Language interpretation

Language interpretation is the facilitating of oral or sign-language communication, either

simultaneously or consecutively, between users of different languages. The process is described by
both the words interpreting and interpretation. Translation studies deal with the systematic study of
the theory, the description and the application of language interpretation and translation. In
professional parlance, interpreting denotes the facilitating of communication from one language form
into its equivalent, or approximate equivalent, in another language form; while interpretation denotes
the actual product of this work, that is, the message thus rendered into speech, sign language,
writing, non-manual signals, or other language form. This important distinction is observed in order
to avoid confusion.

An interpreter is a person who converts a thought or expression in a source language into an

expression with a comparable meaning in a target language either simultaneously in "real time" or
consecutively after one party has finished speaking. The interpreter's function is to convey every
semantic element and every intention and feeling of the message that the source-language speaker
is directing to target-language recipients.

Interpreting is a translational activity in which one produces a first and final translation on the basis
of a one-time exposure to an expression in a source language.
The most common two modes of interpreting are simultaneous interpreting, which is done at the
time of the exposure to the source language, and consecutive interpreting, which is done at
breaks to this exposure.
Interpreting is an ancient human activity which predates the invention of writing.[1] However, the
origins of the profession of interpreting date back to less than a century ago.

Language Interpretation and Translation

Skills in language interpretation and translation have applications in a number of career fields. Continue
reading for more information about topics covered in undergraduate and graduate degree programs in
addition to career opportunities.

Is Language Interpretation and Translation for Me?

Career Overview

Language interpretation pertains to oral communication with two or more different languages,
while language translation deals with written language. You can work as a translator or interpreter within
many industries. For example, if you're interested in the legal system, you might want to become a
judiciary translator or court interpreter. As a sign-language interpreter, you'd help deaf or hearing-impaired
people communicate. Other career titles may include literary translator, medical interpreter or translator,
conference interpreters and guide interpreters
Translation is living through a period of revolutionary upheaval. The effects of digital technology
and the internet on translation are continuous, widespread and profound. From automatic online
translation services to the rise of crowdsourced translation and the proliferation of translation Apps
for smartphones, the translation revolution is everywhere. The implications for human languages,
cultures and society of this revolution are radical and far-reaching. In the Information Age that is
the Translation Age, new ways of talking and thinking about translation which take full account of
the dramatic changes in the digital sphere are urgently required. Michael Cronin examines the role
of translation with regard to the debates around emerging digital technologies and analyses their
social, cultural and political consequences, guiding readers through the beginnings of translation's
engagement with technology, and through to the key issues that exist today. With links to many
areas of study, Translation in the Digital Age is a vital read for students of modern languages,
translation studies, cultural studies and applied linguistics.

Translators in the digital era

Translation is living through a period of revolutionary upheaval. The effects of digital technology
and the internet on translation are continuous, widespread and profound. From automatic online
translation services to the rise of crowdsourced translation and the proliferation of translation Apps
for smartphones, the translation revolution is everywhere. The implications for human languages,
cultures and society of this revolution are radical and far-reaching. In the Information Age that is
the Translation Age, new ways of talking and thinking about translation which take full account of
the dramatic changes in the digital sphere are urgently required. Michael Cronin examines the role
of translation with regard to the debates around emerging digital technologies and analyses their
social, cultural and political consequences, guiding readers through the beginnings of translation's
engagement with technology, and through to the key issues that exist today. With links to many
areas of study, Translation in the Digital Age is a vital read for students of modern languages,
translation studies, cultural studies and applied linguistics.

The Role of Legal Translations in the

Digital Era
by Ronnie Avelino

The Internet and globalization have started an increased need for translation services.
More companies today have to deal with the global community, which results in the
creation of additional digital documents in various languages. Most of these documents
are legal in nature. Corporate documents and company websites contain privacy rules,
service contracts, terms of use and licenses. All of them use legal phraseology that
should be translated in many languages to ensure the complete comprehension of
target audiences.

A legal document is complex and intricate and even if it is in one's own language, it can
still be incomprehensible and obscure. The role of the legal translator or a legal
translation company is to ensure that the source document is accurately rendered in the
target language. The translator should make sure that the legal document is
comprehensible in the new language.

The complexity and burden of legal translation is huge. The legal translator has to
contend with two different languages, two different cultures and two different legal
systems.

Consistency in work processes

Globalization means that effective communication is necessary and it is vital that the
language barrier is overcome. Legal translations are not confined to legal cases. Many
industries and services require legal translation in the same manner that technology
touches these same services and industries.

