programs and activities to
implement to optimize the use of the water resources to make them beneficial to
the welfare and health of the environment and the consumers. Class A water
requires different treatment such as coagulation sedimentation filtration or
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disinfection that will make water suitable for human consumption. In accordance
to Republic Act No. 9275 or the Philippines Clean Water Act of 2004, all industrial
establishments, business, commercial and agricultural firms, local government
units, government owned or controlled corporations and other similar entities and
instrumentalities, including persons discharging liquid wastes into the said water
bodies are required to observe and comply with the foregoing classification
Raw Water
Raw water is water which has come straight from the environment and has
not been treated or purified in any way. This includes rainwater and water from
streams, rivers and lakes. It water is also known as natural water because it has
had not been subjected to any treatment to ready it suitable for human
consumption, nor have any minerals, ions, particles or living organisms been
removed.
Raw water includes rainwater, ground water, water from infiltration wells,
and water from bodies like lakes and rivers. The characteristics of raw water
include physical ones, such as taste, temperature, or turbidity, chemical ones,
such as hardness, acidity/alkalinity, and ion content, and biological ones, such as
organism presences. These characteristics can vary greatly depending on
environmental conditions. Pollution can also effect raw water content. Table 5
shows the characteristics of surface water and ground water.
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Table 5
Characteristics of Surface Water and Ground Water
Characteristic Surface Water Ground Water

Temperature Varies with season Relatively constant
Turbidity, SS Level variable, Low
sometimes high
Colour Due mainly to SS (clays, Due above all to dissolved
algae) except in very soft solids
or acidic waters
Mineral content Varies with soil, rainfall, Largely constant, generally
effluents, etc. appreciably higher than in
surface water from the
same area
Divalent Fe and Usually none, except at Usually present
Mn in solution the bottom of lakes and
ponds in the process
of eutrophication
Aggressive CO2 Usually none Often present
Dissolved O2 Often near saturation Often near saturation level,
level, absent in very polluted
absent in very polluted water
water
H2S Usually none Often present
NH4 Found only in polluted Often found
water
Nitrates Level generally low Level sometimes high
Silica Usually moderate Level often high
proportions
Mineral and organic Can be present but liable Usually none but any
micro-pollutants to disappear accidental pollution lasts a
rapidly once the source is very long time
removed
Living organisms Bacteria, viruses, Iron bacteria frequently
plankton found
Chlorinated solvents Rarely present Often present
Source: Water Treatment Handbook, 1991
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Table 5 compares the characteristics of surface water and groundwater
based on the major analysis parameters. The geological nature of the soil
determines the chemical composition of the groundwater. Water is constantly in
contact with the ground in which it stagnates or circulates, so equilibrium develops
between the composition of the soil and that of the water: i.e. water that circulates
in a sandy or granitic substratum is acidic and has a few minerals. Water that
circulates in limestone contains bicarbonates alkalinity. Some of the most typical
characteristics of groundwater are weak turbidity, a constant temperature and
chemical composition and almost overall absence of oxygen. Circulating
groundwater can have extreme variation in the composition with the appearance
of pollutants and various contaminants.
Since groundwater often occurs in association with geological materials
containing soluble minerals, higher concentrations of dissolved salts are normally
expected in groundwater relative to surface water. The type and concentration of
salts depends on the geological environment and the source and movement of the
water. (Chilton, 1996) A summary of the natural sources and range of
concentrations of the principal constituents of groundwater is given in Table 6.
Table 6
Sources and Concentration of Natural Ground Water Components
Components Natural Sources Concentration in Natural

Water
Dissolved Mineral constituents Usually < 5,000 mg I-1, but
solids dissolved in water some brines contain as much
as 300,000 mg I-1
Nitrate Atmosphere, legumes, plant Usually < 10 mg I-1
debris, animal excrement
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Sodium Feldspars (albite), clay Generally < 200 mg I-1; about
minerals, evaporates such as 10,000 mg I-1in sea water; ~
halite, NaCl, industrial 25,000 mg I-1 in brines
wastes
Source: Water Quality Assessments, 1996
Table 6 (Continued)
Sources and Concentration of Natural Ground Water Components
Components Natural Sources Concentration in Natural

Water
Potassium Feldspars (orthoclase, Usually < 10 mg I-1, but up to
microcline), feldspathoids, 100 mg I-1 in hot springs and
some micas, clay minerals 25,000 mg I-1 in brines
Calcium Amphiboles, feldspars, Usually < 100 mg I-1, but brines
gypsum, pyroxenes, dolomite, may contain up to 75,000 mg I-1
aragonite,
Magnesium Amphiboles, olivine, Usually < 50 mg I-1; about
pyroxenes, dolomite, 1,000 mg I-1 in ocean water;
magnesite, clay minerals brines may have 57,000 mg I-1
Carbonate Limestone, dolomite Usually < 10 mg I-1, but can
exceed 50 mg I-1 in water
highly charged with sodium
Bicarbonate Limestone, dolomite Usually < 500 mg I-1, but can
exceed 1,000 mg I-1 in water
highly charged with CO2
Chloride Sedimentary rock (evaporites), Usually < 10 mg I-1 in humid
a little from igneous rocks areas
Sulphate Oxidation of sulphide ores, Usually < 300 mg I-1, except in
gypsum, anhydrite wells influenced by acid mine
drainage; up to 200,000 mg I-1
in some brines
Fluoride Amphiboles (hornblende), Usually < 10 mg I-1, but up to
apatite, fluorite, mica 1,600 mg I-1 in brines
Iron Igneous rocks: amphiboles, Usually < 0.5 mg I-1 in fully
ferromagnesian micas, FeS, aerated water; groundwater
FeS2 and magnetite, Fe3O4. with pH < 8 can contain 10 mg
Sandstone rocks: oxides, I-1; infrequently, 50 mg I-1 may
carbonates, sulphides or iron be present
clay minerals
Manganese Arises from soils and Usually < 0.2 mg I-1;
sediments. Metamorphic and groundwater contains >
sedimentary rocks and mica 10 mg I-1
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biotite and amphibole
hornblende minerals contain
large quantities of Mn
Source: Water Quality Assessments, 1996
Table 5 shows the concentrations of minerals found in ground water. High
levels of constituents in groundwater are widely reported from developing
countries, where they are often an important water quality issue. Consumers may
reject untreated groundwater from hand pump supplies if it has a high
concentration in favour of unprotected surface water sources with low iron levels
but which may have gross bacteriological pollution. (Chilton, 1996)
Taal Lake
The health condition of every human being depends on the environment
where he or she lives. With the unabated urbanization of localities due to
increasing population, human and industrial activities and more so the extreme
climatic condition, the supply of substantially healthy and fresh food in the market
is affected. Sources of fish like lakes, seas, and rivers have been abused by man
in exchange to industrial and domestic consumption. Non-conformance of
businessmen, particularly those who rely on the supply of natural food such as fish
pen and cage operators from water sources, to government imposed regulations
make bodies of water more vulnerable to pollution. Despite the national
government’s declaration of the Taal Lake as protected area, number of illegal fish
cages continue to increase.
Taal Lake, formerly known as Bombon Lake, is the deepest and the third
largest Lake in the Philippines. The Lake was declared as protected area in 1996
through the Administrative Order No. 118. The stretch of the Lake covers the
25
municipalities of Talisay, Malvar, Tanauan, Laurel, Agoncillo, Sta. Teresita,
Cuenca, Alitagtag, Mataas na Kahoy, Lipa City, Balete, and San Nicolas in
Batangas. Thirty-seven (37) tributaries drain into the Lake and its only outlet is the
Pansipit River. It drains to Balayan Bay and it serves as the entry and exit points
for migratory fish.
The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources is the government agency
that monitors the water conditions in the lake. They obtain sample from different
areas of the lake and subjects it for test for quality.
Monthly Air Temperature (Deg C) in Taal Lake

35 32
29.8 29.9 29 30.2
28.5 28.7 27.9
Air Temperature (Deg C)
30 25.5 27
25
23.5
25
20
15
10
5
0
11-Jan 11-Feb 11-Mar 11-Apr 11-May 11-Jun 11-Jul 11-Aug 11-Sep 11-Oct 11-Nov
18- 15-
11-Jan 17-Feb 7-Mar 4-Apr 2-May 7-Jun 19-Jul 20-Sep 19-Oct 6-Dec
Aug Nov
Air Temp (deg c) 25.5 23.5 29.8 27 32 29.9 28.5 29 28.7 30.2 25 27.9
Air Temp (deg c)
Figure 2 Air Temperature in Taal Lake
Figure 2 shows the temperature in Taal Lake for the year 2016.
Temperature is important because of its influence on water chemistry. The rate of
chemical reactions generally increases at higher temperature, which in turn affects
26
biological activity. An important example of the effects of temperature on water
chemistry is its impact on oxygen.
Monthly Water Transparency (m) in Taal Lake

7
6 6
Water Transparency (m)
6
5
4
4 3.1
3
2.4 2.6 2.5
3 2.3 2.1
2
2 1.5
1
0
11-Jan 11-Feb11-Mar 11-Apr11-May 11-Jun 11-Jul 11-Aug 11-Sep 11-Oct 11-Nov
11- 17- 18- 20- 19- 15-

7-Mar 4-Apr 2-May 7-Jun 19-Jul 6-Dec
Jan Feb Aug Sep Oct Nov
Water Transparency (m) 6 6 1.5 2.3 3 4 2 2.4 2.1 2.6 3.1 2.5
Water Transparency (m)
Figure 3. Monthly Water Transparency in Taal Lake
Figure 3 shows the monthly water transparency in Taal Lake. Water
transparency is measured with a Secchi disk. Transparency is how easily light can
pass through a substance. In lakes this means how deep sunlight penetrates
through the water. Plants and algae need sunlight to grow, so they are only able
to grow in areas of lakes where the sun penetrates.
27
Monthly Ammonia - N (mg/L) in Taal Lake
0.5 0.44
0.45
0.4
Ammonia - N (mg/L
0.33
0.35 0.29 0.3 0.3
0.27
0.3
0.23
0.25 0.19 0.21
0.18
0.2
0.15 0.1 0.1
0.1
0.05
0
11-Jan 11-Feb11-Mar 11-Apr 11-May 11-Jun 11-Jul 11-Aug 11-Sep 11-Oct 11-Nov
17- 18- 20- 15-

11-Jan 7-Mar 4-Apr 2-May 7-Jun 19-Jul 19-Oct 6-Dec
Feb Aug Sep Nov
Ammonia - N (mg/L) 0.19 0.1 0.1 0.29 0.3 0.18 0.21 0.33 0.3 0.23 0.27 0.44
Ammonia - N (mg/L)
Figure 4. Ammonia Level in Taal Lake
Figure 4 shows the ammonia level in Taal Lake for the Year 2016. Ammonia
levels in excess of the recommended limits may harm aquatic life. Ammonia
toxicity is thought to be one of the main causes of unexplained losses in fish
hatcheries. Although the ammonia molecule is a nutrient required for life, excess
ammonia may accumulate in the organism and cause alteration of metabolism or
increases in body pH.
28
Monthly Nitrite-N (mg/L) in Taal Lake
1 0.9
0.9 0.8 0.8
0.8 0.7 0.7
Nitrite-N (mg/L)
0.7
0.6 0.5 0.5
0.5
0.4 0.3 0.33
0.3 0.22 0.2
0.2 0.12
0.1
0
18- 15-
11-Jan 17-Feb 7-Mar 4-Apr 2-May 7-Jun 19-Jul 20-Sep 19-Oct 6-Dec
Aug Nov
Nitrite - N (mg/L) 0.5 0.9 0.12 0.8 0.22 0.5 0.3 0.33 0.2 0.7 0.8 0.7
Nitrite - N (mg/L)
Figure 5. Nitrite Level in Taal Lake
Figure 5 shows the nitrite level in Taal Lake. Unlike temperature and
dissolved oxygen, the presence of normal levels of nitrates usually does not have
a direct effect on aquatic insects or fish. However, excess levels of nitrates in
water can create conditions that make it difficult for aquatic insects or fish to
survive.
29
Monthly Sulfide (mg/L) in Taal Lake
0.9 0.82
0.75
0.8
0.7
Sulfide (mg/L)
0.6
0.5 0.44 0.43
0.4 0.31 0.31
0.3 0.22 0.18 0.2 0.22
0.2 0.14 0.13
0.1
0
15-
11-Jan 17-Feb 7-Mar 4-Apr 2-May 7-Jun 19-Jul 18-Aug 20-Sep 19-Oct 6-Dec
Nov
Sulfide (mg/L) 0.22 0.18 0.2 0.14 0.22 0.31 0.13 0.44 0.31 0.43 0.82 0.75
Sulfide (mg/L)
Figure 6. Sulfide Level in Taal Lake
Figure 6 shows the level of sulfide in Taal Lake in the year 2016. The direct
effects on aerobic organisms, anoxia can lead to increased release of phosphorus
from sediments that can fuel algal blooms when mixed into the upper euphotic
(sunlit) zone. It also leads to the buildup of chemically reduced compounds such
as ammonium and hydrogen sulfide (H2S, rotten egg gas) which can be toxic to
bottom dwelling organisms. In extreme cases, sudden mixing of H2S into the upper
water column can cause fish kills.
30
Monthly Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) in Taal Lake
10 9.1 8.77
9
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
7.33 7.53 7.6

8 7.1
6.35 6.53
7
5.31 5.49
6
4.52
5
3.42
4
3
2
1
0
11-Jan 11-Feb11-Mar 11-Apr11-May 11-Jun 11-Jul 11-Aug 11-Sep 11-Oct 11-Nov
11- 17- 2- 18- 20- 19- 15-

7-Mar 4-Apr 7-Jun 19-Jul 6-Dec
Jan Feb May Aug Sep Oct Nov
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) 4.52 5.31 7.33 6.35 3.42 6.53 9.1 7.53 8.77 7.1 5.49 7.6
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
Figure 7. Dissolved Oxygen Level in Taal Lake
Figure 7 shows the level of dissolved oxygen in Taal Lake in the year 2016.
Dissolved oxygen is necessary to many forms of life including fish, invertebrates,
bacteria and plants. These organisms use oxygen in respiration, similar to
organisms on land. Fish and crustaceans obtain oxygen for respiration through
their gills, while plant life and phytoplankton require dissolved oxygen for
respiration when there is no light for photosynthesis. The amount of dissolved
oxygen needed varies from creature to creature.
Microbes such as bacteria and fungi also require dissolved oxygen. These
organisms use DO to decompose organic material at the bottom of a body of water.
31
Microbial decomposition is an important contributor to nutrient recycling. However,
if there is an excess of decaying organic material (from dying algae and other
organisms), in a body of water with infrequent or no turnover (also known as
stratification), the oxygen at lower water levels will get used up quicker.
Monthly Water pH value in Taal Lake

10 9.02 8.78.78
8.5 8.35
8.32
8.258.08 8.29 8.47 8.2
9 8
7.75 7.75 8
8 7.07
Water pH value
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
25-Jan 25-Feb 25-Mar 25-Apr 25-May 25-Jun 25-Jul 25-Aug 25-Sep
25- 16- 22- 24- 16- 10- 5- 15- 11- 17- 7- 16- 6- 25- 3-
4-Jul
Jan Feb Feb Feb Mar May Jun Jun Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct
Water pH value 7.07 8.5 7.75 8 7.75 8 8.25 8.08 8.29 8.32 8.35 8.47 9.02 8.2 8.7 8.78
Water pH value
Figure 8. Water pH level in Taal Lake
Figure 8 shows the pH level in Taal Lake for the month of Jan 2017 to Oct
2017. The pH of water determines the solubility (amount that can be dissolved in
the water) and biological availability (amount that can be utilized by aquatic life)
of chemical constituents such as nutrients phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon) and
heavy metals (lead, copper, cadmium, etc.). When pollution results in higher algal
and plant growth (e.g., from increased temperature or excess nutrients), pH levels
may increase, as allowed by the buffering capacity of the lake. Although these
small changes in pH are not likely to have a direct impact on aquatic life, they
32
greatly influence the availability and solubility of all chemical forms in the lake and
may aggravate nutrient problems.
Monthly Carbon dioxide (mg/L) in Taal Lake

