AMPLEXUS – sexual reproduction of frogs

SYNGAMY – means sexual reproduction “syn” with or together, “gamy” union.

AUTOGAMY – self-fertilization. (some organism has the ability to self-fertilize)
CROSS FERTILIZATION - mating
HERMAPHRODITISM
The word hermaphrodite comes from Greek mythology. Hermaphroditus, who was the son of Hermes and
Aphrodite, was fused with a woman, resulting in one person being both female and male.
SIMULTANEOUS Similarities SEQUENTIAL
From birth to maturity has 2 Possesses both reproductive Reproductive organs have sequence
active reproductive organ system
Can use reproductive organ at Higher mating probability One reproductive system can be used at a time
the same time
Can produce both sperm and Switch gender Ex: roses, lilies, clownfish, slipper, parrotfish,
egg tomatoes, hibiscus, sunflower
Double offspring CLOWNFISH- male to female
Self-fertilization ex: snails, slug WRASSE- female to male
species, hamlet

ALLOGAMY – (or heterogamy) gametes come from 2 different individuals.

MORPHOLOGY – structure and form of organism.
- study of (----) and structure
ANISOGAMY ISOGAMY
Gametes have different size The gametes are same in size
Male and female gametes are distinguishable Male and female gametes cannot be distinguished
A. ANISOGAMY OF MOTILE GAMETES A. ISOGAMY OF MOTILE GAMETES

B. OOGAMY B. ISOGAMY OF NON MOTILE CELLS

 C. ANISOGAMY OF NON-MOTILE GAMETES C. CONJUGATION

FERTILIZATION METHOD
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

 includes the union of sperms and egg inside the body of parent, achieved by copulation.
 There is a higher chance of survival for internally fertilizing animals. Ex: mammals, reptiles, some fish and some
birds.
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION

 Mostly occurs in wet environments and requires both the male and female to broadcast their genitalia to the
surroundings.
 It produces large number of offsprings but they require more care and protection since they are exposed to
hazards and prey.
 Lesser chance of survival because they are exposed to danger. Ex: frogs, mollusks, and crustaceans.
OVIPAROUS REPRODUCTION

 Involves the production of eggs and the young hatch after being expelled from the body.
 Oviparous animals always hatch their young outside of their body.
 Ex: birds, reptiles, amphibians, most fish, insects, mollusks, arachnids, etc.
VIVIPAROUS REPRODUCTION

 Occurs when the young is nourished inside the body of the female and then gives birth to a live young.
OVOVIVIPAROUS REPRODUCTION

 Involves eggs inside the body but the mother doesn’t lay those eggs; instead, the eggs hatch and develop within
the parent’s body without placental attachment. And then the young are born live.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 Offspring are a genetic mix of both parents.  Offspring genetically identical to parents
 Some of the population may survive even  Whole population could die off if their
after a change in environmental conditions environment changes
 Genetic diversity  No genetic diversity
 Reproduction requires both parents to be  Reproduction can happen at any time
together, mature and fertile
 Lots of energy needed  Does not need much energy
 Can only produce a small population in a short  Can produce a large population in a short
time time
 2 parents needed  1 parent needed
 Involves specialized sex cells  Involves somatic cells
 Meiosis  Few resources required
 Requires more resources  Limited ability to adapt
 Slow
 Adaptable to environmental change
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION – one individual produces offspring that are genetically identical to itself.
A. Budding

 an offspring grows out of the boy of the parent

 restricted to certain specialized areas wherein the offspring typically remains attached to the parent until it
matures
 Ex: Hydra
B. Gemmules

 A parent releases specialized mass of cell that can develop into an offspring.
 These gemmules are hard and can be formed when he parent experiences harsh environmental conditions.
 Less likely to become dehydrated and in some cases may be able to survive with limited oxygen supply.
 Ex: Sponge
C. Fragmentation

 The body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each of which can produce an offspring
 The detachment of the part is intentional, and if large enough, detached parts will develop into new
individuals.
 Ex: Planaria
D. Regeneration

 Happens when a part like an arm, becomes detached from the parent’s body . the separated body can grow
and develop into a completely new individual.
 Can be thought of as a modified form of fragmentation.
 Ex: Starfish
E. Binary Fission

 Most common form of reproduction in prokaryotic organisms.