Specific terminology is used in different legal translation projects. Aside from creating a
terminology database, digital technology can make the database accessible to clients,
authorized users and the translation company to ensure the consistent use of the
particular terminology across different platforms.

No replacement for human translators

While computer-aided tools help facilitate the execution of some translation processes,
the actual processes of translating a legal document from the source language to the
target language can only be done by a human translator.

Legal documents are complex and intricate and their translation requires care and
precision. With legalese being what it is, a subject matter expert is needed for legal
translation because the legal language is different from standard language. And since
most people are comfortable reading information in their own language, the more
essential it is for the nuances of the language and the proper legal language suitable to
the situation and circumstances are used, which is something that machine translation
cannot do.

Working together
Digital technology and legal translation benefit from working together. Digital technology
created translation memory tools, online databases and corpora, cloud-based
workspaces and machine translation tools. Technology makes their work more time-
efficient and effective and the use of these modern technologies helps developers
create better and more responsive translation tools.

The work of legal translators is not going to go away but it's going to change for the
better, ensuring that they can deliver more consistent work because of digital
technology.
7 Main Functions of Language |
Forms | Human Behaviour |
Psychology

This article throws light upon the seven main functions of language.
The functions are: 1. Expressive and Communicative Functions 2.
Interpretative Functions 3. Control function 4. The Functions of
Remembering and Thinking 5. The Discovery of One’s Name 6. Social
Functions of Language 7. Creative Functions.

Function # 1. Expressive and Communicative Functions:

The most basic function of language as we can guess, is that of the
expressive function, an attempt to express a sudden change of state,
fear, delight, pain or confusion. Whatever it is, such an expression is
not a deliberate, conscious expression, but a spontaneous, immediate
response not directed towards any other object.

Incidentally, in many cases this also serves as a communication to

other members of the group or species, particularly in situations of
danger. Most probably, these functions are automatic instinctual
functions, and found in lower organisms also. However, at the human
level, the communicative role assumes more crucial importance
Function # 2. Interpretative Functions:
It may be seen that when a particular occurrence or expression serves
as a stimulus to others it also serves a function of becoming aware of
interpreting a particular situation. Thus, the cry of one animal in the
face of danger is interpreted by other members of the species. The
interpretative function is very obvious at the human level.

The interpretative function serves to restore a state of cognitive

equilibrium. While the stimulus itself creates a condition of
uncertainty or novelty, the interpretation serves to clarify the situation
and restore the equilibrium. Such an interpretation helps to place the
information in an appropriate position or slot in one’s cognitive world.

Thus, when an offspring gets separated from the mother and suddenly
finds her again the sound that may be made is different from the one
that would have been made if a strange animal is seen. The sounds on
the two occasions, may be phonetically similar, but there is a
difference in the meanings of the two sounds meaning in a very
elementary sense.

One may question whether one can attribute qualities like meaning,
cognition, etc. to animals. But one may also ask why not? Human
bigotry particularly, that of the social scientists has prevented them
from being objective and honest. Thus, the second major function of
the language is to help the organism to interpret and organise
cognitive experiences and position them in one’s cognitive world.

Function # 3. Control Function:

When one talks of the function of control, there emerges a social
dimension apart from the individual dimension. Gradually, as
associations get established between certain states of existence and a
stimulus on the one hand and certain sounds, there results a
reproducibility of a reaction. Thus, the child cries when he is hungry or
suffering from pain. This cry in turn makes the mother, or even the
animal mother to rush and help. Here is the beginning of control.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The cry brings the mother’s attention and hope, and in later years the
attention of those who are dear and close and those who are in a
position to support. This is the first experience of mastering the
environment and ability to control. Here it may be seen that at simple
levels, this control function may not be deliberate and conscious, but
as one grows and the environment becomes more organised, the
control function of language becomes more and more central.
All of us feel comfortable to talk to a person if we know his name.
Whenever we meet a familiar face, we feel comfortable if we can
remember his name. The importance of words, slogans, and ‘clarion
calls’ in controlling the people and mob is too well-known to need any
extensive discussion.

Function # 4. The Functions of Remembering and Thinking:

Imagine our being able to think and remember without the use of
words. It is almost impossible to recall or remember or think without
the use of words and therefore, language. It is language, which helps
us to encode experiences, store them and retrieve and decode. It is
language, which helps us to translate experiences into thought and
engage in processes of different types.

Function # 5. The Discovery of One’s Name:

One of the important milestones in the development of the child is the
discovery that he or she has a name and, this is the beginning of the
sense of self- identity which leads to feelings like me, mine, others, not
me, etc. The discovery of one’s name plays a very crucial role in the
overall psychological development of the individual.

