Cell division

Chapter 5
Cell division
3. Involves mitosis and cytokinesis

5.1 mitosis

- Significance 5.2 Meiosis

- Chromosomes
- Cell cycle (G1,S,G2,M) Process
- Cytokinesis
Difference between meiosis I and meiosis II
- Animal and plant mitosis
Difference between meiosis and mitosis
- Uncontrolled mitosis
- cloning
 mitosis
4. Definition - the division of cell nucleus which produce 2 identical daughter nuclei
5. Cytokinesis - the division of cytoplasm into 2
6. They will look identical as their parents
 Significance of mitosis
1. Aim - increase the number of the cell.

2. Occur repeatedly to make trillions of

cells

3. Example - elongation of shoot and

roots is a result of mitosis of
meristematic tissue.
 Significance of mitosis
4. Repair dead / worn out tissues

5. Eg. red blood cell replacement

6. Eg. dead skin cell being replaced

7. Eg. injured organ being replaced (liver)

8. Regenerate the lost parts via mitosis

9. Basis of asexual reproduction ( eg. binary fission , budding )

10. Growth of new plants from organs

11. The product will have exactly the same genetic material and same characteristic with the
parent cell
 Chromosomes and chromosomal numbers
1. Genetic information in chromosomes. Chromosomes contain genes which determine the characteristics of organism.
2. Chromosome contains DNA.
 Chromosomes and chromosomal numbers
3. Each somatic cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Each pair of chromosomes is called homologous chromosomes.
Homologoud chromosomes - similar shape and size, carry the same types of genes
4. Chromosomes in pairs - diploid = 2n

human 23 pairs, n= 23

5. Diff organism diff chromosomal numbers

 The cell cycle
1. From formation to division. ( cell growth and asexual reproduction )
2. 2 main phases :
Interphase - G1, S, G2
Cell division / M phase - mitosis and cytokinesis

*chromosome change , what is done in that stage, division starts ady or not
Interphase - G1
G1- First gap phase

Cell decides division based on environment

(not divided yet)

get / synthesis materials for division

Synthesis protein and new organelles (eg.

enzymes,mitochondria)

High metabolic rate (generate new stuff)

Chromosomes are extremely fine -

chromatin
Interphase - G1
 Interphase - s phase
DNA Replication and chromosome duplication occur *copy paste DNA to form a pair of chromosome.

When DNA is replicated, each chromosome becomes duplicated.

A duplicated chromosome will become visible during mitosis , a pair of chromatids joined by centromere.
 Interphase - G2
Cell continues to grow and remains metabolically active (always dividing)

Enzymes and proteins are synthesised for cell division

Cell prepare for final cell division (store high energy)

Chromosome - a pair of homologous chromosomes

 Mitosis - m phase
Prophase

Nuclear membrane - disintegrate

Nucleolus - disappear

Chromosome - shortens and thickens ,

becomes visible as a pair joined with
centromere

Spindle fibre - emerge (to pull apart

chromosome later)

Centrioles - migrate to the opposite pole of

the cell
 Mitosis - m phase
Metaphase

Chromosomes - arrange randomly at the cell equator

Spindle fiber - completely formed.

Metaphase ends when the centromeres divides.

 Mitosis - m phase
Anaphase

Centromeres - splits/divides

Chromatids - are pulled to the opposite poles of the cells by

spindle threads/fibers

Anaphase ends when the chromosomes reach the poles of

the cell

(a chromatid-pulling process)
 Mitosis - m phase
Telophase

Chromosomes - reach the poles of the cell, revert to

chromatin

Spindle fiber - disappear

Nuclear membrane - reform and surround each

chromosome set

Nucleolus - reform

Mitosis(M phase) starts with prophase , ends with

telophase
 Cytokinesis in animal cell
Cytokinesis

Definition - the division of cytoplasm after mitosis

How ?

- Constriction of plasma membrane at the cell equator

- Cell breaks at the region and divided into 2 daughter cell
 Cytokinesis in plant cell

Cell plate is formed at the cell equator - enlarge until it touches plasma membrane

New cell wall is formed on each side of the plate

The cell is divided into 2 identical daughter cells

 Mitosis as a controlled process
1. Who decides when to divide ? genetic material in chromosome - DNA
2. Diff cell diff rate eg. skin cell undergoes mitosis every 49 days
3. to produce new skins and replace old dead skins
4. Cell in organs undergo mitosis whenever needed for repair , stop until fully grown
5. Mitosis in controlled to suit the needs of organisms, eg.
a. Stem of plant cut off to produce new shoot quickly
b. Lizard will grow new tail after cut off
c. Mitosis bring to healing when there is a cut off
d. Mitosis generate blood after blood lost or donation
 Uncontrolled mitosis
1. Mitosis out of control - leukemia
2. Caused by mutation in bone marrow
3. Bone marrow produce abnormal white blood cell at higher rate
4. Bone marrow produce red blood cell in very slow rate
5. Suffer from insufficient oxygen, weakness, difficulty in blood clotting.