 The parent cell duplicates its organelles and increases in size by mitosis then divides into two identical daughter
cells.
 Used to describe fragmentation and regeneration
 Ex: Paramecium, amoeba, euglena
F. Parthenogenesis

 Involves the development of an egg that has not been fertilized into an individual.
 Most organisms that reproduce through this method can also reproduce sexually.

EMBRYOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
Embryogenesis- process by which the embryo develops/ forms
1st Stage: Fertilization- union of two different gametes.
a) Contact of sperm to egg
b) Acrosomal reaction will occur (acrosomal granules contain digestive enzymes)
c) Contact and fusion of sperm and egg membrane
d) Cortical reaction (block the other sperm)
e) Entry of sperm nucleus -> zygote (contains 46 chromosomes)
2nd Stage: Cleavage
3rd Stage: Morula- very compact cleavage
4th Stage: Blastula- cavitation and cell differentiation and specialization.
- movement of cell to different regions.
PARTS OF BLASTULA:
1. Blastocoel- fluid filled
- sets the stages for the growth of embryo
- helps for the changes of cell
 2. Trophoblast- “Tropho” means to feed.
- to provide nutrients for the growth of embryo
3. Embryoblast
Blastomere: cell na nasa embryo
Blastoderm: layer of cells of blastomere
Blastocyst: whole structure during blastula stage

5th Stage: Gastrulation- formation of gastrula. Preparation of the body plant of organism.
BLASTOPORE- cave-like structure.
- point where there is a folding.
LATE GASTRULA: formation of 3 germ layers.
1. Ectoderm- outer layer – skin, central nervous system
2. Mesoderm- middle layer – connective tissues
3. Endoderm- inner layer – lining and protection of the organs
HOLOBLASTIC CLEAVAGE MEROBLASTIC CLEAVAGE
Complete cleavage Incomplete cleavage
Less yolk More yolk
Depends on placenta Ex: “Monotremes mammals” are egg-laying mammals
Ex; “Eutherian mammals” animals that has placenta

6th Stage: Organogenesis- the formation of organs using the 3 germ layers.

 Arised in mesoderm:
o Archenteron- future digestive cavity
o Mesenchyme- where the bones, muscles and connective tissues came from.
**Not all animals have 3 germ layers**
3 germ layer animals: Tripoblast (mammals, reptiles, amphibians)
2 germ layer animals: Diploblast (primitive animals, cnidaria, porifera-sponges)

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN HUMANS

(Male)

1. Testis (singular) – production of sperm

Testes (Plural) - contains seminiferous tubules (specific site of spermatogenesis- production and formation of sperm)
10. Scrotum – sac-like structure where the testes is protected and supported.
- to protect, hold and support
- to sustain the temperature not higher than the normal body temperature.
2. Epididymis – for storage of sperm cells
7. Vas Deferens – transport of mature sperm cell from epididymis to urethra
3. Urethra – a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the urinary meatus for the removal of urine from the body.
5. Bladder – storage of urine
9. Penis
8. Erectile tissue – responsible for the erection
4. Seminal vesicles – production of semen and helps for the transportation of sperm
6. Prostate gland – protects the sperm to reach the egg cell.
- fluid that nourishes and protects sperm.
(Female)