6
4.8 4.67
4.56
Carbon dioxide (mg/L)
5
3.53 3.75
3.6
4 3.22 3.33 3.31 3.25
3.11 3.06
2.66
3 2.38
2.27
2
2
0
25-Jan 25-Feb 25-Mar 25-Apr 25-May 25-Jun 25-Jul 25-Aug 25-Sep
25- 16- 22- 24- 16- 10- 5- 15- 11- 17- 7- 16- 6- 25- 3-
4-Jul
Jan Feb Feb Feb Mar May Jun Jun Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct
Carbon Dioxide (mg/L) 2 3.22 3.11 4.8 3.33 3.31 3.06 3.53 3.6 3.75 3.25 4.67 4.56 2.66 2.38 2.27
Carbon Dioxide (mg/L)
Figure 9. Carbon Dioxide level in Taal Lake
Figure 9 shows the carbon dioxide leve in Taal Lake. Aquatic plants
depend on carbon dioxide for life and growth, just as fish depend on oxygen. Plants
use carbon dioxide during the process of photosynthesis. Sometimes carbon
dioxide levels in water become too high. Pollution can produce too much carbon
dioxide. In these conditions, fish have a hard time getting the oxygen they need
from the water. They can even suffocate and die. Keeping a good balance of
carbon dioxide and oxygen is one reason why plants and animals are both valuable
in a lake. Each makes what the other uses.
33
IV. Water Treatment Methods for Drinking Water
Treatment for drinking water production involves the removal of contaminants
from raw water to produce water that is pure enough for human consumption
without any short term or long term risk of any adverse health effect. Substances
that are removed during the process of drinking water treatment
include suspended solids, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, and minerals such
as iron and manganese. Some ailments have an immediate impact, like diarrhea
caused by pathogenic microbes.
Others, like cancers caused by heavy metals, may take years to surface.
Despite their diversity most of these ailments share a common characteristic—they
could be easily prevented by reliable access to a safe water supply.
The processes involved in removing the contaminants include physical
processes such as settling and filtration, chemical processes such
as disinfection and coagulation and biological processes such as slow sand
filtration
Measures taken to ensure water quality not only relate to the treatment of the
water, but to its conveyance and distribution after treatment. It is therefore common
practice to keep residual disinfectants in the treated water to kill bacteriological
contamination during distribution.
Water treatment methods include:
1. Chemical Disinfection
34
Chemical disinfection is the most widely-practiced means of treating
water at the community level; apart from boiling, it is also the method used most
broadly in the home.
2. Filtration
Household filters potentially present certain advantages over other
technologies. They operate under a variety of conditions (temperature, pH,
turbidity), introduce no chemicals into the water that may affect use due to
objections about taste and odour, are easy to use, and improve the water
aesthetically, thus potentially encouraging routine use without extensive
intervention to promote behavioral change. At the same time, they have a higher
up-front cost.
3. Thermal and Solar Disinfection.
Boiling or heat treatment of water with fuel is effective against the full
range of microbial pathogens and can be employed regardless of the turbidity or
dissolved constituents of water. The Philippines National Standards for Drinking
Water (AO 2007-12) recommends bringing water to a rolling boil for 2 minutes,
this is mainly intended as a visual indication that a high temperature has been
achieved; even heating to pasteurization temperatures (60º C) for a few minutes
will kill or deactivate most microbial pathogens.
However, the cost and time used in procuring fuel, the potential
aggravation of indoor air quality and associated respiratory infections, the
increased risk of burns, and questions about the environmental sustainability of
boiling have led to other alternatives.
35
4. Combination Flocculation and Disinfection
A particular challenge for most household-based water treatment
technologies is high turbidity (suspended solids). Such solids can use up free
chlorine and other chemical disinfectants, cause premature clogging of filters, and
block UV radiation essential in solar disinfection. Field studies have shown such
flocculation-disinfection products to be effective in preventing diarrheal diseases.
While these products are relatively expensive on a per litre treated basis, they may
have application in certain emergency and other settings with high or
unpredictable turbidity.
V. Water Quality
The quality of drinking-water is a powerful environmental determinant of
health. Drinking-water quality management has been a key pillar of primary
prevention for over one-and-a-half centuries and it continues to be the foundation
for the prevention and control of waterborne diseases. Water is essential for life,
but it can and does transmit disease in countries in all continents – from the poorest
to the wealthiest. (Water for Health, 2010)
A. Physical and Chemical
Various forms of chemicals, which occur naturally in the environment and
in raw, water or used in agriculture, industries, and water treatment processes or
domestically may be found in drinking water supplies. There are few chemical
constituents of water that can lead to acute health problems except through
massive accidental contamination of drinking water supply. In such incidents,
36
water usually becomes undrinkable owing to unacceptable taste, odor, and
appearance.
Certain inorganic constituents may be present in drinking water as a result
of leaching out of piping or plumbing materials such as lead, copper, asbestos,
nickel and cadmium. Some of these chemicals are known or suspected
carcinogens such as arsenic, lead, chromium, and cadmium among others.
Organic constituents in water could come from various sources such as the
decomposition of organic debris, domestic, agricultural and industrial activities and
contamination that occur during water treatment and distribution. These activities
generate wastewater discharges, agricultural and urban runoff and leachates from
contaminated soils that may include pesticides, solvents, metal degreasers and
plasticizers and petroleum products (Department of Health, 2007)
In rural areas of developing countries, the great majority of health-related
water quality problems are the result of bacteriological or other biological
contamination. Nevertheless, a significant number of very serious problems may
occur as a result of the chemical contamination of water resources. Some
potentially chronic effects may occur in rural areas where overuse of
agrochemicals leads to significant levels of pesticides in water sources. The
presence of nitrate and nitrite in water may result from the excessive application
of fertilizers or from leaching of wastewater or other organic wastes into surface
water and groundwater.
Although effects may be difficult to detect in human populations, such
contaminants may pose a risk to health. In areas with aggressive or acidic waters,
37
the use of lead pipes and fittings or solder can result in elevated lead levels in
drinking-water, which may, after long term exposure, affect the mental
development of children.
Exposure to high levels of naturally occurring fluoride can lead to mottling
of teeth and (in severe cases) skeletal fluorosis and crippling. Similarly, arsenic
may occur naturally, and long term exposure via drinking-water may result in a risk
to health. (World Health Organization, 1997). Table 7 shows the standard values
for physical and chemical quality of water for acceptability aspects as per
Philippines National Standards for drinking water.
Table 7
Standard Values for Physical and Chemical Quality for
Acceptability Aspects
Maximum
Level (mg/L)
Constituent Remarks
Or
Characteristic
No
Taste objectionable The cause of taste must be determined.
Taste
No
Odor objectionable The cause of odor must be determined.
odor
Decomposition of organic materials such as
Apparent 10 Color Units leaves or woods usually yield coloring
substances to water; Tannins, humic acid,
Color
and humates from the decomposition of
True 5 Color Units lignin; Insoluble form of iron and
manganese; colored suspended matters
Source: Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water 2007
38
Table 7 (Continued)
Maximum
Level (mg/L)
Constituent Remarks
Or
Characteristic
5 NTU
Turbidity increases with the quantity of
Turbidity (Nephelometric
suspended matters in water.
Turbidity Units)
Aluminum sulfate is used in water treatment
Aluminum 0.2
as coagulants
Chloride in drinking water originates from
natural sources, sewage and industrial
Chloride 250.0
effluents, urban runoff, and seawater
intrusion.
Copper in drinking water occurs primarily as
corrosion of interior of copper plumbing
Copper 1.0
especially with acid pH or high-carbonate
waters with alkaline pH.
Hardness is due to the presence of naturally
occurring divalent cations, such as calcium,
magnesium, and strontium resulting from
contact of acidic groundwater with rocks
Hardness 300 as CaCO3
such as limestone and dolomites. Hardness
beyond the standard value maybe
acceptable for drinking by the consumers in
certain areas.
Hydrogen sulfide may be generated by
Hydrogen microorganisms under anaerobic conditions
0.05
sulfide in bottom of swamps, marshes, eutrophic
lakes and groundwater.
Iron is found in natural fresh waters. It may
be present in drinking water as a result of the
Iron 1.0 use or iron coagulants or the corrosion of
steel and cast iron pipes during water
distribution.
Manganese is naturally occurring in many
surface and groundwater sources,
Manganese 0.4
particularly in anaerobic or low oxidation
conditions.
39
Table 7 (Continued)
Maximum
Level (mg/L)
Constituent Remarks
Or
Characteristic
6.5 – 8.5
5–7
for product The pH range is based on aesthetic
water that consideration only. The acceptable range
pH undergone may be broader in the absence of a
reverse distribution system. pH is important as
osmosis or operational water quality parameter
distillation
process
Sodium is usually associated with chloride,
thus, it may have the same sources in
drinking water as chloride. Water softeners
Sodium 200
can add significantly to the sodium content in
drinking water especially from water refilling
stations.
High levels of sulfate occur naturally in
Sulfate 250
groundwater.
Zinc may occur naturally in groundwater.
Concentration in tap water can be much
Zinc 5.0
higher as a result of dissolution of zinc from
pipes.
Table 7 shows the acceptable values of water properties in physical and
chemical aspects. The physical characteristics of water are very important as they
are the first visibly noticeable factors. Ideally water should be colourless and
odourless with a neutral pH. Presence of dissolved components like clay, silt, algal
materials, etc. makes water turbid and a pH change can make it corrosive.
Ideally pure water should be non-reactive; however, presence of some
chemicals can alter this property and adversely affect health. Though tap water
40
supplied is chlorinated, excessive chlorine generates chloroform which is
carcinogenic. Also nitrates can impair oxygen transport in the body causing brain
death, while fluoride can cause dental fluorosis and affect skeletal tissues.
Sulphides causes diarrhea, while anionic detergents if ingested, change the
pH of blood and can also burn the tissues. Presence of cyanide is generally due
to contamination by industrial effluents and though the hazardous effects of excess
deposition manifests quite late, it may affect thyroid and cause nerve damage.
Drinking water is derived from two basic sources: surface waters, such as
rivers and reservoirs, and groundwater. All water contains natural contaminants,
particularly inorganic contaminants that arise from the geological strata through
which the water flows, consequences of natural processes or as a result of man’s
activities.
They are also demonstrably the most important for health, having both
beneficial and adverse effects which have been shown in human populations.
Table 8 shows the standard values for inorganic chemical constituents and its
sources or occurrences.
41
Table 8
Standard Values for Inorganic Chemical Constituents
Maximum
Constituent Level Remarks (Sources/Occurrence)
(mg/L)
Antimony is a contaminant from pipe and fitting
Antimony 0.02
materials. It is not a raw water contaminant.
For existing water supply systems. Arsenic
may be naturally occurring in water sources.
Where maximum level of arsenic is
Arsenic 0.05
unachievable, concentration in water supply
must be kept as low as possible. By 2010, the
maximum level shall be 0.01 mg/L
Barium occurs naturally as trace elements in
Barium 0.5
both igneous and sedimentary rocks.
Present in surface water due to discharge of
treated sewage effluent, which still contains
detergents; could be naturally occurring in
certain areas. Maximum level has been
Boron 0.5
elevated from 0.3 mg/L (PNSDW 1993) to 0.5
mg/L (PNSDW 2007) because it is difficult to
achieve in areas with high natural levels and
limited access to treatment technology.
Cadmium is used in manufacture of steel,
plastics and battery and released to the
environment through wastewater or fumes.
Cadmium 0.003
Cadmium is released in water supply as
impurity of the zinc coating of galvanized pipes
and solders and metal fittings.
Chromium is widely distributed in the
Chromium Earth’s crust. Occurs in wastewater in certain
0.05
(total) industries such as chromium plating of
bumpers, grills and ornaments.
Cyanides are occasionally found in
Cyanide (total) 0.07 drinking water primarily as a consequence of
industrial contamination.
Lead may be present in water primarily
from plumbing systems containing lead pipes,
Lead 0.01
solder, fittings or the service connections to
the homes.
42
Table 8 (Continued)
Standard Values for Inorganic Chemical Constituents
Maximum
Constituent Level Remarks (Sources/Occurrence)
(mg/L)
Mercury is used in industries such
as in the electrolytic production of
chlorine, in electrical appliances, in dental
amalgams and as a raw material for
Mercury (Total) 0.001 various mercury compounds. Mercury
occurs naturally in freshwater and
groundwater in the inorganic form.
Methylation of inorganic mercury occurs
in freshwater and seawater.
Nickel is very toxic and usually
occurs in water supply as a result of
nickel or nickel-plated plumbing
Nickel 0.02
components. Although nickel could be
naturally occurring in certain areas, it is
not usually a raw water contaminant.
Nitrate concentration in groundwater and
Nitrate 50 surface water can reach high levels as a
result of leaching or run-off from
agricultural land or contamination from
human or animal wastes. Anaerobic
Nitrite 3 conditions may result in the formation
and persistence of nitrite.
Selenium occurs naturally in
Selenium 0.01
groundwater sources.
As shown in table 8, inorganic contaminants constitute by far the greatest
proportion of chemical contaminants in drinking water. They are present in greatest
quantity as a consequence of natural processes but several important
contaminants are present as a result of man’s activities. It is the most important
determinants of acceptability to the consumer, affecting taste, colour and scale
deposition in which water flows. It is also the most important for health, having both
43
beneficial and adverse effects which have been shown in human population.
(Fawell,1993)
Organic pollutants originate from domestic sewage (raw or treated), urban
run-off, industrial (trade) effluents and farm wastes. Sewage effluents is the
greatest source of organic materials discharged to freshwaters. Organic chemicals
can also be found in houses which is used as ingredients in household products.
Paints, varnishes and wax all contain organic solvents, as do many cleaning
products. (Volatile Organic Compounds' Impact on Indoor Air Quality, 2016). Fuels
are made up of organic chemicals. Health effects include eye, nose, headaches,
and loss of coordination, nausea; and damage to the liver, kidney, and central
nervous system. Some organics can cause cancer in animals; some are suspected
or known to cause cancer in humans. The extent and nature of the health effect
will depend on many factors including level of exposure and length of time
exposed. Table 9 shows the organic chemical constituents from industrial pollution,
the allowable amount per litre of water and their sources.
44
Table 9
Organic Chemical Constituents from Industrial Pollution
Maximum
Constituent Level Sources
(mg/L)
Benzene may be introduced into water by
Benzene 0.01 industrial effluents and atmospheric pollution
due to vehicular emissions.
From industrial discharges, carbon
Carbon
0.004 tetrachloride levels in anaerobic groundwater
Tetrachloride
may remain elevated for months or years.
1,2-
1.0 DCBs are widely used in industry and in
Dichlorobenzene
domestic products such as odor-masking
1,4- agents, chemical dyestuffs and pesticides
0.30
Dichlorobenzene
Used as an intermediate in the production of
1,2-
0.03 vinyl chloride and other chemicals and as a
Dichloroethane
solvent.
Used as monomer in the production of
1,1- polyvinylidene chloride co-polymers and as
0.03
Dichloroethene an intermediate in synthesis of other organic
chemicals.
Its presence appears as metabolites of other
unsaturated halogenated hydrocarbons in
1,2- wastewater and anaerobic groundwater,
0.05
Dichloroethene which may indicate the simultaneous
presence of more toxic organochlorine
chemicals such as vinyl chloride.
Dichloromethane or methylene chloride is
widely used as a solvent for many purposes
Dichloromethane 0.02
including coffee decaffeination and paint
stripping.
Di(2-ethylhexyl)
0.008 Used mainly as a plasticizer.
phthalate
Maximum value of 0.6 mg/L for EDTA as the
free acid. Human exposure to EDTA arises
Edetic Acid
0.6 directly from its use in food additives,
(EDTA)
medicines, and personal care and hygienic
products.
Primary sources are petroleum industry and
Ethylbenzene 0.3
use of petroleum products.
45
Table 9 (Continued)
Organic Chemical Constituents from Industrial Pollution
Maximum
Constituent Level Sources
(mg/L)
Used primarily in laundry detergents as a
Nitrilotriacetic acid replacement for phosphates and in the
0.2
(NTA) treatment of boiler water to prevent
accumulation of mineral scale.
Polynuclear aromatic Used as coal-tar coating in drinking-
0.0007
Hydrocarbons (PAHs) water distribution pipes
Used in the production of plastics and
Styrene 0.02
resins
Used as solvent in dry cleaning
Tetrachloroethene 0.04 industries and as a metal degreasing
solvent.
Used in the blending of petrol, as a
solvent and as a raw material in chemical
Toluene 0.7
production. It may penetrate plastic pipes
from contaminated soil.
Used in dry cleaning and metal
degreasing processes. Trichloroethene
Trichloroethene 0.07 in anaerobic groundwater may degrade
to more toxic compounds, including vinyl
chloride.
Used primarily for production of PVC.
Migration of vinyl chloride monomer from
unplasticized PVC is possible source of
Vinyl chloride 0.0003 vinyl chloride in drinking water.
Degradation product of the chlorinated
solvents trichloroethene and
tetrachloroethene in groundwater.
Used in blending petrol, as a solvent and
Xylene 0.5
as a chemical intermediate
As shown in table 9, organic pollutants originate from domestic sewage (raw
or treated), urban run-off, industrial (trade) effluents and farm wastes. Sewage
effluents is the greatest source of organic materials discharged to freshwaters.
46
Studies of the health effects of pesticides on human’s focus on two aspects,
the acute toxicity, or immediate effects resulting from short-term exposure, and the
chronic toxicity, or effects resulting from more-prolonged exposures. When
pesticides are found in water supplies, they normally are not present in high
enough concentrations to cause acute health effects such as chemical burns,
nausea, or convulsions. Instead, they typically occur in trace levels, and the
concern is primarily for their potential for causing chronic health problems. To
estimate chronic toxicity, laboratory animals are exposed to lower than lethal
concentrations for extended periods of time. Measurements are made of the
incidence of cancer, birth defects, genetic mutations, or other problems such as
damage to the liver or central nervous system. (Trautmann and Porter, 2016).
Table 10 shows the standard value for organic chemical constituents, the
allowable amount per litre of water, current status in the Philippines and their
persistence.
Table 10
Standard Value for Organic Chemical Constituents (Pesticides)
Maximum
Status in The
Constituent Level Remarks (Persistence)
Philippines
(μg/L)
Aldrin and Dieldrin Highly persistent organochlorine
0.03 Banned
(combined) compounds
Relatively stable in soil and
aquatic environments; half-life
Atrazine 2.0 Registered measured in months, but is
degraded by phytolysis and
microbial action in soil
47
Table 10 (Continued)
Standard Value for Organic Chemical Constituents (Pesticides)
Maximum
Status in The
Constituent Level Remarks (Persistence)
Philippines
(μg/L)
0.007 mg/L is based on the 1998
Carbofuran 7.0 Registered
amendment to the 1993 WHO GV
Chlordane is highly persistent
Chlordane 0.2 Banned and has a high bio accumulation
potential.
DDT 1.0 Banned DDT is highly persistent.
1,2-Dibromo-3
chloropropane 1.0 Banned Highly soluble in water
(DBCP)
2,4
2,4 D is rapidly biodegraded in
Dichlorophenoxya 30.0 Registered
the environment
c etic acid (2,4-D)
Endrin 0.6 Banned Endrin is highly persistent
Used also in industry as solvent
WHO GV is provisional value
(Ethylene
0.4 Banned due to serious limitations of the
dibromide)
critical studies. PNSDW adapts
precautionary approach.
Heptachlor is quite persistent in
Heptachlor and
soil where it is transformed into
Heptachlor
0.03 Banned its epoxide. Heptachlor epoxide
epoxide
is resistant to further
(combined)
degradation.
MCPA[4-
Very soluble, highly mobile and
(2methyl-
2.0 Registered can leach from soil. It has limited
4chlorophenoxy)
persistence in water.
acetic acid]
Lindane 2.0 Restricted -
Fairly immobile and persistent in
Pendimethalin 20.0 Registered
soil
Pentachloropheno WHO GV is provisional value
l 9.0 Banned due to serious limitations of the
(PCP) critical studies.
As shown in table 10, there are some pesticides that are banned or
restricted in the country. The indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides to eliminate
48
pests and diseases often result in threatening the successful and profitable
production of vegetables. Improper use of these chemicals poses ecological and
health risks to human and environment. These concerns for food quality and safety
and environment protection have made organic vegetable production an important
solution.
B. Microbiologically
Drinking-water supplies should be free from contamination by human and
animal excreta, which can contain a variety of microbial contaminants.
Microbiological parameters are indices of potential waterborne diseases and, in
general, are limited to bacteria, viruses and pathogenic protozoa. The major
interest in classifying and issuing standards is the identification, quantification, and
evaluation of organisms associated with waterborne diseases. Practically, all
pathogenic organisms that can be carried by water originate from the intestinal
tract of warm blooded animals. (Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water,
2007)
Total coliforms are a group of related bacteria that are (with few exceptions)
not harmful to humans. A variety of bacteria, parasites, and viruses, known as
pathogens, can potentially cause health problems if humans ingest them. EPA
considers total coliforms a useful indicator of other pathogens for drinking water.
Total coliforms are used to determine the adequacy of water treatment and the
integrity of the distribution system. (Revised Total Coliform Rule, September
2013) Potential health effects include assorted gastro enteric infections and
diseases. Symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach cramps are
49
typically noticed. People with weakened immune symptoms are especially
susceptible to illnesses.
According to Jolley and English, 2007, fecal coliform bacteria are the most
common microbiological contaminants of natural waters. Fecal coliform live in the
digestive tracks of warm-blooded animals, including humans, and are excreted in
the feces. Although most of these bacteria are not harmful and are part of the
normal digestive system, some are pathogenic to humans. Those that are
pathogenic can cause disease such as gastroenteritis, ear infections, typhoid,
dysentery, hepatitis A, and cholera. Some of the symptoms of illness associated
with fecal coliform pathogens are minor, such as upset stomach, diarrhea, ear
infections, and rashes. However, some pathogens, such as E coli, hepatitis, and
Salmonella, can have very severe health effects.
Heterotrophs are a group of microorganisms (bacteria, molds and yeasts)
that use organic carbon sources to grow and can be found in all types of water. In
fact, the majority of bacteria found in drinking water systems are considered
heterotrophs. Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) is a method that measures colony
formation on culture media of heterotrophic bacteria in drinking water. Thus the
HPC test (also known as Standard Plate Count) can be used to measure the
overall bacteriological quality of drinking water in public, semi-public and private
water systems. (Gandham 2016). Table 11 shows the standard values for
microbiological quantity.
50
Table 11
Standard Values for Microbiological Quantity
Units of Measurement
Parameters Value
<1.1 MPN/100 mL
<1.1 MPN/100 mL
Total Coliform
Total coliform
<1
colonies / 100 mL
<1.1 MPN/ 100 mL
Fecal coliform
Fecal coliform <1
colonies / 100 mL
<1.1 MPN/100mL
Heterotrophic
<500 CFU/mL
Plate Count
*MPN- Most Probable Number
*CFU- Colony Forming Units
C. Biological Oxygen Demand and Chemical Oxygen Demand
Biochemical oxygen demand or BOD is a chemical procedure for
determining the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological
organisms in a body of water to break down organic material present in a given
water sample at certain temperature over a specific time period. It is not a precise
quantitative test, although it is widely used as an indication of the organic quality
of water. It is most commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per
liter of sample during 5 days (BOD5) of incubation at 20°C and is often used as a
robust surrogate of the degree of organic pollution of water. (Sawyer, 2003)
BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in rivers and streams.
The rate of oxygen consumption is affected by a number of variables: temperature,
51
pH, the presence of certain kinds of microorganisms, and the type of organic and
inorganic material in the water.
The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the stream.
This means less oxygen is available to higher forms of aquatic life. The
consequences of high BOD are the same as those for low dissolved oxygen:
aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die.
Sources of BOD include topsoil, leaves and woody debris; animal manure;
effluents from pulp and paper mills, wastewater treatment plants, feedlots, and
food-processing plants; failing septic systems; and urban storm water runoff.
BOD is affected by the same factors that affect dissolved
oxygen. BOD measurement requires taking two measurements. One is measured
immediately for dissolved oxygen (initial), and the second is incubated in the lab
for 5 days and then tested for the amount of dissolved oxygen remaining (final).
This represents the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms to break
down the organic matter present in the sample during the incubation period.
BOD is similar in function to chemical oxygen demand (COD), in that both
measure the amount of organic compounds in water. However, COD is less
specific, since it measures everything that can be chemically oxidized, rather than
just levels of biodegradable organic matter.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the capacity of water to
consume oxygen during the decomposition of organic matter and the oxidation of
inorganic chemicals such as ammonia and nitrite. COD measurements are
commonly made on samples of waste waters or of natural waters contaminated by
52
domestic or industrial wastes. Chemical oxygen demand is measured as a
standardized laboratory assay in which a closed water sample is incubated with a
strong chemical oxidant under specific conditions of temperature and for a
particular period of time. A commonly used oxidant in COD assays is potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) which is used in combination with boiling sulfuric
acid (H2SO4). Because this chemical oxidant is not specific to oxygen-consuming
chemicals that are organic or inorganic, both of these sources of oxygen demand
are measured in a COD assay.
Chemical oxygen demand is related to biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
another standard test for assaying the oxygen-demanding strength of waste
waters. However, biochemical oxygen demand only measures the amount of
oxygen consumed by microbial oxidation and is most relevant to waters rich in
organic matter. It is important to understand that COD and BOD do not necessarily
measure the same types of oxygen consumption. For example, COD does not
measure the oxygen-consuming potential associated with certain dissolved
organic compounds such as acetate. However, acetate can be metabolized
by microorganisms and would therefore be detected in an assay of BOD. In
contrast, the oxygen-consuming potential of cellulose is not measured during a
short-term BOD assay, but it is measured during a COD test.
VI. Frequency of Testing
Frequency of drinking water testing depends on the number of people
served, the type of water source, and types of contaminants. Certain contaminants
are tested for more frequently than others. Harmful bacteria, parasites, and viruses
53
are invisible to the naked eye, so water that looks and tastes good may not
necessarily be safe to drink. These microbes can exist in both ground and surface
water supplies, and can cause immediate health effects if not properly
treated. Table 12, and Table 13 shows the frequency of sampling for drinking
water supply systems for microbiological and physical and chemical,
Table 12
Minimum Frequency of Sampling for Drinking-Water Supply Systems for
Microbiological Examination
Source and mode of Population Minimum Frequency of