6. Uncontrolled mitosis lead to tumour - abnormal cells

7. Benign tumour
8. Malignant tumour (suffer cancer)
9. Cancerous cell can be carried by blood or lymph to other parts of the bod to continue uncontrolled mitosis
 Application in cloning
1. Cloning - produce new individuals from a single parent by mitosis
2. Eg. asexual reproduction of plants from vegetative organ (naturally)
3. Tissue culture (artificially)- the growth in an artificial medium of cells derived from living tissue.
4. Young tissue used for cloning - the growing part of plants
5. The tissue cut is called explants
6. Explants transfer to a culture medium ( mineral nutrients and growth hormone to stimulate mitosis and growth )
7. Explants develop to shoots
8. Shoots are cut from explants , put into new culture medium , to develop root
9. When the young plants have rooted, they can be transferred to nursery to be nurtured until mature for plantation

Explant - shoot- root- nursery - plantation

The cloning of animal
Advantage Disadvantage

Identical plants with desired characteristics can be Disease spread with clones
produced.
No genetic variation among clones
Overcoming infertility problem
If infection happens , there is a risk of extinction
Short maturation time
Clones have shorter lifespan
 Meiosis
1. Human gamete - sperm and ovum
Haploid - each has 23 chromosomes , not paired , n=23

2. Meiosis - the number of chromosomes reduced to half

*to produce haploid gamete

3. During fertilisation, the zygote form will be diploid (2n)

Sperm + ovum = zygote
23 + 23 = 46
n+n=2n

4. Half chromosomes from mother , half chromosomes from father.

Traits from both parents are inherited by the offspring.
 THE CELLS THAT UNDERGO MEIOSIS
1. Plants - meiosis in anther and ovule
Male Gamete - haploid pollen in anther
Female gamete - haploid embryo sac in ovule
 The process of meiosis
1. Meiosis 1 - prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I
Meiosis ii - prophase ii , metaphase ii, anaphase ii, and telophase ii
2. Interphase before meiosis i
3. Cytokinesis at the end of i and ii
 Chromosome - not clearly visible
DNA replication
Chromosome duplication

Interphase before
meiosis
Prophase i
Chromosome in pair (after duplication)
Nuclear membrane disappear

Spindle formation begins

 Metaphase i
Spindle fibers pull the tetrads to the middle

Homologous arrange at equator, lined up side

by side as tetrads

Random arrangement - independent

assortment

Any chromosome could face any of the two poles

Anaphase i
 Telophase i
Chromosomes reach the poles

Each pole got a haploid daughter

nucleus

Spindle fibre disappear

Nuclear membrane and nucleoli

reform.
 cytokinesis
Usually occurs simultaneously with telophase i

Producing 2 haploid daughter cells

No DNA replication

Chromosomes remain an condensed state

 Prophase ii
Nuclear membrane disintegrate again

Spindle fibre begins to form

Each chromosome is unpaired

 Metaphase ii
The chromosomes (new sister chromatids) arrange themselves at equator

Each sister chromatid attaches to centromere

Centromere splits
 Anaphase ii
Chromatids move to the opposite poles of the cell by spindle fibre.
 Telophase ii

Chromosomes reach the opposite pole

4 haploid cells form
Spindle fiber disappear
All genetically different from one another
Nuclear membrane and nucleoli reform
These haploid cells become gametes
Cytokinesis follow and cytoplasm divides
 The significance of meiosis
Meiosis halves the chromosome numbers , diploid zygote to haploid gametes
2. Prophase i - crossing over
Metaphase i - independent assortment
Gives rise to genetic variation among offspring
Ensure the continued existence of a species.

3. Meiosis enables trait inheritance from parents to offspring

Similarities
Meiosis i and ii
- Function : nuclear division
- Spindle fibre, nuclear membrane, nucleoli in prophase i and ii
- Nuclear membrane and nucleoli reform during telophase i and ii
 difference
Meiosis i Meiosis ii

Interphase occur No interphase

(DNA replication and chromosome duplication occur) (DNA replication and chromosome duplication does not occur)

Prophase i - crossing over Prophase i - no crossing over

Metaphase i - chromosomes arrange in pairs Metaphase ii - chromosomes arrange singly

Anaphase i - Chromosomal number is halved Anaphase i - Chromosomal number maintain

Splitting of centromeres - no Splitting of centromeres - yes

2 cells form 4 cells form

Mitosis and meiosis
 Appreciating the movement of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis

1. Chromosomes move in orderly manner

2. To ensure each daughter cell has same chromosomal number
3. In meiosis, all daughter cell have half chromosome number as parent cell
4. Movement guided by spindle fibre
5. Error in spindle fiber leads to abnormal number of chromosomes
6. Abnormal gametes form will pass it to the offspring after fertilisation
7. Disease :
Down’s syndrome
47 chromosomes
turner’s syndrome
klinefelter’s syndrome
certain chemicals effect spindle fiber formations

chromosome is not spilt

the cell will have all chromosomes

 prevent mutation
2. mutation cause cancer
3. mutation can be uv， radioactive rays, carcinogenic substances
4. eg. beta and gamma rays produced by uranium and plutonium
5. carcinogen - sodium nitrite as food preservatives, afflatoxin as grown fungi on food