1. Ovaries – oogenesis
2. Fallopian tube – pathway of egg cell to reach the uterus
3. Uterus – has lining (Endometrium)
4. Cervix – dilates when bearing babies.
5. Vagina – (labia- outer skin in vagina)
FERTILIZATION- union of two different gametes (egg and sperm)
A. Contact of sperm to the egg
B. Acrosomal Reaction - sperm binding receptors zona pellucida causes acrosomal reaction
- involves actin filaments and digestive enzymes *there is actin filaments on the head of sperm*
C. Contact and fusion of sperm and egg membrane – egg engulfs sperm
D. Cortical Reaction – without this, polyspermy will occur
- prevents other sperm from entering the egg
- happens when cortical granules (has protein molecules needed to create fertilization membrane)
are released by egg
* Fertilization membrane- indicates that the egg will be fertilized*
E. Entry of sperm nucleus – merge of sperm nucleus and egg nucleus, forming zygote- has 46 chromosomes.

GAMETOGENESIS
Formation of gametes
OOGENESIS SPERMATOGENESIS
(Oogonium) (Spermatogonium)
1. Primary germ cell
2. Undergo meiosis (46 chromosomes)
3. Metaphase I (reduction division), reduce diploid
 Prophase I – primary oocyte (46 chromosomes)  Spermatocyte
 2nd meiosis – secondary oocyte (23 chromosomes)  Matured sperm cell is called “spermatozoa”
 Matured egg cell is called “ovum”
OVULATION
 Release of matured egg cell from the follicle.
FOLLICLE
 Fluid filled structure
 Ruptures during ovulation to release the egg cell
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 Average of 28 days
 Process of discharge
 Changes that happen before, during, and after ovulation
 Has 3 phases
1. Flow phase (4-6 days)
 1st day of flow phase is the first day of cycle.
 Bleeding. Discharge of unfertilized egg; blood contains tissue, mucus, and epithelial cells (or endometrial cells, is
responsible for the lining of uterus > endometrium)
 An increase in the level of FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) to produce new follicle.
2. Follicular phase (6-14 days)
 1 primary oocyte will continue oogenesis.
 Secretion of estrogen for repair of uterine lining by undergoing mitosis.
 Increase in FSH results to the secretion of estrogen (repair of uterine lining, endometrial cells undergo mitosis)
then there will be a signal or feedback from hypothalamus that there will be a decrease in FSH and LH
(luteinizing hormone)
 GnRH – gonadotropin releasing hormone (controls the secretion of gonads)
 Hypothalamus – master of all glands (feedback > hypothalamus > GnRH)
 Before follicle rupture, when the estrogen reaches its peak point, there will be a sudden increase in LH
3. Luteal phase (15-28 days)
 Formation of corpus luteum (temporary gland) through increase of LH
 LH is made up of ruptured follicle and secretes progesterone- maintains, prepare uterus to receive the fertilized
egg; the uterus in this stage is more thick compared to follicular phase. Estrogen- repair; thicken endometrium
 LH produces of corpus luteum. Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogen.
 If the egg is not fertilized, it will be discharged and return to flow phase.
Progesterone and estrogen continues to rise; feedback from hypothalamus results to a decrease and
inhibit the secretion of FSH and LH; corpus luteum degenerates and progesterone and estrogen will not
be produced as well as the sex hormone shedding of uterine lining.
 If the egg is fertilized, endometrium will release fluid that is rich in nutrients for implantation.

IMPLANTATION
- 5-6 days after fertilization the fertilized egg will become the blastocyst > trophoblast > will differentiate causing
formation of structure in uterine
- Formation of extra embryonic membrane
  AMNIOTIC FLUID
Provides space for the developing embryo
For shield and protection
 AMNION
Thin membrane that surrounds the developing embryo
For protection of the entire structure of embryo
 CHORION
For protection
Outer extraembryonic membrane
Absorption and secretion
 CHORIONIC CAVITY
Contains fluid that protects the embryo
“nagsasanga”
 CHORIONIC VILLI
For attachments of the uterine line, placenta, absorption and secretion of nutrients, hormone, waste and
blood.
 EGG YOLK
Becomes umbilical cord
- Connects the embryo to the placenta
- Exchange of nutrients, blood supply, and waste
 ALLANTOIS
Outgrowth from the developing digestive track
Induction of placenta