Supply Served Sampling
a. Level I 90 – 150 Once in three (3) months
b. Level II 600 Once in two (2) months
Less than 5,000 1 sample monthly
1 sample per 5,000 population
5,000 – 100,000
monthly
c. Level III
20 samples and additional
More than
one (1) sample per 10,000
100,000
population monthly
d. Emergency Supplies of Before delivery to users
Drinking water
e. Water Refilling
1 sample monthly
Stations(product water)
f. Water Vending Machines
1 sample monthly
(product water)
54
Table 13
Minimum Frequency of Sampling for Drinking-Water Supply Systems
for Physical and Chemical Analysis
Source and Mode of Supply Minimum Frequency of Sampling

Level 1
Level 2
Once A year
Level 3
Emergency Supplies of Drinking Water
Water Refilling Stations Twice a year
Table 12 and 13 shows the frequency of sampling for drinking water supply
for microbiological and physical and chemical analysis. The frequency of testing
depends on the source and mode of supply of the water being used. Testing water
sources is a critical step for anyone within or affected by the water industry — from
government organizations looking to regulate waters to safeguard against
environmental and health risks, to homeowners wanting to ensure their water is
safe for consumption.
VII. Guidelines in Identifying Priority Drinking-Water Quality Parameters

The Local Health Authority at the municipal or city level shall identify the list
of parameters that will be examined to determine the potability of drinking water
supply provided in the local area. To achieve this, the local health authority through
the Local Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Committee shall undertake a
systematic assessment of all the parameters listed in the 2007 Philippine National
Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW 2007) in consultation with, but not limited
to, the following authorities: health, water resources, water supply provision,
environment, agriculture, geological services/mining, industry, and radiological
55
services. As a matter of prudent public health decision, particularly in situations
where resources are limited, to give priority to ensuring availability and accessibility
of water supply all individuals over rendering treatment to water for the benefit of
few individuals.
Based on its health significance and acceptability, the priority parameters
shall be tested are microbiological, arsenic, cadmium, lead, nitrate, color, turbidity,
iron, pH, manganese, chloride sulphate and total dissolved solids.
VIII. Methods of Testing of Water
Water quality sampling and testing allows managers and owners to
establish baseline values, ultimately increasing the knowledge and
understanding surrounding the specific issues of a water body. Testing the water
allows a knowledgeable approach to address the specific problems of a water
supply. This helps ensure that the water source is being properly protected from
potential contamination, and that an appropriate treatment system is selected and
is operating properly. It is important to test the suitability of your water quality for
its intended purpose, whether it is livestock watering, irrigation, spraying, or
drinking water. Table 14 shows the different tests used in determining the values
of properties of water.
56
Table 14
Methods of Analysis of Various Properties of Water
Property of Water Methods of Testing