It is the beginning of self-identity, and an attempt to look at oneself as

an object. It is this which essentially makes for a difference between
human organism and the non-human organism and between a very
young child and an adult and mentally disturbed adult.

This issue of formation of self-concept and self-identity has been

examined in greater detail elsewhere but the important point to
remember is the very critical role played by language in the
development of the self and overall psychological development.

Function # 6. Social Functions of Language:

In addition to these individual functions, language performs a very
important social function. While promoting a sense of personal
identity language also serves to develop a sense of social identity, a
sense of belongingness to a particular group, marking out different
degrees of social proximity and distance.

All of us belong to social groups speaking the same language.

Similarly, the national anthem which is nothing but a set of words
creates and maintains a sense of social identity. However, sometimes,
this sense of social identity if it is very narrow, can result in social
conflicts and confrontations between different groups.

Function # 7. Creative Functions:

Language plays a very crucial role in imaginative and creative activity.
Is it possible to think of writing a novel or poetry without language?
Language, then not only helps us to control and regulate our
cognitions but also enables us to break free and engage in creative
imagination. Here again, paradoxically, language also contributes to
the emergence of very ‘creative’ delusions and belief systems in the
mentally ill.

On the whole, one can see the very critical and crucial role played ‘by
language in our life. It is perhaps, impossible to think of any place or
situation in life where one can function without the help of language.
Apart from the common functions of expression and communication,
the psychological and social functions played by language are very
crucial and are becoming more and more important in today’s world.