*blood vessels of mother and child do not connect

*child gets nutrients thru umbilical cord thru diffusion.
*waste of baby- excretory
*deoxygenated blood- respiratory
 PREGNANCY
280 days (ave: 266)
from menstrual
divided into 3 trimester (with 3 months each trimester)
GROWTH
DEVELOPMENT
CELL DIFFERENTIATION
1st TRIMESTER
 7.5 cm (length)
 28 grams (weight)
 7 weeks after fertilization organs will start to form; at the end of the week all organs have been
formed
 At 8 weeks, when organ had been formed, embryo will be called fetus.
 Fetus in first trimester is very sensitive to environment and have high risk of malformation
 Neural tube will not close if folic acid is not enough during neurogenesis causing malformation. If folic
acid is enough, the possibility of having down syndrome is low.
2nd TRIMESTER
 34 cm; 650 grams
 4th month- rapid growth, there is already a movement
 6th month- eyes will open
3rd TRIMESTER
 51 cm; 3 300 grams
 Continued growth
 8th month- extraembryonic membrane is occupied without spaces

FECAL IMPACTION

- Large, hard mass of stool is stuck in colon or rectum because of constipation, dehydration. To avoid this, drink
plenty of water, eat foods rich in fiber.

KIDNEY STONE

- Happens when there is an excessive intake of foods that contain high amount of salt.

BLADDER CANCER

- Contains tumor
- Common in boys who are smoking.

DIALYSIS

- People undergo this treatment if there is acute renal failure

- Their dialysis serves as alternative filtration of kidney to maintain homeostasis

EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS

 Interstitial fluid
o A solution that bathes and surrounds the tissue cells of multicellular animals.
o Main component of extracellular fluid, which also includes plasma and transcellular fluid.

 Internal environment
o It is the fluid environment that bathes the cells (extracellular fluid) composed of the interstitial fluid
and blood.

 Osmolarity
o Concentration of a solution expressed as the total number of solute particles per liter.
 Osmoregulation
o It is the regulation of water and ion balance

 Excretion
o A process by which metabolic waste is eliminated from an organism
o Also helps in the regulation of water and ion balance

 Osmoconformer
o Subjected to change O to the environment.
o Body osmolarity match to the environment
o Maintains the same osmolarity
o Ex: marine animals such as starfish, snail, etc.
 Osmosis- movement of water from higher to lower concentration.

 Osmoregulator
o Has the ability to regulate O even if the environment changes its O
o Different osmolarity to the environment.
o Osmosis is regulated
o Ex: mammals, salmon
 Stenohaline
o Do not survive in high range of salinity
o Osmoconformers
 Euryhaline
o Survive in wide range of saline
o Osmoregulator

NITROGENOUS WASTES
1. Ammonia
a. Primary nitrogenous waste
b. Detoxified by converting it into a relatively nontoxic form such as urea or uric acid.
c. Ex: invertebrates, larval amphibians teleosts marine
d. Highly toxic
e. Highly soluble in water
f. 1 g of ammonia needs 300-500 mL of water to be diluted.
g. Animals that excrete ammonia are called ammonotelic
h. Process of excreting ammonia is called ammonotelism.
2. Urea
a. End product excreted in urine when ammonia is metabolized by animals
b. Colorless, odorless solid, high soluble in water
c. Less toxic compared to ammonia
d. Used in nitrogen excretion, in fertilizer and in chemical industry
e. Ex: mammals (humans), amphibians, some fishes
f. 1 g of urea needs 50 mL of water to be diluted
g. Animals that excrete urea are called ureotelic
h. Process of excreting urea is called ureotelism