Physical Properties
Taste Sensory Evaluation Technique
Odor Sensory Evaluation Technique
Turbidity Turbidimetry
Colour Visual Comparison Colorimetric
Total Dissolved Solids Gravimetric, dried at 180oC
Chemical Properties
pH Electrometric method
Biological Oxygen Demand -
Chemical Oxygen Demand -
ICP/MS; hydride generation AAS; Silver
Arsenic Diethyldithiocarbamate Method, EAAS
(Graphite furnace AAS)
Cadmium ICP/MS; FAAS
FAAS; EAAS; ICP/MS; Anodic Stripping
Lead Voltammetry;
Cd Reduction Method;
Nitrate (Diazotization); IC; Flow Injection
Analysis
Manganese Persulfate Method, AAS, ICP, ICP/MS
Chloride Argentometric Method, IC
Microbiological Properties
Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique;
Total Coliform
Membrane Filter Technique
Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique;
Fecal Coliform
Membrane Filter Technique
Heterotrophic Platelet Count Membrane Filter Technique
Source: Modified from Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water 2007
*AAS - Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
*EAAS - Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
*FAAS - Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (FAAS)
*GC/MS - Gas Chromatography / Mass Spectrometry
*GC/PID - Gas Chromatograph/Photoionization Detector
*ICP/MS - Inductively Couple Plasma / Mass Spectrometry (ICP/MS)
Table 14 shows the test to be used in order to test the properties of water
from its physical properties, chemical properties down to its microbiological
57
property. The tests for physical properties include sensory evaluation technique,
turbidimetry, visual comparison colorimetry and gravimetric analysis. For chemical
tests, it includes electrometric method, IC/MS, silver diethyldithiocarbamate
method, EAAS, FAAS, anode stripping voltammetry, flow injection analysis,
GC/PID, GC/MS, AAS, ICP/MS and argentometric method, and lastly for
microbiological tests include, multiple tube fermentation technique and membrane
filter technique.
Sensory analysis (or sensory evaluation) is a scientific discipline that
applies principles of experimental design and statistical analysis to the use of
human senses (sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing) for the purposes of
evaluating consumer products. The discipline requires panels of human
assessors, on whom the products are tested, and recording the responses made
by them. By applying statistical techniques to the results it is possible to
make inferences and insights about the products under test. Most large consumer
goods companies have departments dedicated to sensory analysis. Sensory
analysis can mainly be broken down into three sub-sections: effective testing
(dealing with objective facts about products), affective testing (dealing with
subjective facts such as preferences) and perception (the biochemical and
psychological aspects of sensation)
Turbidimetry the process of measuring the loss of intensity of
transmitted light due to the scattering effect of particles suspended in it. Light is
passed through a filter creating a light of known wavelength which is then passed
through a cuvette containing a solution. A photoelectric cell collects the light which
58
passes through the cuvette. A measurement is then given for the amount of
absorbed light. (Schenken, 1994)
In physical and analytical chemistry, colorimetry or colorimetry is a
technique "used to determine the concentration of colored compounds in solution.
A colorimeter is a device used to test the concentration of a solution by measuring
its absorbance of a specific wavelength of light. (Edwin, 2006)
For total dissolved solids, gravimetric analysis Gravimetric methods are
the most accurate and involve evaporating the liquid solvent and measuring the
mass of residues left.
Gravimetric analysis describes a set of methods used in analytical
chemistry for the quantitative determination of an analyte, the ion being analyzed,
based on its mass. The principle behind this type of analysis is that once an ion's
mass has been determined in a pure compound, that known measurement can be
used to determine the same ion's mass in an impure compound, as long as the
quantity of the impure compound is known.
The principle of electrometric pH is the determination of the activity of the
hydrogen ions by potentiometric measurement using a glass pH indicating
electrode coaxially joined to a reference electrode.
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is a type of mass
spectrometry which is capable of detecting metals and several non-metals at
concentrations as low as one part in 1015 (part per quadrillion, ppq) on non-
interfered low-background isotopes. This is achieved by ionizing the sample
59
with inductively coupled plasma and then using a mass spectrometer to separate
and quantify those ions.
Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) is an analytical technique that
measures the concentrations of elements. Atomic absorption is so sensitive that it
can measure down to parts per billion of a gram (µg dm–3) in a sample. The
technique makes use of the wavelengths of light specifically absorbed by an
element. They correspond to the energies needed to promote electrons from one
energy level to another, higher, energy level.
Arsenic is determined by the silver diethyldithiocarbamate method. Arsenic
in the reaction solution is converted to arsine, which is evolved and then
complexed with silver diethyldithiocarbamate. The intensity of the color of the
complex is determined with a spectrophotometer or colorimeter. Arsenic
concentration is ascertained by reference to a calibration curve prepared with the
aid of standard arsenic solutions.
Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy (GFAAS) (also known as
Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (ETAAS)) is a type
of spectrometry that uses a graphite-coated furnace to vaporize the sample.
Briefly, the technique is based on the fact that free atoms will absorb light at
frequencies or wavelengths characteristic of the element of interest (hence the
name atomic absorption spectrometry). Within certain limits, the amount of light
absorbed can be linearly correlated to the concentration of analyte present. Free
atoms of most elements can be produced from samples by the application of high
temperatures
60
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a spectroanalytical procedure for
the quantitative determination of chemical elements using the absorption of optical
radiation (light) by free atoms in the gaseous state. In analytical chemistry the
technique is used for determining the concentration of a particular element (the
analyte) in a sample to be analyzed. AAS can be used to determine over 70
different elements in solution or directly in solid samples used
in pharmacology, biophysics and toxicology research.
Anodic stripping voltammetry is a voltammetric method for quantitative
determination of specific ionic species. The analyte of interest is electroplated on
the working electrode during a deposition step, and oxidized from the electrode
during the stripping step. The current is measured during the stripping step. The
oxidation of species is registered as a peak in the current signal at the potential at
which the species begins to be oxidized. The stripping step can be
either linear, staircase, squarewave, or pulse.
Flow injection analysis (FIA) is an approach to chemical analysis that is
accomplished by injecting a plug of sample into a flowing carrier stream. The
principle is similar to that of segmented flow analysis (SFA) but no air is injected
into the sample or reagent streams. FIA is an automated method of chemical
analysis in which a sample is injected into a flowing carrier solution that mixes with
reagents before reaching a detector (Grady 2005)
Gas Chromatography - Photoionization Detector or GC-PID is a technique
used to analyze a wide range of aromatic hydrocarbons and other organic
compounds. A typical application is the analysis of hydrocarbon pollution of water.
61
The PID uses ultraviolet light to ionize the components exiting the column. The
ions are collected by electrodes and the current generated measures the
concentration.
As common with other GC techniques, a carrier gas is required with low
Water and Oxygen impurities since Water and Oxygen can interact with the
stationary phase and cause significant problems such as high baseline noise and
column bleed in the output gas chromatogram which both reduces the analyzer
sensitivity and decreases column lifetime. Helium and Nitrogen are normally
used.
Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC/MS) is an instrumental
technique, comprising a gas chromatograph (GC) coupled to a mass spectrometer
(MS), by which complex mixtures of chemicals may be separated, identified and
quantified. This makes it ideal for the analysis of the hundreds of relatively low
molecular weight compounds found in environmental materials. In order for a
compound to be analysed by GC/MS it must be sufficiently volatile and thermally
stable. In addition, functionalized compounds may require chemical modification
(derivatization), prior to analysis, to eliminate undesirable adsorption effects that
would otherwise affect the quality of the data obtained. Samples are usually
analyzed as organic solutions consequently materials of interest (e.g. soils,
sediments, tissues etc.) need to be solvent extracted and the extract subjected to
various 'wet chemical' techniques before GC/MS analysis is possible.
In analytical chemistry, argentometry is a type of titration involving
the silver (I) ion. Typically, it is used to determine the amount of chloride present
62
in a sample. The sample solution is titrated against a solution of silver nitrate of
known concentration. Chloride ions react with silver (I) ions to give the
insoluble silver chloride:
Multiple tube fermentation technique is used to determine the presence of
a member of the coliform group in ground water and surface water. The coliform
group, as analyzed for in this procedure, is defined as all aerobic and facultative
anaerobic, gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod shaped bacteria that ferment
lactose with gas formation within 48 hr at 35 0C
Membrane filtration is a technique that uses a physical barrier, a
porous membrane or filter, to separate particles in a fluid. Particles are separated
on the basis of their size and shape with the use of pressure and specially designed
membranes with different pore sizes.
IX. Sampling Method
The importance of good sampling cannot be over stressed. The sample is the
source of information about the environment. If it is not collected properly, if it does
not represent the system we are trying to analyse, then all careful laboratory work
is useless. Care must be taken to avoid the introduction of bias or error.
Sampling is done for monitoring purposes, as well as for research. Data may
be collected to monitor water effluents or to characterize pollutant levels in
environmental media. The objectives may be to comply with regulatory
requirements, to identify long and short term trends, and to develop a data base
or inventory of pollutant levels.
63
A. Water Sampling for Physical and Chemical Analysis
To determine the safety and acceptability of drinking-water supply,
appropriate laboratory examinations should be conducted on representative
samples of water taken at all critical stages in the production and consumption of
water supply.
Zoning of piped water supplies should be undertaken to ensure that different
parts of the water supply system that may have different level of risk are adequately
covered for water quality sampling. A zone can be considered as coverage area
per source, service reservoir supplies specific area, an area where different parts
of distribution system operates at different pressures and elevations and an area
where leakage or reliability is different in different parts of the system.
Before samples will be collected from distribution systems, lines will be
flushed sufficiently to ensure that the sample is representative of the supply. Three
(3) liters of sample should suffice for physical and chemical analyses. Samples
should be taken from the point source from the principal outlet
Chemically resistant glass (Pyrex), polyethylene, or hard rubbers are
suitable materials for containers, see Table 15. For samples containing organics,
avoid plastic containers except those made of fluorinated polymers such as
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Glass containers generally are preferred for
volatile organics. Sample containers will be carefully cleaned to remove all
extraneous surface dirt, thoroughly rinsed with distilled water and drained before
use. Sample containers will be properly labeled.
64
In general, the shorter the time lapse between collection of a sample and its
analysis, the more reliable will analytical results be.
B. Water Sampling for Microbiological Analysis
Microbiological examination, i.e. determination of fecal contamination of
water supply, is conducted more frequently than the other tests because of the
high probability of microbial contamination and the extent of public health it might
cause.
The sample should be representative of the water under examination.
Contamination during collection and before examination should be avoided. The
volume of sample should be sufficient to carry out all tests required, preferably not
less than 100 ml.
Collect samples for microbiological examination in 120 ml clear bottles, see
table 15 that have been cleansed and rinsed carefully, given a final rinse with
distilled water and sterilized as directed in the standard method of analysis for
water and wastewater. Sampling bottles should be provided with either ground
glass stoppers or plastic screw caps. A paper or a thin aluminum foil cover should
protect both the stopper and neck of the bottle.
The sampling bottle should be kept unopened until it is ready for filling.
Remove stopper or cap as a unit; do not contaminate inner surface of stopper or
cap and neck of bottle.
Water samples should be processed promptly or within six (6) hours after
collection or if not possible the use of ice coolers for storage of water samples
65
during transport to the laboratory is recommended. The time elapsed between
collections and processing should in no case exceed 24 hours.
Sampling bottles must be tagged with complete and accurate identification
and description. The information about the samples can be recorded in a request
form for analysis of water quality.
Table 15
Sampling of Treated Water
Parameter Container Material Minimum Sample (mL)

Physical Properties
Taste - -
Odor G 500
Turbidity P, G 100
Colour P ,G 500
Total Dissolved Solids P ,G 500
Chemical Properties
pH P, G 50
Biological Oxygen Demand G 1000
Chemical Oxygen Demand G 1000
Arsenic P(A), G(A) 1000
Cadmium P(A), G(A) 1000
Lead P(A), G(A) 1000
Nitrate P, G 100
Manganese P(A), G(A) 1000
Chloride P, G 500
Microbiological Properties
Total Coliform G 100
Fecal Coliform G 100
Heterotrophic Platelet Count G 100
Source: Source: Modified from Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water 2007
*P = Plastic (polyethylene)
*G = Glass
*G(A) or P(A) = Rinsed with 1 + 1 HNO3
Table 15 shows the properties of water and the corresponding bottle
material to be used as well as the amount of sample to be taken for testing. It’s
66
important to plan for testing in order to have the appropriate bottles and supplies
on hand to collect and return the samples to be tested. Collecting samples
properly adds to the accuracy of the results.
X. Activated Carbon Filter
Activated carbon pre-filters are most common in water purifiers. Large
internal surface area of activated carbon makes it a very good adsorbent for many
contaminants in drinking water. The sources of activated carbon are mostly, coal
(anthracite, bituminous, lignite), coconut shells, peat and petroleum based
residues. Most carbonaceous materials do have a certain degree of porosity and
internal surface area in the range of 10-15 meter2 / gram (m2/g). Activation of
carbon, which consists of a process in which controlled oxidation of carbon atoms
is done by steam at high temperature, enhances, the internal surface of the carbon
to 1000-1200 m2/g. (Mukherjee, 2014)
The activation process generates a network of minute openings (pore or
cavities) of different diameters on the carbon surface which become the path for
water to access the extended internal surface created by the activation. The pore
diameters are usually grouped as micro-pores < 4 nm, meso-pores 4-500 nm and
acro-pores > 500 nm (typically 500-2000 nm).
Adsorption of a contaminant from the water on the activated carbon surface
may result from hydrophobicity of the molecule. It may also result from the affinity
of the contaminant molecule towards carbon or it could be because of both.
Hydrophobic substance will bind with the carbon surface much better than a
hydrophilic substance. Most organic contaminants in drinking water are
67
hydrophobic in nature. They bind very well with the non-polar carbon surface within
pores. Activated carbon can remove organic contaminants, including many VOCs,
pesticides and herbicides,
Coconut shells and coal (anthracite or bituminous) are both organic sources
of activated carbon. Carbon forms when an organic source is burned in an
environment without oxygen. This process leaves only about 30% of the
organic mass intact, driving off heavy organic molecules. Prior to being used
for water treatment, the organic mass must then be “activated.” The process of
activation opens up the carbon’s massive number of pores and further drives
off unwanted molecules. The open pores are what allow the carbon to capture
contaminants, known as "adsorption"
Activated carbon from coconut shell has predominantly pores in micro pore
range. Almost 85-90% surface area of coconut shell activated carbon exists as
micro-pores. These small pores match the size of contaminant molecules in
drinking water and therefore are very effective in trapping them.
Activated carbon may be used to remove chlorine with little degradation
or damage to the carbon. Dechlorination occurs rapidly and flow rates are
typically high. However, this process requires an extensive amount of surface
area, and organics in the water will eventually fill up and block the pores of the
carbon. Ultimately, the AC filter will need to be replaced as its ability to
dechlorinate the water will slowly decline. Spent carbon can be re-activated;
however, re-activated filters should only be used in waste-water treatment
applications. As water passes through an activated carbon filter, organic
68
particles and chemicals are trapped inside through a process known
“adsorption”. The adsorption process depends upon 5 key factors: 1) physical
properties of the activated carbon (surface area and pore size distribution); 2)
the chemical makeup of the carbon source (amount of hydrogen and oxygen);
3) the chemical makeup and concentration of the contaminant; 4) water pH and
temperature; and 5) the length of time the water is exposed to the activated
carbon filter.
Pore size and distribution have the greatest impact on the effectiveness
of AC filtration. The best filtration occurs when carbon pores are barely large
enough to allow for the adsorption of contaminants. The type of contaminants
an AC filter attracts will depend on the pore size of the filter, which varies based
on the type of carbon used and the activation method. AC filters tend to work
best for removing organic chemicals with larger molecules.
The surface of an activated carbon filter may also interact chemically
with organic molecules. Electrical forces between the AC surface and the
chemical nature of some contaminants may result in ion exchange or
adsorption. The activation process determines, to a large extent, the chemical
properties of the AC filter, making the filter attractive to various contaminants.
Different activation processes will yield activated carbon with different chemical
properties. For example, AC that has the least amount of oxygen in pore
surfaces will absorb chloroform the best.
Activated carbon is best for use in filtering out large organic molecules.
AC and organic molecules are similar materials, which means they will tend to
69
associate with each other. This means organic chemicals will have a stronger
tendency to associate with the AC filter rather than remaining dissolved in
water. The less soluble organic molecules are, the more likely they are to be
adsorbed. Smaller organic molecules fit the smallest pores and are held the
tightest.
The adsorption process can be affected by the concentration of organic
contaminants. For example, with chloroform removal one AC filter may be more
effective than another at filtering high concentrations of contaminants, and less
effective at filtering low concentration of contaminants. The rate of adsorption
will usually be higher at lower temperatures and pH levels. Chemical reactions
and chemical forms are closely related to water temperature and pH. In most
cases, organic chemicals are more absorbable as temperatures and pH levels
decrease. The length of time in which the contaminant is in contact with the AC
filter also influences the adsorption process – the longer the length of contact,
the greater the number of contaminants that will be removed. A greater amount
of active carbon and a slower flow rate will improve the effectiveness of the
filtration process.
70
Figure 10. Activated Coconut Carbon
Source: sjzkzcable.en.made-in-china.com
Figure 10 shows activated coconut carbon. Peat and wood activated carbon
has mostly meso and macro-pores which suit trapping of bigger molecules. The
pore structure of coal carbons falls between coconut shell and wood based
carbons. Macro-pores are considered as an access point to micro-pores. Meso-
pores do not usually play an important role in the adsorption unless the surface
area of these pores is large, 400 m2/g or more. The predominance of micro-pores
in coconut shell carbon gives it tight structure and provides good mechanical
strength and hardness and also high resistance to resist attrition or wearing away
by friction.
Some of other features which carbon industries, see as a great advantage
in favour of coconut carbon is that coconut is a renewable source of carbon. It
71
grows throughout the year, with harvesting generally occurring 3-4 times in a
year and coconut tree can be preserved for many years.
XI. Ultra Violet Lamp Disinfection
Ultraviolet water purification is the most effective method for disinfecting
bacteria from the water. Ultraviolet (UV) rays penetrate harmful pathogens in your
home’s water and destroy illness-causing microorganisms by attacking their
genetic core (DNA). This is extremely efficient in eliminating their ability to
reproduce. Disinfecting your water with Ultraviolet light is exceptionably simple,
effective and environmentally safe. UV systems destroy 99.99% of harmful
microorganisms without adding chemicals or changing your water’s taste or
odor. The temperature is maintained at 2-40 degree Celsius ensure efficient
disinfection of the water.
Figure 11. Ultraviolet System Diagram

Source:www.espwaterproducts.com
Figure 11 shows ultraviolet system diagram. UV systems are an effective
means of water disinfection for residential point of entry use to help disinfect the
72
entire home. UV systems are highly recommended to homeowners who may
suspect any E.coli, cryptosporidium, giardia or any other types of bacteria and
viruses in the water. It is not advised to use chlorine or other chemicals to disinfect
water like private well owners, because of the toxic byproducts they create. It is
important to avoid drinking any water that is potentially contaminated from bacteria
to protect yourself from any water-borne bacterial diseases.
The advantages of using ultraviolet as water treatment process includes
chemical free: UV purification does not use any chemicals like chlorine or leave
any harmful by products; taste & odor free, UV does not add any chemical taste or
odor to the water, one of the most effective ways to kill disease-causing microbes
by destroying 99.99% and requires very little energy, uses about the same energy
as it would to run a 60-watt light bulb. The disadvantages of using ultraviolet as
water treatment process includes ultraviolet itself is not enough to purify water
down to drinking water purposes. This is because the UV radiation is only effective
for treating bacteria and viruses. UV light does not work to eliminate contaminants
such as chlorine, heavy metals and VOC’s (Volatile Organic Compounds). UV
water systems need electricity to operate. A UV may not be suitable for all
applications such as rural, emergency needs or survival needs if electricity is not
available. And Lastly UV light is only able to work if water is clear. If the water is
murky or contains “floaties,” a pre-filter should be used; UV light cannot effectively
reach microorganisms because the rays are blocked by the other particles.
UV does not kill microorganisms like chlorine does, but instead UV
inactivates them. UV light at a specific wavelength of 254 nm is readily absorbed
73
by the genetic material of microorganisms. UV light at 254 nm is readily absorbed
at the point on the microorganism's DNA strand which codes for reproduction. A
microorganism that cannot reproduce, cannot make colonies and therefore cannot
infect when consumed. In other words, the microorganisms have been sterilized
or neutered. Table 16 and 17 shows the estimated time to inactivate bacteria and
virus respectively at a dosage of 30,000 µwatt-sec/cm^2 of UV 254 nm.
Table 16
Estimated Irradiation Time to Inactivate Bacteria at a
Dosage of 30,000 µwatt-sec/cm2 of UV 254 nm
100% lethal 100% lethal