This discussion of the functions of languages is rather brief, and has

been attempted only to highlight the major functions. Perhaps, one
can highlight many more functions of language. No wonder, freedom
of speech is regarded as the most fundamental right.
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LITERATURE HISTORY OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE
CLASSICAL WORLD GREEK AND ROMANS The following characteristics are depicted: 
Characterized by Oral storytelling  Composed of Greek and Roman myths and epics  Children
heard and presumably, enjoyed the same stories as their parents, whether they were the
adventurous tales of cultural heroes  Fables emerged during those times through Aesop. The
theme and characters appeal to children and the stories are often humorous and entertaining for
kids of all ages. These illustrate a particular moral and teach a lesson to children and kids.
Greek’s Famous Author and Literary Works Illiad and Odyssey (Homer) Trojan War (From
Homer’s Illiad) Jason and the Golden Fleece The adventure of Hercules The Travels of Odysseus
(From Homer’s Odyssey) History of Children's Literature under Classical World (Greek and
Roman) 500 BCE – 400 CE All literature began with the ancient art of storytelling. Our
ancestors told stories to entertain each other, to comfort each other, to instruct the young in the
lessons of living, to pass on their religious and cultural heritage. Storytelling is an integral part of
every world culture. In early times, Western civilization has its roots in the cultures of ancient
Greece and Rome, which flourished between about 500 BCE and 400 CE, now known as the
Classical period. Greece in the fifth century BCE is in many ways the birthplace of Western
culture and so that is where our story begins. In this cradle of democracy and individualism,
children grew up with the stories of the Trojan War (from Homer's Iliad) and of the travels of
Odysseus (from Homer's Odyssey) and the stories of Jason and the Golden Fleece and the
adventures of Hercules. They also knew of the now-famous fables attributed to the slave Aesop,
believed to be a teacher, writing to instruct his students in cultural and personal values. With the
decline of Greek civilization, the Roman Empire rose to power, but the Romans remained under
the long shadow of Greeks, whom they greatly admired. The children of Rome in the first
century CE undoubtedly knew not only Homer's tales, but also Virgil's Aeneid, which recounted
the stories of Aeneas, the Trojan hero who was credited with founding the Roman race. They
also knew the wildly imaginative tales of Ovid's Metamorphoses, the tales of the gods,
goddesses, heroes, and heroines of the classical world. The power of these ancient stories
remains with us, and modern writers and illustrators frequently turn to the Greek and Roman
myths for inspiration and retelling. Our culture is filled with references to these Classical stories-
we speak of Achilles' heels, Herculean tasks, the Midas touch, Pandora's Box, and sour grapes (a
reference to one of Aesop's fables). Planets, galaxies and star clusters, days of the week, months
of the year, automobile tires, and tennis shoes-all bear names of classical gods and heroes. These
stories are both exciting and an important part of our cultural heritage-they should not be missed.
A great many of these stories live today and children continue to find them fascinating. The
retellings by the poet Padraic Colum (The Children's Homer and The Golden Fleece) are
excellent sources for children. Most recently, Jeanne Steig's A Gift from Zeus: Sixteen Favorite
Myths is a lively-sometimes racy-version for modern middle and high school audiences, and it is
illustrated by William Steig's earthy, even ribald, drawings. It is just the kind of rendition to
bring the stories to life for older readers. These myths are an essential part of culture and
indispensable to any well-rounded education. MIDDLE AGES The following characteristics are
depicted:  Religious tales / Biblical stories  Set examples for children, for a didactic purpose 
Created a mixture of realism and fantasy  Romantic tales / Legends Famous Author and literary
works  In 600 A.D., the Old English period, monks and other learned men wrote “lesson
books” for children.  Aldhelm (640 - 700 AD), Bishop of Sherborne, was probably the first
man to write lesson books for children. a. Riddles and puzzles children had to be solved were
written in Latin. b. He set the pattern for all books of instruction from that time up to 1500 A.D.
All books used question and answer form and were written in verse  The Venerable Bede (763-
735 A.D.) was a teacher at a monastery school. a. His lessons showed more imagination; they
were a spark of learning in the Dark Ages. b. They contained all the knowledge then known of
natural science, natural history, and the study of plants and flowers and stars.  Egbert of York
(766 A.D.) founded the famous school of York. a. Collected the works of the previous monks
and books by outstanding Greek and Roman authors. b. Wrote a variety of lesson books, still
using question and answer (dialogue) method. c. Many books on grammar. d. Tutored sons and
daughter of the household at the court of Charlemagne (the 1st Holy Roman Emperor). It is also
one of earliest records of co-education.  Alfred the Great (849-399 A.D.), King of England who
drove back the invasion of the Danes. a. He translated Latin Literature into Anglo-Saxon with
the help of many scholars. b. Until 1350, children in monastery schools had to read and speak
Latin in and out of school. c. He had the best literature of his time translated from Latin into old
English so it would be understandable to the common man.  Anselm (1033-1109 A.D.), the
Archbishop of Canterbury, wrote the first encyclopedia for children. a. First book published was
The Bible.  William Caxton was the creator of the 1st English printer in 1476. a. His first
publication was Aesop’s Fables. b. The romantic tales of the legendary King Arthur and the
knights of the round table or of the great heroes Roland(from France) c. The Cid (from Spain) d.
Beowulf (from the Norse) e. Dragon Slayer (1976) (Retelling of the Old English Epic,Rosemary
Sutcliff) f. Arthur and his knights in The Light Beyond the Forest (1979) g. The sword and the
circle (1981) h. Selma Hastings’s Sir Gawain and The Green Knight(1981) i. Barbara Cooney’s
picture book j. Chanticleer and the fox (1958) –adapted from Chaucer History of Children's
Literature under Middle Ages 476 CE – 1400 Following the fall of the Roman Empire in 476
CE, European civilization entered a period of decline. Much of the knowledge of the Classical
world was lost during the early chaotic period historians once referred to as the Dark Ages. We
now call the period between the fall of Rome and the rise of the Renaissance (in about the
fourteenth century) the Middle Ages-literally because they fell between the Classical and
Renaissance periods. During the Middle Ages the Roman Catholic Church dominated the social
and political scene and was responsible for what education there was. Throughout the Middle
Ages, poverty was wide-spread and life for the average person was very difficult-much harsher