3. Uric acid
a. Not highly soluble in water
b. Looks like a white paste/powder- structure or form
c. Energetically costly
d. Reduced water loss and less toxic than ammonia and urea
e. Ex: birds, reptiles, terrestrial anthropods
f. 100 000x less toxic than ammonia
g. Does not need or very little amount of water is needed.
h. Animals that excrete uric acid are called uricotelic
i. Process of excreting uric acid is called uricotelism
RENAL CAPSULE

 Is a tough fibrous layer surrounding the kidney; covered in a layer perirenal fat known as the adipose capsule.
RENAL CORTEX

 Outer part of the kidney that contains the glomerulus and convoluted tubules. It is where the renal corpuscle is
located.
MEDULLA

 Consists of multiple pyramidal tissue that contain a dense network of nephrons

RENAL PELVIS

 Collects urine from the excretory tubules and passes it to the ureter
RENAL ARTERY

 Carries oxygenated blood to the kidney

RENAL VEIN

 Carries deoxygenated blood after waste products have been removed from the kidneys to the heart.
URETER

 Carries urine away from the kidney

EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Renal artery carries oxygenated blood

Kidney filters the blood

Renal pelvis serves as reservoir which collects the urine from the nephron (nephron is the functional unit of kidney)

Muscle causes peristalsis (wave) wherein the urine is pushed downward to the ureter

Ureter delivers urine from the kidney to urinary bladder

Removed to our body through urethra

2 TYPES OF NEPHRON:
 1. Cortical nephron 85%
2. Juxtamedullary nephron 15%

PARTS OF THE NEPHRON AND ITS FUNCTIONS:

Has two major parts:

1. Renal corpuscle
a. The initial or primary site of filtration because the initial filtration happens at glomerulus.
b. Consists of:
i. Afferent arteriole- brings blood to the glomerulus. Has granular cells that secretes hormone
renin- responsible for the glomerular filtration rate (responsible for the dilation and constriction
of arteriole)
ii. Efferent arteriole- takes blood away from glomerulus
iii. Glomerulus- has podocytes that is responsible for the formation of fenestration (su mga butas)
it allows small solutes to enter the bowman’s capsule. Glomerular filtrate is the term for those
filtered by the glomerulus
iv. Bowman’s capsule (William Bowman)- receives the filtrate. It is connected to a convoluted
tubule. 15-20% blood plasma can enter bowman’s capsule because only few are filtered by
glomerulus

2. Renal Tubule
a. Converts filtrate into urine
b. Consists of:
i. Proximal Convoluted Tubule
- Adjacent to bowman’s capsule
- Reabsorption of water, NaCl, K, amino acids, glucose, bicarbonate (HCO3)
- Approximately 65% of water and ions are reabsorbed by the PCT, and approximately 100%
of amino acids and glucose are also reabsorbed because it is still needed by our body.
- Secretion also happens in PCT of organic acids such as medicines and uric acid.
*water follows solute; when there is high amount of ions, there is also high amount of water excreted
resulting to dehydration.
ii. Loop of Henle (Friedrich Henle)
1. Descending loop
-permeable to water.
- Water will be diffused by osmosis to the interstitial fluid of medulla.
- Another reabsorption of water. Reason:
a. Permeable to water.
b. Medulla is hyperosmotic
c. Some of the urea are being reabsorbed in the lower collecting duct.
2. Ascending loop
- already found in the medulla.
- has 2 parts:
a. Thin segment-first part of ascending loop. The epithelial cells that are here are
permeable to sodium. Passively, the sodium moves out from the ascending
loop to the interstitial fluid of medulla.
b. Thick segment- not permeable to water and salt. It actively reabsorb salt/
sodium to the interstitial fluid of medulla.
iii. Distal Convoluted Tubule
- Distal to the bowman’s capsule
- pumping of 3 sodium to the bloodstream and secretion of 2 potassium.
- aldosterone: for ion balance, responsible for the reabsorption of sodium and secretion of
potassium.
iv. Collecting Duct
- found near the pelvis.
- upper part is permeable to water because there is reabsorption of urea in the lower part,
making the medulla hyperosmotic.
- Hormone involved: ADH antidiuretic hormone (it focuses on water conservation)
- Diuretics is formation of urine, urine production.
- When the level of ADH increase, there will be a formation of aquaporins (aqua= water,
porins= pores) for water conservation.
Function of kidney
1. Balancing the level of ion in our body
2. Filters the blood
3. Balancing of pH level
4. Balance/ normalize blood pressure
5. Excreting urine