Name Dosage Name Dosage
(Second) (Second)
Micrococcus
Dysentery bacilli 0.15 0.4
Candidus
Salmonella
Leptospira SPP 0.2 0.41
Paratyphi
Corynebacterium Mycobacterium
0.2 0.41
Diphtheriae Tuberculosis
Shigella Streptococcus
0.25 0.45
Dysenteriae Haemolyticus
Salmonella
Bacillus Anthracis 0.3 0.51
Enteritidis
Salmonella
Clostridium Tetani 0.33 0.53
Typhimurium
Escherichia coli
0.36 Vibrio Cholerae 0.64
Pseudomonas Streptococcus
0.37 0.45
Aeruginosa Haemolyticus
Source: www.water-research.net
74
Table 17
Estimated Irradiation Time to Inactivate Virus at a
Dosage of 30,000 µwatt-sec/cm^2 of UV 254 nm
100% lethal 100% lethal

Name Dosage Name Dosage
(Second) (Second)
Coxsackie Virus
0.08 Echovirus 1 0.73
A9
Adenovirus 3 0.1 Hepatitis B Virus 0.73
Bacteiophage 0.2 Echovirus 11 0.75
Influenza 0.23 Poliovirus 1 0.45
Rotavirus SA 11 0.52 - -
Source: www.water-research.net
Table 16 and 17 shows the estimated time to inactivate microorganisms
such as bacterias and viruses. For the inactivation bacteria, Dysentery bacilli has
the shortest time of inactivation which is 0.15 seconds while Vibrio Cholerae has
the longest time of inactivation which is 0.64 seconds. For the viruses, Adenovirus
3 has the shortest time of inactivation which is 0.1 seconds while Echovirus 11 has
the longest time of inactivation which is 0.75 seconds.
75
Table 18
Filters and filter casing Technical Specifications
Max. Pressur
Filters Microns Size Temp. Composition Mass Description
Flowrate e drop
Improves
10 in (L) turbidity,
2.5in catches
Sediments 5 gpm 0.6 psi (W) 4.4 oC to unwanted dirt
5 Polypropylene 0.045 kg
(1 month) (18.93L/m) at 5 gpm inside 62.8 oC particles like
dia. of sand, dirt, silt,
1.1 in.. rust, and scale
particles
Reduce/remove
hardness,
polypropylene,
1.5 psi calcium,
polyester,
Resin 4gpm at 0.5 10 in by 5oC to magnesium,
5 nylon and 0.9 kg
(3 months) (15.14L/m) gpm 2.5 in 38oC iron,
polyvinylidene
(12psi) manganese
difluoride
giving soft
water
Coconut Shell
Granulated 2psi at For removal of
3.43gpm 2.5 in by Granular
Carbon 5 1 gpm Up to 52oC 0.45kg chlorine,tastes
(13 L/m) 10 in Activated
(3 months) (6.86psi) and odours
Carbon
76
Table 18 (Continued)
Filters and filter casing Technical Specifications
Pressu
Parts Flowrate Mcrn Size Temp. Composition Mass Description
re drop
6 psi
Carbon at Highly effective in
3.96gpm 2.5 in by Up to
Block 0.5 1 GPM Coconut shell 0.49kg reducing, taste, odour,
(15 L/m) 10 in 85oC
(3 months) (23.76 chlorine, and sediment
psi)
43.22p
Total 2.845kg
si
10 inches High impact AS
Clear Filter 1/4 inch Compatible with Max. operating
400 L/min - - 5 - 50oC .96 kg
Casing outlet and a variety of pressure is 20 Kg/cm²
inlet chemicals
Table 18 shows the specifications of filters and filter casing used in the machine and the specified flow rate required for
each kind of filter, micron, pressure drop, dimension, operating temperature, filter composition, mass and description.
77
Table 19
Pump and Ultraviolet Lamp Disinfection Unit Technical Specifications
Temp Volt
Machine Flowrate Power Pressure Size Mass Specification
. s
14.5 cm (W)
0.5 Hp 8 Bar Up to 220 60Hz 1.5 Ampere Maximum
Pump 12 l/min 28 cm (L) 4.5 kg
(373 W) (116.03 psi) 40oC volts head of 25 meters
18 cm (H)
3 gpm Operation 37cm (L) 5oC
Ultraviolet 220
(11.36 14 watts pressure: 15 45cm(H) to 1.5 kg 254 nm wave length
Lamp volts
L/min) -85 psi 20cm (W) 40oC
Total 387 W 6 kg
Table 19 shows pump and Ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit technical specification like power required, flow
rate, operating pressure, parts dimension, voltage, mass of each equipment and description. Operating temperature
of the machine will be determined using digital thermometer. Temperature must be maintained between 2 to 40 OC.
Cold spot is the coolest section of the lamp surface. It should be 2-40 OC. Varying in either direction from the ideal
cold spot temperature results in diminished performance. Cold water can lower the cold-spot temperature so that the
UV output will drop as much as 50 percent below its maximum. The ideal water temperature for operating UV unit is
22 degree Celsius. Elevated temperature can send aesthetically unpleasing tepid water. It can also reduce the
78
efficiency of the UV lamp. This could be a problem if a long period of inactivity is followed by a period of high flow
rate.
Table 20
Machine Technical Specification
Parts Capacity Voltage Weight Specification

Working temperature ranges to -15oC to 50oC
Inverter - 12 to 220 V .862kg
Efficiency up to 90.5% output frequency 50 - 60 Hz
Battery 100 ah 12 volts 30 kg Lead Acid Battery
25 kg each Rubber castor wheel that each of the wheel can carry 25 kg
Caster wheel - -
(6-150kg) of weight
Total 30.862 kg
Table 20 shows inverter, battery and caster wheel technical specification namely capacity, voltage weight and
Description.
79
Research Literature
Alvarez, et al., (2014) conducted a study about the design and development
of Biogas Filtering System using activated carbon absorption which aim to develop
a biogas upgrading system which will reduce percentage of carbon dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide in biogas using activated carbon to increase biogas power
generation. The developed filter column was made of carbon steel and has a
diameter of 1 foot with height of 3 feet. Inside of filter column was 4 perforated
plate, 2 filter pad and extruded type activated carbon briquette. The amount of
activated carbon used was 9 kilograms which grants 88. 56115108% adsorbing
efficiency for carbon dioxide and 76.21145374% adsorbing efficiency for hydrogen
sulphide and a total of 89.55922444%.
Cabanting, et al., (2013), conducted a study to prove reduction of Lead (II)
using Chitosan-coated activated coconut charcoal from simulated waste water.
The study uses a control concentration of Lead (II) in ppm which amount to 645.04
ppm before treatment. The study uses four parameters which are varying pH,
agitation time, absorbent dosage, g/L and varying number of coating. For pH value
of 3 and 6, best adsorption of lead was when the simulated waste water pH was
6. It is proven that at higher pH value, adsorption is high for heavy metal (Cu, Zn
and Pb) up taken by chitosan activated charcoal. It shows that from 645.04 ppm
of lead (II) concentration, it reduces to 102.692 ppm concentration that is 84.08%
adsorption. For agitation time it is best at 1.5 hours with 80.18% adsorption. For
dosage of chitosan adsorbent, 10 g/L dosage of chitosan has the highest removal
efficiency of 90.26%. This prove that a higher dosage of adsorbent (chitosan)
80
highly affect the adsorption process. For the number of coating, single chitosan
coated activated coconut charcoal (SCCACC) exhibits the most efficient lead
removal of 99.43%.
On the recent study conducted by Escalona et al., (2013), the researcher
investigates the effect of pH and dosage in adsorption of copper (Cu 2+) in
simulated waste water using papaya seeds as adsorbent. The researcher
determines the percent reduction of divalent copper using two parameters which
are varying pH of simulated waste water and the dosage of carbonized papaya
seed adsorbent while keeping the agitation rate and contact time constant at 350
rpm and 3 hours respectively. The researcher prepares papaya seeds by sieving
it at constant particle size of 0.6mm using 30 mesh screen. In the study, result
show highest percentage of 99.74% copper reduction at pH 8 of simulated water
(4, 6, 8, 10 pH values) with 1 gram of papaya seed adsorbent (0.5g, 0.75g, and
1.0g dosage of activated papaya seeds adsorbent). It is then observed that there
is a decrease in adsorption efficiency at pH 10. It is then noticed that as the dosage
of papaya activated carbon adsorbent increases there also an increase in
adsorbing efficiency of copper in waste water.
According to a study conducted by Lee (2011) entitled “Water Purification
for Rural Communities Using Ultraviolet Light and Bleach Systems” the UV system
provides clean, safe water which tastes as chemical free as tap water. They use
UV bulb requires which is 50 Watts which is powered from a 12V battery through
a DC-AC power inverter. One 12V, 16 Amp-hour battery will provide power to the
UV lamp while the two 45 Watt solar panels recharge another 12V battery in order
81
to provide continuous operation of the UV bulb. The UV chamber has a residence
time of 8.5 seconds and provides an energy flux of 54 mJ/cm2, which is capable of
greater than 99.9% inactivation of all bacterial and protozoan contamination.
In the study conducted by Villafria, et al., (2011) about Utilization of coconut
husks fibre in producing activated carbon in the reduction of heavy metals in
simulated waste water uses coconut husk fiber to produce activated carbon that
aim to absorbed heavy metals like Zn +2 , Ni+2 and Cr+2 in simulated wastewater.
In the study, coconut husk fibre was chemically activated twice, using H 3PO4 and
KOH activating agents which enhance the yield of carbon. The researchers used
chemical activation. The simulated waste water was made by dissolving equivalent
amount of K2Cr2O7, ZnSO4.6H2O and NiSO4 to make chromium hexavalent
(124.97, 351.89, and 523.72 ppm), zinc (138.84, 225.27 and 344.22 ppm) and
nickel (106.86, 264.39 and 422.71 ppm) concentration in the solution. With pH
value of 1 for mono component chromium and 5 for bi component zinc and nickel.
After the treatment two controlled variable are used which are three different
concentration of metals on simulated waste water and contact time (30, 60, 90
minutes). For chromium Hexavalent the highest absorbing efficiency of chemically
activated twice carbon happens when its chromium concentration was 124.97 ppm
with percent absorption of 99.99%.The highest absorbing capacity of 78.26% was
observed at 138.84 ppm concentration of zinc in the simulated waste water with
90 minutes contact time with 108.66 ppm adsorbed Zn2+.For nickel the highest
reduction took place at 106.86 ppm of nickel at first concentration of simulated
waste water with 84.85% reduction of nickel which is equivalent to 90.67 ppm
82
adsorbed nickel using chemically activated carbon with contact time of 90 minutes.
For all the results of the study we conclude that highest reduction efficiency
happens at first concentration with 124.97 ppm of chromium concentration, 138.84
ppm of zinc and 106.86 ppm of nickel concentration with 90 minutes’ contact time.
In the study made by Caber, et al., (2009) about development of swine
waste water treatment facility using multilayer recirculating filter. The study aims
to develop a treatment facility for swine waste water which liquid and solid particle
was separated. The study uses filtering media like anthracite (16.5 in height) silica
sand (9 in height) and activated carbon (4.5 in height). In the study it analyzed the
effluent waste water after filtration considering total suspended solid, total
dissolved solids, total solid and pH level compared to the DENR standard for class
D of water for agriculture, irrigation and livestock water.
The effect of volume of treated water and the flow rate was studied by
Ubomba-Jaswa et al., (2009) they used two types of solar reactors for the
disinfecting test. The study uses borosilicate glass tube for the transmission of UV
ranges and solar photo-reactors fitted with compound parabolic collector. One
reactor was a static large batch volume reactor which has varied volume as 2.5 L,
14L and 70 L total volume of treated contaminated water. Another reactor was a
continuous flow recirculating reactor with two flow rate of2L per min. And 10L per
min. They observed that there is a negative effect on the inactivation of bacteria
as the flow rate increases. There is a need of maximum solar exposure of bacteria
to UV to ensure complete inactivation
83
In the study done by Guo Liu last 2005, entitled “An investigation of UV
Disinfection under the Influence of Turbidity & Particulates for drinking
applications” in river water, the presence of surface water particles has no
influence on UV inactivation of microorganisms. Ultraviolet treatments has been
accepted in the recent years a form of treating water. But in the study conducted
by Matthew Oluwasegun Adeboye last 2014, entitled “Disinfection of Escherichia
Coli in Water Using ultraviolet LEDs”, it was found out that UV-LEDs was not
efficient drinking water treatment technique in inactivating E. coli heavily
contaminated water.
Caslake et al., (2004) design a solar disinfection system using an acrylic layer
transparent to the UV range covering PVC circuit. The design doesn't use catalyst
and was used to disinfect contaminated river in Peru. In spite of turbidity, they
obtain 4 log reduction for total coliforms. It is found out that more reduction
happens as the contaminated water was exposed for a long period of time.
The study of Ferdausi, et al., (2000) proven faecal coliform removal in pond
filters with sand depths around 30 cm. Similar research done by Logan, et al.,
(2001) they uses 60 cm height sand filter with sand grain s of .16 mm obtain higher
removal efficiency of cryptosporidium oocysts.
The study of ASCE, (1991) found out that the best height of sand bed is 0.4 m
for bacteriological treatment with finer grains of 0.20mm to 0.45 mm
In the study by Muhammad, et al., (1996) they focuses on coarser sand and
found out that removal of bacteria, turbidity and colour was not very sensitive to
sand sizes up to 0.45 mm. The study conclude that most bacteriological purification
84
occurs within .4 m of the sand bed. It also shows that turbidity and colour removal
efficiency increases as sand bed increases beyond 0.4m height. Biochemical
oxidation of nitrogenous organic compounds was found to completely oxidize
within the top 0.4m.
In the research done by Bellamy, et al., (1985), they focus with bacteriological
purification using sand filter and suggested that it’s better to have about more than
.48 m for effective removal of bacteria.
In the study held by Acre et al. (1989), showed that ordinary glass bottles and
jars could transmit up to 90% of solar radiation particularly in wavelenghts in UV-
A region. For flow solar reactors the study proven that borosilicate glass tube is
the most suitable for transmitting UV wavelengths which transmit 90% of the
available UV-A and 45% UV-B.
In the study of Schulz, et al., (1984) for slow continuous flow the effective
granular size of sand is about the range of 0.15 - 0.35mm and the uniformity
coefficient should be in the range of 1.5 - 3, although a coefficient of less than 2 is
desirable.
In the study of Huisman et al., (1974) washing of sand before using it in
filtration process is recommended to prevent formation of voids in the media and
sand must have at least 2 % of calcium and magnesium, calculated as carbonates.
It is said also in their study that they conduct a study comparing the sand grain
size with respect to sand bed depth. It is noted that a depth of .6 m of 0.15mm
grain size has same filtration efficiency as of 1.4 m depth by 0.35 mm grains size
and he suggested it is more economical to use finer sand grains
85
Synthesis
The review of related literature presented relevant that was utilized in this
study. Included were water supplies in the Philippines, water treatment methods
for drinking water and the acceptable water quality in terms of physical, chemical,
and microbiological properties.
The proposed water treatment machine by the researchers is collection of
applied concepts and studies. The presented related concepts were a great help
in developing the said machine. An integrated machine that treat water through
sediments, resin, granulated activated carbon and activated carbon block filtration
and ultraviolet lamp disinfection was developed.
The researcher came up to use commercially available filters such as
sediment, resin, granulated activated carbon and carbon block from coconut shell
since studies shows that coconut activated carbon possess more efficient in terms
of absorbing capacity.
The proposed water treatment machine by the researchers was an
integration of different water treatment techniques. The presented knowledge and
concepts were a great help. The raw material was used in the proposed study was
from Barangay Kinalaglagan Mataasnakahoy. This study focused on producing
Class A water for a cheaper treatment cost that conformed to Philippines standard
on drinking water.
86
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES
This chapter covered the presentation and discussions of the whole design
process which basically involves the methods and procedures utilized on how the
machine was constructed. This provided the outline of steps to be implemented in
order to obtain the objectives of the study. Included are the design, development
stage, the preliminary testing and the gathering of required data to complete the
study.
Research Design
The study utilized an engineering design, planning and analysis of the data
to achieve the desired goals. The overall design was divided into different stages:
design stage, development stage, preliminary testing, actual gathering of data and
determining performance parameter.
Development Stages
The following procedures were undertaken to attain the objectives in
designing the water treatment machine and these steps were divided into four.
The first stage was focused on the design of the water treatment machine
by researching about different literatures, concepts, and related studies that helped
in designing the major components of the machine.
Second stage was intended for the actual fabrication machine by following
the design specifications obtained from the first stage.
87
Third stage was included for the preliminary testing and modifications of the
machine brought by the result of the testing to evaluate the performance of the
machine.
The final stages were the actual gathering of data followed after the
modifications done as a result of the preliminary testing. This was necessary to
properly assess and evaluate the performance of the machine.
This study was considered different development stages in order to attain
the objectives of the study. This included were:
1. Design Stage
This stage covered the design of schematic diagram, parts and components
of the prototype. This was also cover the selection of system components,
dimensions and materials to be used for fabrication. Material specifications was
based on the required properties without sacrificing the cost and efficiency.
2. Fabrication Stage
This stage covered the selection and identification of the machine shop and
the fabrication procedures. Fabrication of the prototype was based on the design
requirements created.
3. Preliminary Testing Stage
This stage covered the preliminary testing of the fabricated prototype to
establish the following parameters such as operating capacity, operating time, and
operating pressure. Modifications was also done at this stage to improve the
performance and efficiency of the machine.
88
4. Final Performance Testing
After the modification of the fabricated machine, the final testing stage
commenced. This stage assessed the actual performance of the machine to
evaluate different parameters.
5. Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing was done to evaluate and assess the properties of the
finished product such as acceptability of the output in terms of:
5.1 Physical properties
5.1.1 turbidity
5.1.2 colour
5.1.2 total dissolved solids
5.2 Chemical properties
5.2.1 sulfate
5.2.2 manganese
5.2.3 chloride
5.2.4 pH
5.3 Microbiological properties
5.3.1 total coliform
5.3.2 fecal coliform
5.3.3 heterotrophic platelet count
The above mentioned properties was tested by the Bauan Fiel Laboratory
and Enterprise located at Alegra Homes Subdivision San Roque Bauan Batangas.
89
6. Provide a cost benefit analysis
A cost benefit analysis was done to assess the amount of money to be
saved after conducting the study.
7. Development of Operation Manual
This covered the processes involve in operation of the machine.
Preparation of Raw Materials
This study utilized the use of raw water. The source of water should be
100m away from any agricultural, industrial and chemical industries. The water
was filtered of large debris prior to pouring in the reservoir. The proposed location
of testing and source of untreated raw water was Brgy. Kinalaglagan Mataas na
Kahoy Batangas.
Methods of Testing
The following methods was used to determine the following parameters:
A. Method of Determining Preliminary Testing Parameters
1. Method of Determining the Operating Capacity
The operating capacity was obtained by considering the volume of
the treated water for continues 4 hours machine operation.
2. Method of Determining the Operating time
Operating time of the prototype was determined by considering the
time from the reservoir until it pass through the UltraViolet Lamp
Disinfection Unit.
B. Methods of Determining Final Performance Testing Parameters
90
In determining the final performance testing parameters, table 18 shows
which properties improves in each process.
Table 21
Properties Improved per Process
Resin Granulated Carbon Ultraviolet