than it had been in the ancient Greek and Roman worlds. Education was a luxury, and few
people could read or write. Books were extremely rare and expensive, for they had to be hand
copied on costly parchment. A single bible could take as long as three years to produce, and in
many medieval libraries the books were chained to the desks to discourage theft. As it was in the
Classical world, the oral tradition was the principal entertainment for most people. Local Story
tellers and professional bards (the famous wandering minstrels) recited stories and poems for
eager audiences. What stories did they recite? Biblical stories were among the most popular-both
Old and New Testament-and so were the stories of the lives of saints of the church. The lives of
saints were used to set examples for young people. In addition to religious tales, nonreligious-
secularstories were also popular. The romantic tales of the legendary king Arthur and the
Knights of the Round Table or of the great heroes Roland (from France) or the Cid (from Spain)
or even Beowulf (from the Norse) surely thrilled many children and adults, for, as in the
Classical period, children and adults shared a common literature. The exciting battle scenes,
powerful heroes, and wondrous enchantments of these romances made them very popular-and
many remain so today. Children's versions of these tales are easy to find. Rosemary Sutcliff's
Dragon Slayer (1976) is a retelling of the old English epic, Beowulf and she has also retold the
legends of King Arthur and his knights in 7he Light beyond the Forest (1979), The Sword and
the Circle (1981), and 7he Road to Camlann (1981). Some of the Arthurian stories have been
transformed into modem picture books, as in Selma Hastings's Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
(1981). Barbara Cooney's picture book, Chanticleer and the Fox (1958), adapted from Chaucer,
is a retelling of a favorite medieval trickster tale about Reynard the Fox. Many of the stories
from this period are exciting narratives that have become an indelible part of our society. Our
entire reading experience is enriched if we know the stories of Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel,
Noah and the flood, Jonah and the whale, and the tower of Babel-side by side with those of King
Arthur and Sir Launcelot and Queen Guinevere. RENAISSANCE PERIOD The following
characteristics are depicted:  Rise of Educational books  Promoted mass education  Helped
to keep interest in traditional tales  The printing press made it possible to make multiple copies
of books  The emphasis was on spiritual and intellectual development  Emphasized giving
lessons in proper behavior for boys  Emergence of Chapbooks (small and cheaply made books
containing fairy tale)  Books were too expensive to be used by children, so the Hornbook was
created for them about 1550. It was the first “permanent” book. Famous author and literary
works  Hornbook a. It was a square piece of wood with a handle at one end (much like an old
time paddle or the shape of an old cutting board), which measured 2 3/4 inches of wood by 5
inches. b. A printed page of vellum (made from skin of calf, lamb or kid) was pasted on the
board. c. The page was protected by transparent piece of horn (a hard, smooth material forming
the outer cover of the horns of cattle and other related animals). d. The book was often bound by
a metal rim and had a cord through hole in handle and was fastened to a child’s belt/girdle.
Another source said it was worn about the neck. e. The text contained the christcross, followed
by the alphabet in lower and upper case. Groups of syllables were written below the letters. f.
The next piece of text was the words “In the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
Ghost. Amen.” g. The final text was “The Lord’s Prayer.” (Our Father, who art in heaven, etc.)
h. After the hornbook, rhymed alphabets and primers were published for children. i. The Royal
Primer had a letter of alphabet, followed by a familiar verse. Ex. A In Adam’s fall, we sinned all.
This primer sold 5 million copies during the hundred years it was used as a text book for younger
children. j. This version was followed by the New England Primer, published in Boston in 1690.
(Remember the Pilgrims arrived in 1620.)  Orbis Sensualism Pictus by John Comenius (1658) -
the 1st children’s picture book  New England Primer (1690 -1886) - the most famous early
school book  Sir Thomas Elyot’s The Book Named the Governor(1531)  John Foxe’s Book of
Martyrs(1563)  John Comenius's Orbis Sensttaliurn Picttts(1658)  Roger Ascham’s The
Scholemaster(1570)  Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crtlsoe (1719)  Jonathan Swift's Galliver's
i'kuels (1726) History of Children's Literature under Renaissance Period 1400 – 1700 Around
1400, a new era began in Europe. It was called the Renaissance, a term meaning "rebirth,"
because people saw it as a rebirth of the ideals of ancient Greece and Rometheir art, literature,
philosophy, and especially their respect for learning. Of course, the changes did not happen
overnight, but the changes did come. The Crusades of the eleventh and twelfth centuries had
opened up trading routes to the Far East, which brought both wealth and new ideas to Europe.
Strong rulers rose up and established stable kingdoms with written laws. Trade, industry, and
learning advanced. In 1492, Columbus's voyage to the Americas resulted in the founding of
overseas empires, which brought great wealth to many European kingdoms (sadly, at great
expense to the native peoples). However, one development would overshadow all others. Around
1450, a German named Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable-type printing press-said by
many to be the most significant invention of the last thousand years. (Actually the Chinese
originally developed the technology, but the Europeans put it to practical use.) It is difficult to
exaggerate the importance of this event. The printing press made it possible to make multiple
copies of books in a fraction of the time it took to hand copy them. In just a few decades, books
became plentiful. Now it was possible to spread information quickly, and this opened the door to
mass education. During the early Renaissance, most books specifically for children were
textbooks or educational books. Sir Thomas Elyot's The Book Named the Governor (1531) and
Roger Ascham's The Scholemaster (1570) are two examples of "books of courtesy," giving
lessons in proper behaviour for young gentlemen. (Women did not yet merit their own books.)
The Renaissance, like the Middle Ages, was a religious period and during this time the hatred
between the Roman Catholics and the Protestants resulted in much bloodshed. John Foxe's Book
of Martyrs (1563), an anti-Catholic work filled with grisly scenes of violent deaths for religion's
sake, was one of the most popular books among England's schoolchildren. On a cheerier note,
about one hundred years later, John Comenius's Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658) appeared. It is
generally regarded as the first children's picture book and was intended as a textbook for the
teaching of Latin through pictures.