Mechanisms of Urine formation:

1. Filtration (glomerulus, bowmans capsule)
2. Reabsorption (PCT, loop of henle, DCT, Collecting duct, whole renal tubules)
3. Secretion (PCT, DCT)
4. Excretion

2 types of capillaries
1. Peritubular capillaries- all reabsorptions that happens in the PCT are absorbed by the peritubular capillaries
from the interstitial fluid of the cortex in order to get into the lumen of the bloodstream.
2. Vasa Recta- Capillaries that are found in the medulla part of the kidney. It absorbs the solutes and solvent
that are found in the medulla.

INVERTEBRATE EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN ANIMALS

PROTONEPHRIDIA

Platyhelminthes – lives in moist areas (worms) their urine is hypoosmotic compared in other part of the body.

Protonephridia (flat worms)

- also called flame bulb system (simplest excretory system of animals)
- has tubules and flame cells (found in every end of branch)
- inside the flame bulb system is the cilia (looks like flickering flame that is located inside the flame cell)
- flame cell is surrounded by a Slitlike opening that serves as the fenestration. Mechanism that happens in the slitlike
opening is filtration.
-fluid that came from the interstitial fluid can enter because the flame cell filters it.
- filtration happens through the slitlike opening found in flame cell
- th
e cause of filtration is because of the movement of cilia.
- the fluid absorbed or fluid will continue while reabsorbing the useful materials and solvent.
- continued reabsorption in the tube, of Na, K, hydrogen other solutes and water.
- in some animals, their nitrogenous waste also comes out in their skin.
- waste will come out through nephridiopore

METANEPHRIDIA

FOUND IN ANNELIDS
Earth worm, mollusks (snail, slug) crustaceans

 Earthworm’s body is segmented.

 Nephrostome
o funnel-like structure found in a segment.
o It is not connected to a tube, thus it is open to a segment in interstitial fluid or space.
o Function of Nephrostome is filtration.
o Filtrates will enter a tubule wherein the reabsorption of ions and secretion takes place.
 Bladder septum
o Equivalent to a urinary bladder of mammals.
o Function: for storage of urine.
o If it is already full, the earthworm will excrete it through nephridiopore
 The first two segments of earthworm doesn’t have nephridiopore and the rest has nephridiopore.

INSECT

 Midgut
o Stomach
o Surrounded by the Malpighian tubule
 Hemolymph
o Fluid
o Blood of ants, cockroach, insects
o Equivalent to the human’s blood and lymphatic fluid.
 Malpighian tubules
o We have 6 Malpighian tubules that surrounds the midgut
 o Filtration does not occur
o Secretes Na, K, and other solutes or ions that came from the hemolymph
o The ions that is secreted will be found at Malpighian tubule
o There will be hyperosmolarity/ hyperosmotic because of the secretion.
o Water that came from interstitial fluid will be secreted, will get into the malpighian tubule
 Hindgut
o Reabsorption of most water and some solute
 Rectum
o Waste of insect is uric acid which looks like semi solid waste because of the absorption that happens in
hindgut.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Mode of nutrition in plants: autotrophs
 Mode of nutrition in human: heterotrophs