Properties Sediment
Filtration Carbon Block Lamp
of water Filtration
Filtration Filtration Disinfection
Physical Properties of potable water
Turbidity    
Colour    
Total
Dissolved  
Solids
Chemical Properties of water
pH 
Sulfate 
Manganese    
Chloride    
Microbiological Properties of water
Total

Coliform
Fecal

Coliform
Heterotrophic
Platelet 
Count
In relation to table 18, the efficiency of each process can be determined.
1. Method of Determining the Filtration Rate
The formula in determining the filtration rate in the filter will be:
Effluent in filter (cc)

Filtration Rate =
Filtration Time(min)
91
2. Method of Determining the Filtration Efficiency
In determining the activated filtration efficiency, the metallic removal
in the filtration process was taken into consideration. Prior and subsequent
laboratory results will be utilized for comparison.
a. for pH,
mg mg
Influent pH ( )−Effluent pH( )
L L
% Removed pH = mg × 100% (a)
Influent pH ( )
L
b. for chloride,
mg mg
Influent Chloride ( )−Effluent Chloride( )
L L
% Removed Chloride = mg × 100% (b)
Influent chloride ( )
L
c. for Sulfate,
mg mg
Influent Sulfate ( )−Effluent Sulfate( )
L L
% Removed Sulfate = mg × 100% (c)
Influent Sulfate ( )
L
d. for Total Dissolved Solid,

mg mg
Influent TDS ( )−Effluent TDS( )
L L
% Removed TDS = mg × 100% (d)
Influent TDS ( )
L
e. for manganese,
mg mg
Influent manganese ( )−Effluent manganese( )
L L
% Removed manganese = mg × 100% (e)
Influent manganese ( )
L
Computing for Filter Efficiency
(a) + (b) + (c) + (d) + (e)

Activated Carbon Effiency =
5
92
3. Method of Ultraviolet lamp disinfection efficiency
In determining the ultraviolet lamp disinfection efficiency, the
microbiological property of water was taken into consideration. Prior and
subsequent laboratory results was used for comparison. Water needed for
testing was gathered from sample water entering and leaving the ultraviolet
lamp.
a. for total coliform (TC)

mg mg
Influent TC ( )−Effluent TC( )
L L
% Reduced TC = mg × 100% (f)
Influent TC ( )
L
b. for fecal coliform(FC)

mg mg
Influent FC ( )−Effluent FC( )
L L
% Reduced FC = mg × 100% (g)
Influent FC ( )
L
c. for heterotrophic platelet count (HPC)

mg mg
Influent HPC ( )−Effluent HPC( )
L L
% Reduced HPC = mg × 100% (h)
Influent HPC ( )
L
Computing for Ultraviolet Lamp Disinfection Efficiency
(f) + (g) + (h)

Ultraviolet Lamp Disinfection Effiency =
3
4. Method of Determining Production Rate
Production rate of the machine will be determined by using the
93
formula:
Actual volume treated water (cc)

Production rate =
Operating Time (min )
5. Method of Determining Acceptability properties water
The properties including physical (turbidity, color, total dissolved
solids), chemical (sulfate, manganese and chloride, pH) and
microbiological (total coliform, fecal coliform and heterotrophic platelet
count) was determined through laboratory testing that was given analysis
to the results followed by the comparison to the standard value.
94
CHAPTER IV
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROTOTYPE, EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter presented the production of class a water using various filters
and Ultra Violet Disinfection. The main components of the fabricated machine and
its material specification are also included with their prescribed specification.
Schematic Diagram
The schematic diagram of the proposed machine was established after
considering the related literature about various filters and Ultra violet disinfection
unit and analyzing the theories and principle of its operation.
Figure 12. Schematic Diagram of Water Treatment Machine
95
Proper material selection was considered for system component to ensure
safety and quality in production of distilled water. Analysis of system component
and operation is carefully done to come up with required sixes and dimension of
various parts.
The figure 12 shows the Water filtration and disinfection machine and its
entire components such as body frame, electric motor pump, Ultraviolet lamp
disinfection unit, rubber castor wheel, filter casing, different kind of filters
(Sediment, resin, granulated carbon, and carbon block) pipe, ball valve battery and
inverter.
Discussion of the Machine Components
1. Body Frame. Its main function is to hold parts together for the process.
Figure 13. Body frame
2. Electric Water Pump. This unit gives the water enough pressure to flow
through the process. It is a water pump Qb-60 with 1/2 Hp (373 watts), 60
96
Hz, 220 Volts, and 1.5 Ampere. Maximum head of 35 meters and maximum
flow rate of 12 l/min. Weight: 4.5kg Protection: IP44 operating temperature
ranges Up to 40oC.
Figure 14. Electric Motor Pump
3. Ultraviolet light (UV) Disinfection Unit. It’s the microbial inactivating unit
used that kills 99.99% of bacteria and viruses namely fecal coliform, total
coliform, and Heterotrophic Platelet Count. It consists of UV radiator with a
254 nm wave length to cause immediate death for organisms and wipe out
their ability to survive and reproduce. Its operating flow rate is 3 GPM or
11.36 liters per minute. Operation pressure of 15 -85 psi with dimension of
37cm (L) x 45cm (H) x 20cm (W) and Weight of 6.5 kg
97
Figure 15. Ultraviolet Lamp Disinfection Unit
4. Rubber Castor Wheels, It was used to easily move the machine. It comes
with 6 rubber castor wheel that each of the wheel can carry 25 kg of weight.
These 50mm Rubber Castor wheels come attached to a swiveling fixing
plate that allows the wheel to spin and rotate 360° Rotation. It also includes
Mounting Plate Solid Hard Rubber Oiled ball bearings allow swivel action.
Figure 16. Castor Wheel
5. Filter Casing. It is a 10'' clear filter housing PBJLK-0547 is made out of
high impact plastic, which is compatible with a variety of chemicals. It
98
is equipped with clear sump blue head, and pressure-relief button. The
housing is used for point-of-use (POU) applications such as under-sink or
inline. Clear filter housings with 1/4'' inlet/outlet with maximum operating
pressure of 20 Kg/cm². Operating temperature ranges from 5-50 degrees
Celsius with inlet/outlet of 1/2in. Its weigh 960 grams with maximum flow
rate of 400 L/min. it is a see-through clear housing that will let you know
when cartridge replacement is due.
Figure 17. Filter Casing
6. Sediment Filter. Sediment filters are used as pre-filter mediums before
granular activated carbon filters. It is made of 5-micron Polypropylene
material that removes suspended solids, which are also known as sediment
and improves turbidity. It functions like a net that catches unwanted dirt
particles like sand, dirt, silt, rust, and scale particles as your water flows
99
through the system. Its dimension is 10 in long by 2.5 in width with inside
diameter of 1.1 inches. It operates at temperature ranges 4.4oC to 62.8oC.
During operation there is a pressure change of 0.6 psi @ 5 GPM.
Figure 18. Sediment Filter
7. Granular Carbon Filter. It is a 10 inch, 5-micron Coconut shell granular
activated carbon media that removes chlorine, taste, synthetic and natural
organics, and odor, improves turbidity and removes rust particles. It takes
out 99% of the chlorine and organic chemicals. It provides enhanced
reduction of taste, odor, and color.
100
Figure 19. Granular Carbon Filter
8. Resin Filter. It is a 10 in by 2.5 in resin that reduce/remove hardness,
calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese giving soft water. This filter is made
from food grade ion exchange resin. It is made from polypropylene,
polyester, nylon and polyvinylidene difluoride. . Removes heavy metal and
non-metal hazardous objects with service life of 3 to 12 months.
Figure 20. Resin Filter
101
9. Carbon Block Filter. Its is5 microns, 10 inches x 2.5inches carbon block
filter that has a very effective absorption capabilities in combination with
acceptable water flow rates. Coconut shell is the most expensive, but has
been found to also be the most effective. It has the ability to remove even
the smallest particles of contaminant.
Figure 21. Carbon Block Filter
10. Pipe. The pipe is made up of polyvinyl chloride and has diameter of one,
1/4 and 1/2 inch.
Figure 22. Pipe
102
11. Ball Valve. It is use to close and disclose water ways. It is made of polyvinyl
chloride in form of quarter-turn valve. It consist of pivoting ball to control flow
through it. It is open when the ball's hole is in line with the flow and closed
when it is pivoted 90-degrees by the valve handle. Closing securely even
after long periods of disuse.
Figure 23. Ball Valve
12. Battery. It is used to power up the machine when power run off. It is a 100
ampere hour 12 volts’ dc battery. Which can provide 4 hours’ battery life
during the process of filtering and disinfecting.
Figure 24. Battery
103
13. Inverter. It serves as to change the 15 voltage direct current input power of
the battery into 220 voltage alternating current output that needed as the
input of major parts of the machine like pump and Ultraviolet lamp. It has
mass of 862 grams with dimension of 37cm length, 45cm height and 20cm
width.
Figure 25. Inverter
104
Fabrication and Assembly
The researchers were the one who designed of the machine and do the
specification of parts and sizes, while the fabricator or the skilled workers work on
construction of the machine.
Components specification were carefully selected and provided in the specified
layout according to its respective function. Adjusting of the dimension of other
components was considered to construct more productive prototype.
Testing Preparation
Before conducting preliminary test of the machine, the raw materials needed
were prepared. Raw water from Barangay Kinalaglagan in the municipality of
Mataas na Kahoy were gathered.
Preliminary Testing Before Modification
After fabrication, the machine was subjected for pretesting. This test was
conducted to evaluate the functionality of the machine and to plan necessary
actions to be taken in response to the issues or problems that will occur while
conducting the test.
The encountered problems during the preliminary testing of the prototype.
are as follows:
1. Lot of leakage found in the piping.
105
Modification Stage
After the evaluation of the performance of the machine, several
modifications have been found in the machine. The researchers conducted
hydraulic testing and found out different area that needs repair. The researcher put
some epoxy to seal leakages.
Final Set-up of the Prototype
The final design was made after some modification had been done. The
final set-up of the prototype is shown in Figure 26 below.
Figure 26. Water Filtration and Disinfection Machine
The water treatment system operates by using 12 voltage battery coming
from the 100 ampere hour source. The battery gives an output of 12 DC volts and
by the use of 1000 watts inverter this power is converted into 220 volts Ac output.
For a 100 ampere hour battery life it will last long up to 4 hours full operation of
106
Ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit and pump with the total volume capacity of 2640
liters. During the testing the Taal lake water is fed in the storage tank and set it for
5 minutes for the settling process. There is a ball valve provided before the water
flow through the pump. The pump adds pressure to the raw water that is enough
and under the flow rate requirement of the ultraviolet lamp for the contact time
needed. Then the water flows from the different filters consecutively sediment,
granular carbon filter, resin and carbon block filters. In this filtering process all of
the unwanted chemicals, sediments and impurities in water was embedded into
the filter. After filtration water is free of impurities that may block the ultraviolet light
and is now ready now for disinfection. The flow rate of water is low enough from
the prescribed flow rate of the Ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit because of
pressure drop due to filters but it’s still acceptable since for disinfection the more
contact time of the water to the ultraviolet lamp light the more efficient it will be.
Ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit doesn't leave an ultraviolet light radiation on water
when in use so there will be no worries for possible radiation that will be left on the
water. And then after the water is being disinfected it will leave the unit and ready
for collection.
Preparation for Testing
The raw water was first collected from Barangay Kinalaglagan in the
municipality of Mataas na Kahoy and place it in storage tank. There was no
electrical outlet needed for the machine since it can operate both on electrical
outlet and battery. We first make sure all ball valve is open and ready for testing.
107
Testing Results
Sample water was obtained from Barangay Kinalaglagan Mataasnakahoy
Batangas and subjected for laboratory testing in Bauan Fiel laboratory to
established basis for comparison of results. Sampling method was observed and
followed. Table 22 and 23 shows the initial microbiological and physico / chemical
results of the sample water.
Table 22
Initial Microbial Analysis
Drinking Water
PNSDW
Quality
Standards Method Result Remarks
Parameters
Multiple Tube
Total Coliform <1.1 Fermentation >8.0 Failed
Technique
Multiple Tube
Fecal Coliform <1.1 Fermentation >8.0 Failed
Technique
Heterotrophic <500 Pour Plate

745 Failed
Platelet Count Method
Table 22 shows the initial microbial analysis of the sampled water from
Barangay Kinalaglagan Mataasnakahoy Batangas. The drinking water quality
parameters which includes total coliform, fecal coliform, and heterotrophic platelet
count obtained a failed results based on Philippine National Standard for Drinking
Water. Taal Lake serves as a catch basin of contaminants of surrounding
Municipalities. Since it is a lake, there is no drainage area thus making the
contaminant stagnant inside the lake.
108
Table 23
Physico-Chemical Initial of Raw Taal Water
Drinking Water Method PNSDW
Quality Parameters Standards Result Remarks
Color (Apparent), PCU Visual Comparison 10 max. 10 Passed
Turbidity, NTU Turbidimetry 5 max. 4 Passed
6.5 – 8.5
pH Potentiometric *5-7 8.58 Failed
Chloride, mg/L Argentomentric 250.0 max. 357.3 Failed
Nitrate, mg/L Colorimetric 50 max. <0.012 Passed
Sulfate, mg/L Turbidimetric 250 max. 76.7 Passed
Total Dissolved 600 max.
Solids (TDS), mg/L Conductimetric *10 max. 1060 Failed
Cadmium, mg/L Flame-AAS 0.003 max. <0.002 Passed
Lead, mg/L Flame-AAS 0.01 max. <0.01 Passed
Iron, mg/L Flame-AAS 1.0 max. 0.187 Passed
Manganese, mg/L Flame-AAS 0.4 max. 0.492 Failed
Table 23 shows the physico-chemical analysis of the sampled wated from Kinalaglagan Mataasnakahoy Batangas.
It was observed that ph, Chloride, Total Dissolved Solids and manganese failed with the results of 8.58, 357.3 mg/L, 1060
mg/L and 0.492 mg/ L respectively. An increase in Chloride may originate from natural sources, sewages, industrial
109
effluents, and urban runoff. Manganese naturally occurring in many surface and
other water sources particularly in anaerobic or low oxidation condition.
Raw water was gathered and run through the machine using sediment filter
alone. Effluent was subjected for laboratory testing. Table 24 shows the laboratory
results.
Table 24
Physico-Chemical Analysis using Sediment Filter
Drinking Method PNSDW

Water Quality Standards Result Percent
Parameters Reduction
6.5 – 8.5 8.14 5.13%
pH Potentiometric *5-7
Chloride, mg/L Argentomentric 250.0 max. 199.1 44.28%
Total 600 max. 701 33.87%
Dissolved Conductimetric *10 max.
Solids (TDS),
mg/L
Manganese, Flame-AAS 0.4 max. <0.01 97.97%
mg/L
Table 24 shows the Physico-chemical analysis using sediment filter alone.
It is observed that pH decrease from 8.58 to to 8.14, Chloride from 357.3 mg/L to
199.1 mg/L, Total dissolved solids from 1060 mg/L to 701 mg/L, and Manganese
from 0.492 mg/L to <0.01 mg/L.
110
The effluent from the previous test were collected and to run offed to the
machine with the Resin filter installed alone. The effluent was subjected to
laboratory testing for Physico-Chemical Analysis. Table 25 shows the laboratory
results.
Table 25
Physico-Chemical Analysis after Resin Filter
Drinking Water Method PNSDW

Quality Standards Result Percentage
Parameters Reduction
6.5 – 8.5 8.27 -
Chloride, mg/L Argentomentric 250.0 max. 197.15 0.98%
Total Dissolved 600 max. 689 1.71%
Solids (TDS), Conductimetric *10 max.
mg/L
Manganese, mg/L Flame-AAS 0.4 max. <0.01 -
Table 25 shows the Physico-chemical analysis of the effluent that run
through Resin Filter. pH decreases from 8.14 to 8.27, Chloride from 199.1 mg/L to
197.15 mg/L, total dissolved solids from 701 mg/L to 689 mg/L and Manganese
from <0.01 mg/L to <0.01 mg/L.
machine with the Granulated Carbon filter installed alone. The effluent was
subjected to laboratory testing for Physico-Chemical Analysis. Table 26 shows the
laboratory results.
111
Table 26
Physico-Chemical Analysis After Granulated Carbon Filter
Drinking Method PNSDW

Percentage
Water Quality Standards Result
Reduction
Parameters
6.5 – 8.5 8.34 -
Chloride, mg/L Argentomentric 250.0 max. 183 7.18%
Total Dissolved 600 max. 670 2.76%
Solids (TDS), Conductimetric *10 max.
mg/L
Manganese, Flame-AAS 0.4 max. <0.01 -
mg/L
through Granulated Filter. pH decreases from 8.27 to 8.34, Chloride from 197.15
mg/L to 183 mg/L, total dissolved solids from 689 mg/L to 670 mg/L and
Manganese from <0.01 mg/L to <0.01 mg/L.
machine with the Carbon Block filter installed alone and pass through the
Ultraviolet Lamp. The effluent was subjected for laboratory testing for Physico-
Chemical analysis and microbial analysis. Table 27 shows the laboratory results.
112
Table 27
Physico-Chemical Analysis after Carbon Block Filter
Drinking PNSDW
Method Percentage
Water Quality Standards Result
Reduction
Parameters
6.5 – 8.5
6.76 18.95 %
Chloride, mg/L Argentomentric 250.0 max. 11.9 93.50 %
Total Dissolved 600 max.
Solids (TDS), Conductimetric *10 max. 316 52.84 %
mg/L
Manganese, Flame-AAS 0.4 max.
<0.01
mg/L
through Carbon Block Filter. pH decreases from 8.34 to 6.76, Chloride from 183
mg/L to 11.9 mg/L, total dissolved solids from 670 mg/L to 316 mg/L and
Manganese from <0.01 mg/L to <0.01 mg/L.
Table 28
Final Microbial Analysis
Drinking Water
PNSDW
Quality
Standards Method Result Remarks
Parameters
Multiple Tube
Total Coliform <1.1 Fermentation <1.1 Passed
Technique
Multiple Tube
Fecal Coliform <1.1 Fermentation <1.1 Passed
Technique
Heterotrophic <500
Pour Plate Method 79 Passed
Platelet Count
113
Table 28 shows the microbial analysis of the effluent water that passed
through all the filters which includes sediment, resin, granulated carbon, carbon
block filter and ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit. It was observed that all the
parameters were able to conform with the Philippine National Standard for Drinking
Water. With the result of total coliform from <8.0 to <1.1, fecal coliform from <8.0
to <1.1 and heterotrophic platelet count 745 to 79. Ultraviolet water disinfection is
the most effective method for disinfecting microorganism from water. It penetrates
harmful pathogens by attacking their genetic core or DNA which is extremely
efficient in eliminating their ability to reproduce.
114
Table 29
Total Filtration efficiency
Drinking Water PNSDW Raw Water After

Method Percent
Quality Parameters Standards Filtration Result
Reduction
Process
Color (Apparent), PCU Visual 10 max. 10
5 50% P
Comparison
Turbidity, NTU Turbidimetry 5 max. 4 1 75% P
6.5 – 8.5
pH Potentiometric *5-7 6.76 21.21% P
8.58
Chloride, mg/L Argentomentric 250.0 max. 357.3 11.9 96.97% P
Sulfate, mg/L Turbidimetric 250 max. 76.7 7.8 89.83% P
Total Dissolved Solids 600 max.
316 70.19% P
(TDS), mg/L Conductimetric *10 max. 1060
Cadmium, mg/L Flame-AAS 0.003 max. <0.002 <0.002 - P
Lead, mg/L Flame-AAS 0.01 max. <0.01 <0.01 - P
Iron, mg/L Flame-AAS 1.0 max. 0.187 0.186 5.35% P
Manganese, mg/L Flame-AAS 0.4 max. <0.01 <0.01 - P
Table 29 shows the total filtration efficiency as the influent passes through the sets of filters. With the highest reduction in
chloride from 357.3 mg/L to 11.9 mg/L that’s yields a reduction percentage of 96.97 %. While the lowest percent reduction was
iron that decreases from 0.187 to 0.186 that yields a reduction percentage of 5.35 %.
115
Table 30
Summary of Filter Efficiencies
Drinking After
PNSDW Raw After Sediment After Resin
Water Quality Result Granulated After Carbon Block Result
Standards water Filter Filter
Parameters Carbon Filter
Color
(Apparent), 10 max 10 P <5 50 % <5 - <5 - 5 - P
PCU
Turbidity, NTU 5 max 4 P 2 50 % 1 50 % 1 - 1 - P

6.5-8.5
pH *5-7
8.58 F 8.14 5.13 % 8.27 8.34 6.76 18.95 % P
`Chloride,
mg/L
250 max 357.3 F 199.1 44.28 % 197.15 0.98 % 183 7.18 % 11.9 93.50 % P
Nitrate, mg/L 50 max <0.012 P 1.522 1.486 2.36 % 1.272 14.40 % 3.055 P
Sulfate, mg/L 250 max 76.7 P 61.9 19.30 % 61.7 0.32 % 60.2 2.43 % 7.8 87.044 % P
Total
Dissolved 600 max
Solids (TDS), *10 max
1060 F 701 33.87 % 689 1.71 % 670 2.76 % 316 52.84 % P
mg/L
Cadmium, <0.00
mg/L
0.003 <0.002 P <0.002 - <0.002 -
2
- <0.002 - P
Lead, mg/L 0.01 max <0.01 P <0.01 - <0.01 - <0.01 - <0.01 - P
Iron, mg/L 1 max 0.187 P 0.025 86.63 % 0.023 8% <0.01 56.52 % 0.186 P
Manganese,
mg/L
0.4 max 0.492 F <0.01 97.97 % <0.01 - <0.01 - <0.01 - P
Table 30 shows the summary of filter efficiencies with their corresponding percent reduction per filter stages.
116
10
8.58
8.5 8.5 8.5
8.27 8.5
8.34 8.5
9 8.14
8
6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.76
6.5
7
6
pH Level Improvement
5
4
3
2
1
0
Raw Water After Sediment After Sediment and After Sediment, After Sediment,
Resin Resin, and Resin, Granulated
Granulated Activated Carbon, and Carbon
Carbon Block
Figure 27. pH Improvement
Chloride (mg/L) Reduction

400 357.3
350
300
250 250 250 250 250
250
199.1 197.15
183
200
150
100
50 11.9
0
Resin Resin, and Resin, and
Granulated Activated Granulated Activated
Carbon Carbon and Carbon
Block
Figure 28. Chloride Reduction
117
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) Reduction
1200
1060
1000
800 701 689 670

600 600 600 600 600
600
400 316
200
0
Granulated Carbon, and Carbon
Activated Carbon Block
Figure 29. Total Dissolved Solid Reduction
Manganese Reduction (mg/L)

0.6
0.492
0.5
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
0
Granulated Activated Carbon, and Carbon
Carbon Block
Figure 30. Manganese Reduction
118
Figure 27 pH improvement as it was treated by the machine with the pH of 8.52 it
improved to 8.34 with acceptable standard of 6.5 – 8.5. Figure 28 shows the
chloride reduction. from 357.3 mg/L it was reduced to 11.9 mg/L with acceptable
standard of 250 mg/L maximum. Figure 29 shows the total dissolved solids
reduction. With the initial result 1060 mg/L down to 316 mg/L with acceptable
standard of not more than 600 mg/L. Figure 30 shows the Manganese reduction
with standard maximum value of 0.4 mg/L it was reduced from 0.492 to <0.01 mg/L
119
Cost-Benefit Analysis
In order to test the economic and technical feasibilities of the aquaculture
wastewater treatment machine, a cost-benefit analysis was presented
Annual Sales and Total Annual Expenditure
Expenditures:
 Electric Consumption for motor (0.5hp) annually
o *Php 8.25/kWh- cost of electricity as of January 1, 2018
o For every 8 hours of operation,
0.746 𝑘𝑤ℎ 4 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑘𝑊ℎ

(. 5 ℎ𝑝 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟) ( )( ) = 1.492
1 ℎ𝑝 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2.984 kWh 1 operation 365 days Php 8.25

( )( )( )( ) = 𝑷𝒉𝒑 𝟒𝟒𝟗𝟐. 𝟕𝟓 /𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
Operation day 1 year kWh
 Electric Consumption for Ultraviolet Lamp (14w) annually

For every 8 hours of operation,
1 kWh 4 hours 𝑘𝑊ℎ

(14w − hour) ( )( ) = 0.056
1000 w − hour Operation 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

( )( )( )( ) = 𝑷𝒉𝒑 𝟏𝟔𝟖. 𝟔𝟑 /𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
 Cost of Filter
o Sediment Filter : Php 75.00
o Granulated Carbon Filter : Php 175.00
o Resin Filter : Php 225.00
o Carbon Block Filter : Php 175.00
Sediment filters are replaced every 1 months,
Php 75.00 x 12months = Php. 900.00
Granulated Carbon, resin filter and carbon block filter are replaced every 4
months.
Php 575.00 x 3 = Php 1725.00
120
Labor Cost = Php. 15, 000.00
Maintenance Cost = Php. 1, 000.00
Annual Sales
Using 90% yield
Computing for the filtration rate,
660 L 4 hours 𝐿
( hours) (Operation) (0.9 ) = 2376 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Computing for the Annual Sales,

 At Php 45/ 20 L
o (Splendor Purified Water Refilling Station; Amiga
Water Refilling Station)
2376 L 1 Operation 365 days Php 45

( )( )( )( ) = 𝐏𝐡𝐩 𝟏, 𝟗𝟓𝟏, 𝟐𝟗𝟎. 𝟎𝟎/𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫
Operation day year 20 L
Total Expenditures per year basis

 First Cost Php. 34,900.00
 Labor Cost Php. 20,000.00
 Maintenance Cost Php. 1,000.00
 Electric Consumption of pump Php. 4492.75
 Electric Consumption of UV Lamp Php. 168.63
 Cost of Filter Php. 2625.00
Total Php. 63,186.38/year
Annual Sales = 𝐏𝐡𝐩 𝟏, 𝟗𝟓𝟏, 𝟐𝟗𝟎. 𝟎𝟎/𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫

Since Php. 1, 951,290.00 > Php. 63,186.38
Annual Profit = Php. 1,951,290.00 – 63186.38
Annual Profit = Php. 1, 888, 103.62
If a person needs 3L of water per day,
3 L 365 days Php 45

( )( )( ) = 𝐏𝐡𝐩 𝟐, 𝟒𝟔𝟑. 𝟕𝟓/𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫
day year 20 L
121
He spends Php 2,463.75 /year or Php. 6.75/ Liter
With the machine of Annual Profit = Php.1, 888,103.62,
Php. 1,888,103.62 1year day operation

( )( )( )( ) = 𝐏𝐡𝐩 𝟐. 𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟗𝟕/ 𝐋
Year 365 days 1operation 2376 L
He spends Php. 794.6576684/year or Php. 2.177144297/ Liter
122
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This chapter represent the summary of findings, conclusions and
recommendations of water treatment system.
Summary of Findings
After conducting the preliminary testing parameters, the performance of the
water treatment system was evaluated and the summary of the results are hereby
presented.
1. The main components of the machine include Storage water tank, water
pump, and different kind of filters, Ultraviolet disinfection unit, battery, and inverter.
2. The settling time was 5 minutes.
3. The total battery life is 4 hours for the whole process.
4. Total operating capacity of 2640 liters for 4 hours operation.
6. The average treatment rate was 11,111 cc/min
7. Total Operating time was 4 hours, the total time water travel from storage
water tank until it reached the outlet port was 33 seconds and filtration time
measured starting when water reached the first filter until it reaches the end of last
filter was 15 seconds.
8. There was a significant difference between the influent and the effluent
in terms of pH, Chloride, Total dissolved solids, manganese and total, fecal and
heterotrophic coliform.
9. Operating conditions such as 12 L/min pump flow rate with operating
pressure of 8 bar, 3 gpm Disinfecting rate and 11,111 cc/min (11.11 L/min) filtration
123
rate gave an average of 21.21% pH correction, 96.67 % chloride reduction, 70.19%
total dissolved solid reduction and 97.97 % manganese reduction with an average
of 71.51% filter efficiency and 95.8% Ultraviolet lamp disinfection efficiency.
10. The annual operational cost was 63, 186 .38 pesos per year and annual
sale was 1, 951, 290 pesos per year with the profit of 1, 888, 103.62 per year
operating for 4 hours every day
Conclusions
Based on the results gathered in the study, the following conclusions were
made.
1. The property of effluent in terms of in terms of pH, Chloride, TDS,
Manganese, and total, fecal and heterotrophic coliform through the use of the
fabricated water treatment system passed the Philippines National Standard for
drinking water (PNSDW 2017).
2. The lower the flow rate that passes through the Ultraviolet disinfection
unit the greater the efficiency of the disinfection.
3. The lower the flow rate the greater the contact time of contaminants to
the filter, the greater the efficiency of filtration.
4. More settling time results in higher turbidity removal.
5. The fabricated water treatment machine produced potable water even
without available Alternating current power source
Recommendations
Based on the summary of findings and conclusions, the proponents of this
124
study recommended the following to further utilize the benefits of the water
treatment system.
1. For a whole 8 hours operation it is advisable to provide another two 100 ampere
hour 12 volts battery or a 220 volts Ac generator to suffice the need of full
operation.
2. For a large scale operation it is recommended to increase capacity of pump and
adding more filters and Ultraviolet disinfection unit.
3. Additional process like chlorination and Solar disinfection may be introduce for
further study
4. Trying other type of filters is also recommended
5. Varying the flow rate for experimentation can be considered.
6. In order to make the fabricated wastewater treatment system more efficient and
effective, more experiments and researches must be conducted.
7. The operator of the prototype is highly recommended to have the knowledge in
the operation and maintenance procedure of the prototype.
8. In pursuing for large scale operation, further modifications of the prototype,
such as but not limited to having larger capacity, are recommended.
9. Trying other types of wastewater to be treated by the prototype is highly
recommended for further study of its efficiency on other water contaminants
125
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Published Documents
ASCE (1991). Slow sand filtration. Logsdon, G.S. (Ed). American Society of Civil
Engineers, New York, USA.
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132
APPENDIX A
Proposed Design of the Prototype
133
Water Treatment machine
134
Top View of Water Treatment Machine
135
Left Side View of Water Treatment machine
136
Front View of the Water Treatment machine
137
Labelled parts of the Water Treatment machine
138
APPENDIX B
Cost Estimates
139
Cost
This table represents the First cost for the fabrication of the activated carbon
filtration, ultraviolet lamp and solar disinfection.
Material Cost
Angle Bar 1155
Ball Valve 400
Faucet 250
Polyvinyl Chloride and Fittings 1500
Pump And Motor 4500
Steel Sheet 14000
Ultra Violet Lamp 14 watts 5000
Wheels 1400
Inverter 2195
Battery 4500
Total 34,900
140
APPENDIX C
Cost-Benefit Analysis
141
Annual Sales> Total Annual Expenditure
Expenditures:
 Electric Consumption for motor (0.5hp) annually
o *Php 8.25/kWh- cost of electricity as of January 1, 2018
o For every 8 hours of operation,
0.746 𝑘𝑤ℎ 4 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑘𝑊ℎ

(. 5 ℎ𝑝 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟) ( )( ) = 1.492
1 ℎ𝑝 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

( )( )( )( ) = 𝑷𝒉𝒑 𝟒𝟒𝟗𝟐. 𝟕𝟓 /𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
 Electric Consumption for Ultraviolet Lamp (14w) annually

For every 8 hours of operation,
1 kWh 4 hours 𝑘𝑊ℎ

(14w − hour) ( )( ) = 0.056
1000 w − hour Operation 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

( )( )( )( ) = 𝑷𝒉𝒑 𝟏𝟔𝟖. 𝟔𝟑 /𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
 Cost of Filter
o Sediment Filter : Php 75.00
o Granulated Carbon Filter : Php 175.00
o Resin Filter : Php 225.00
o Carbon Block Filter : Php 175.00
Sediment filters are replaced every 1 months,
Php 75.00 x 12months = Php. 900.00
Granulated Carbon, resin filter and carbon block filter are replaced every 4
months.
Php 575.00 x 3 = Php 1725.00
Labor Cost = Php. 15, 000.00

Maintenance Cost = Php. 1, 000.00
142
Annual Sales
Using 90% Theoretical yield
Computing for the filtration rate,
660 L 4 hours 𝐿
( hours) (Operation) (0.9 ) = 2376 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Computing for the Annual Sales,

 At Php 45/ 20 L
o (Splendor Purified Water Refilling Station; Amiga
Water Refilling Station)
2376 L 1 Operation 365 days Php 45

( )( )( )( ) = 𝐏𝐡𝐩 𝟏, 𝟗𝟓𝟏, 𝟐𝟗𝟎. 𝟎𝟎/𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫
Operation day year 20 L
Total Expenditures per year basis

 First Cost Php. 34,900.00
 Labor Cost Php. 20,000.00
 Maintenance Cost Php. 1,000.00
 Electric Consumption of pump Php. 4492.75
 Electric Consumption of UV Lamp Php. 168.63
 Cost of Filter Php. 2625.00
Total Php. 63,186.38/year
Annual Sales = 𝐏𝐡𝐩 𝟏, 𝟗𝟓𝟏, 𝟐𝟗𝟎. 𝟎𝟎/𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫
Since Php. 1, 951,290.00 > Php. 63,186.38

Annual Profit = Php. 1,951,290.00 – 63186.38
Annual Profit = Php. 1, 888, 103.62
If a person needs 3L of water per day,
143
3 L 365 days Php 45
( )( )( ) = 𝐏𝐡𝐩 𝟐, 𝟒𝟔𝟑. 𝟕𝟓/𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫
day year 20 L
He spends Php 2,463.75 /year or Php. 6.75/ Liter
With the machine of Annual Profit = Php.1, 888,103.62,
Php. 1,888,103.62 1year day operation

( )( )( )( ) = 𝐏𝐡𝐩 𝟐. 𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟗𝟕/ 𝐋
Year 365 days 1operation 2376 L
He spends Php. 794.6576684/year or Php. 2.177144297/ Liter
144
APPENDIX D
Benefit Cost Ratio
145
A benefit-cost ratio indicator, used in the formal discipline of cost-
benefit analysis that attempts to summarize the overall value for money of a project
or proposal.
𝑩 (𝑬𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒔)(𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒖𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔)

=
𝑪 (𝑬𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕)(𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝑻𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒕)
Where B = Benefit
C = Cost
Estimated Sales = Php. 1, 888, 106. 62
Probability of Success = 80%
Estimated Cost = Php. 63,186.38
Probability of Achieving Cost Target = 95%
Substituting,
𝑩 (Php. 1, 888, 106. 62)(0.8)

=
𝑪 (Php. 63,186.38)(0.95)
𝑩
= 𝟐𝟓. 𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟐
𝑪
Therefore, 2.809975403 is the representation of a Php. 25.16340582
return for every Php. 1.00 invested. After one year of sales, it paid itself for
almost 3 times.
146
APPENDIX E
COLLECTION OF RAW MATERIALS
147
(A) (B)
(C)
(A)(B) Actual collection of raw water from Barangay Kalaglagan Mataas na

Kahoy Batangas. (C) Barangay Kinalaglagan Mataas na Kahoy Batangas
148
APPENDIX F
OPERATION and MAINTENEANCE MANUAL
149
OPERATION MANUAL OF THE WATER TREATMENT SYTEM FOR
PHILIPPINES DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT COUNCIL OF BATANGAS
150
The Water Treatment System is designed to produce potable water to work
during disaster. It work even without alternating current as supply since the
machine can work using 12 volts car battery by means of 12 volts dc current to
220 volts ac voltage inverter and can last for 4 hours continuous operation. Raw
water is placed in the storage tank and let to settle for 5 minutes before operation.
After settling time raw water was let to flow to different filters and to ultraviolet lamp
disinfection unit for filtration and disinfection process by means of pump. It consist
of outlet faucet and container where the treated water can be now used and ready
151
for consumption. It also consist of pump and Ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit push
button that control the function of this parts.
Components of the Prototype
Body Frame
Different kind of filters
Filter casing
Ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit
100 amh car battery
12 volts (DC) to 220 volts (AC) inverter
Raw water storage tank
Outlet faucet and container
Operation
For effective use of water treatment system, operator must know the
process and must be properly trained. Safety handling of parts must be employed
to avoid hazards and ensure proper operation. Below are steps to ensure proper
operation of the water treatment system:
When using alternating current as power source:
1. Conduct a safety inspection on the components specially the electrical
part of water treatment system.
2. Before start of operation make sure that the main ball valve between
pump and raw water storage tank are closed to ensure settling time.
3. Ensure that water pipe, Ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit, pump and ball
valve are well-fitted and intact.
152
4. Ensure that the circuit breaker and inverter are turned off.
5. Close the by-pass valve.
6. Connect the pump and Ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit to the outlet
socket down to the AC socket.
7. Turn on the circuit breaker
8. Turn on the Ultraviolet lamp.
9. Pour raw water on the raw water storage tank and wait for 5 minutes for
settling.
10. To start the operation, open the main ball valve and the outlet water
faucet.
11. Turn on the water pump.
12. Have a container to the outlet faucet to catch the treated water and
which is ready for use.
13. Turn off the pump and the ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit after use.
14. Turn off the circuit breaker.
15. Disconnect from the AC outlet.
When using Direct Current as power source:
153
3. Ensure that water pipe, Ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit, pump and ball
valve are well-fitted and intact.
4. Ensure that the inverter is turned off.
5. Close the by-pass valve.
6. Connect the pump and Ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit to the outlet
socket.
7. Connect the battery clip to the battery.
8. Turn on the inverter and check the power indicator.
10. Turn on the Ultraviolet lamp.
settling.
faucet.
15. Turn off the pump and the ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit after use.
16. Turn off the circuit breaker and then the inverter.
17. Disconnect the battery clip.
When Ultraviolet lamp is will not be used or out of service:
154
3. Ensure that water pipe, pump and ball valves are well-fitted and intact.
4. Ensure that the circuit breaker and inverter are turned off.
5. Close the inlet and outlet valves of the ultraviolet lamp.
6. Open the bypass valve.
7. Connect the pump unit to the outlet socket down to the AC socket.
settling.
faucet.
13. Turn off the pump unit after use.
14. Turn off the circuit breaker.
15. Disconnect from the AC outlet.
155
Safety Precautions
The following are the safety reminders when operating the Water treatment
system
1. Make sure components are clean and dry before operation.
2. Make sure that electrical wiring and electrical equipment are free of water
3. Ensure that water pipes, ball valves, ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit and
pump are well fitted to avoid leakage.
4. Make sure that inverter power button is off before connecting battery to
inverter to avoid electrical spark.
5. Have a regular electrical checkup.
6. Avoid over drain the battery it is advisable to have a list of time of usage of
battery to monitor battery life.
7. Observe electrical awareness since you’re working with high voltage
machine.
8. Observe for possible short circuit within the machine.
9. Observe safety handling and follow general safety for Water treatment
system.
10. Follow machine operation procedures.
11. Do not touch any electrical component and battery by naked hand to avoid
electrical shock
12. Make sure that all valves are set closed and make sure that all filter and
casing are dry after operation.
156
13. Unplug pump, ultraviolet lamp disinfection unit, and inverter after operation.
14. Make sure that all push button are off and battery is disconnected from
inverter after use.
15. Ensure before starting the pump that outlet water faucet is open.
16. Do not run the pump when the main ball valve between the raw water
storage tank and pump is closed
157
MAINTENANCE MANUAL OF WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM
Maintenance Procedures
Sustaining the efficiency and maximizing the life span and performance of
the machine depend on the operator’s proper usage and ability to maintain it well.
The following are the necessary practices to be employed in the operation
of the water treatment system:
1. For the machine to attain longer economic life proper use and following the
standard procedure of operation is needed.
2. Always clean all the components properly and make it dry after use.
3. Avoid using the machine when electrical parts are still wet.
4. Conduct a regular inspection of the machine for possible leakage to prevent
damages.
5. Always check electrical wiring and for possible electrical malfunction.
4. Check fittings, valves, interconnections for any possible leakages.
5. Regularly check the assembly of the components to ensure good condition of
the machine.
6. Replace filters as recommended.
7. Recharge battery as necessary.
158
APPENDIX G
SCHEDULE OF ACTIVITIES
159
Schedule of Activities
Year 2017 2018

Activity Month Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan
Week 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Components and
Material
Acquisition
Fabrication
Preliminary Testing
Final Performance
Testing
Experimental
Project II
Testing
Data Collection
and
Documentation
Data Analysis and
Review
Final Revision
Oral Defence
Manuscript
Revision
Approval of Project
160
Appendix H
Laboratory Results
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
Appendix I
Curriculum Vitae
169
Personal Data
Name : Cera, Kim G.
Address : Ambulong Batangas City
Age : 26 years old
Sex : Male
Citizenship : Filipino
Civil Status : Single
Birthdate : August 25, 1990
Educational Background
Tertiary Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering (present)

Batangas State University
Alaniglan Batangas City
Bachelor of Science in Nursing (2011)

Lyceum of the Philippines University – Batangas
Capitol Site Batangas City
Secondary Batangas State University- Integrated School (2007)

Rizal Avenue Batangas City
Primary Divince Child Academy (2003)

P. Panganiban Street Batangas City
170
Personal Data
Name : Marcojos, Marvin A.
Address : Dao, Tuy, Batangas
Age : 21 years old
Sex : Male
Birthdate : November 22, 1995

Secondary Balayan National High School (2012)

Balayan Batangas
Primary Dao Elementary School (2008)

Dao, Tuy, Batangas
171
Personal Data
Name : Tenorio, John Albert L.
Address : Tulay, Ibaan Batangas
Age : 23 years old
Sex : Male
Birthdate : April 4, 1994

Secondary Dr. Juan A. Pastor Memorial National Highschool (2010)

Talaibon, Ibaan Batangas
Primary Tulay Elementary School

Tulay, Ibaan Batangas
172

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CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Water is a necessity to sustain life. The availability of its sources as well as

Though the Earth is covered of 70 percent of water, only 2.5 percent of it is

its 6.8 billion people. (National Geographic, 2015)

climate change, rapid evolution of technology, competition for resources,

engineering and regulations related to water. Some regions may be abundant in

freshwater while others face drought or water pollution.

With the rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization, it

translates into economic costs. Excessive amounts of microbes or chemicals

related diseases. If water sources are not protected, or are unexpectedly

contaminated for any reason, the quality of drinking water suffers.

absence of local expertise in the construction and maintenance of water systems,

conflicts, and natural disasters. (National Academy of Sciences, 2007). These

Visual inspection cannot determine if water is of appropriate quality. Simple

determining what kind of treatment. When it comes to preserving and protecting

of basic knowledge about sanitation and hygiene practices results in the

needless contamination of critical water resources. This can become a cyclical

empowered them to improve their own lives.

In relation to the aforementioned situation, the researchers propose to apply

carbon block filtration and ultraviolet lamp disinfection.

Background of the Study

water. Water supplies face environmental pressures as well as human ones.

bring plentiful rains in some years and drought in others.

Access to clean and adequate water remains an acute seasonal problem in

critical regions in terms of water quality and quantity. (Philippines: Environment

to make their drinking water safe.

The Department of Health has recognized the contribution that household

preventing disease, both on a routine basis and as part of an emergency response.

immediately in a relief operation. Unfortunately, the availability of water from public

water systems is often compromised in the aftermath of such an event.

Reduction Management Council of Batangas which spearheads the relief

operations during an event of calamity in the province. It is the agency tasked to

also monitors human-induced emergencies, such as armed conflicts and maritime

people until more permanent and sustainable solutions can be found.

Without significant aid, such as the establishment of temporary distribution

little water a bitter legacy of an already-catastrophic event. Therefore, the design

Objectives of the Study

system using filtration and disinfection.

Specifically, this study aims to:

1. Design a water treatment system using widely available materials and

considering the following:

1.1 materials specification and

1.2 system components

2. Fabricate a water treatment system using sediment filtration, resin

filtration, granulated activated carbon filtration, activated carbon block

filtration and ultraviolet lamp disinfection according to design specifications

and requirements created.

3. Conduct preliminary testing of the prototype to establish the following

3.1 operating capacity

3.2 operating time

3.3 operating pressure

4. Test the performance of the prototype in terms of:

4.1 filtration rate

4.2 filtration efficiency

4.4 production rate

5. Test the properties of the treated water in terms of:

5.1 Physical properties

5.1.3 total dissolved solids

5.2 Chemical properties

5.3 Microbiological properties

5.3.1 total coliform

5.3.2 fecal coliform