4 Main Parts of Food Processing:

1. INGESTION
a. Happens in oral cavity or mouth
b. Ingestion happens through mechanical digestion (chewing) and chemical digestion (because of the
presence of saliva)
c. Part that is responsible for digestion is the mouth or oral cavity using our teeth and saliva
d. Breaking of large molecules to smaller molecules through the presence of enzymes and water.
Hydrolysis- adding water in large molecules in order to split it into smaller molecules. Opposite of
hydrolysis is dehydration.
e. Saliva contains different enzymes
i. Salivary Amylase- responsible for breaking starch or carbs. (these hydrolytic enzymes convert
larger molecules to smaller molecules.)
ii. Lingual Lipase- lipase means lipids. It is responsible for breaking lipids.
iii. Salivary Mucin- it coats our mouth. It is for protection and maintaining the health of our
mouth
f. BOLUS- foods that we chew. The food that is about to swallow that is digested in our mouth through
chemical and mechanical digestion.
g. The bolus will go the PHARYNX.
i. (tube na dinadaanan ng air and food)
ii. In the bottom of the pharynx will have a division of esophagus and trachea (windpipe).
iii. Epiglottis- a flap in the throat that keeps food from entering the windpipe and the lungs.
iv. The function of pharynx is to connect the mouth to the esophagus.
h. ESOPHAGUS
i. digestion does not occur or happen in esophagus
ii. first peristalsis happens in the esophagus. The muscles will have peristalsic waves in order to
push down the bolus.
iii. Heart burn- influx of acids in the esophagus. It happens when intake of food is too much.
iv. Esophageal sphincter- found at the end of esophagus. Prevents the acid or chyme to return to
the esophagus.
2. DIGESTION
a. CHYME- food that is in our stomach for further chemical digestion
b. Takes place in the stomach to intestine
c. Gastric juice is mixed to the food that arrives in stomach and then the stomach squeezes it for further
digestion. The gastric juices in our stomach are:
i. Hydrochloric acid (HCL)
- harmful for our body but our stomach contains mucin. Mucin coats our stomach, it is our
lining of the stomach to protect the stomach from the effects or HCL.
- HCL kills pathogens coming from the food.
ii. Pepsin - In the secretion or production of HCL, there is also the secretion of pepsin which is
responsible for the hydrolysis of proteins. Break down of proteins to amino acids. It separates
the peptide bonds of macromolecules.
3. ABSORPTION
a. Takes place in the intestine
b. SMALL INTESTINE
i. Purpose of small intestine is mainly for absorption because it contains or surrounded or lined
with microvilli (to increase the surface area for absorption)
ii. 80% of water is absorbed by the small intestine together with the vitamins, minerals and
 monomers, it is absorbed by the microvilli to our interstitial fluid to the bloodstream.
iii. Secretion of enzymes
1. Peptidase- hydrolyse protein to amino acids
2. Maltase- break down maltose
3. Lactase- break down lactose into glucose and galactose
c. LARGE INTESTINE
i. it receives unabsorbed materials from the small intestine.
ii. absorption of water and some electrolytes
iii. further bacterial digestion
iv. fermentation of unabsorbed happens.
v. large intestine contains more than 500 good bacteria (ex. Lactobacillus, etc.)
vi. while digesting the bacteria in large intestine, the production of vitamin K, and vitamin B
(biotin) happens.
4. ELIMINATION
a. Happens when the rectum (storage of feces) receives the wastes from the large intestine, and
eliminated through anus

ACCESSORY ORGANS
- organs not found in the digestive tract

 APPENDIX
o Important for rebooting the good bacteria found in our system
o Protection for the good bacteria in order to repopulate.
 LIVER
o It produces bile- substance responsible for digesting fats.
o Detoxifies blood- toxins that came from the alcohol, drugs, etc. that we intake are detoxified by the
liver.
o Storage sugar, glycogen and release of glucose.
o Destroys old red blood cells
o Helps regulating blood and cholesterol
o Stores iron and fat soluble vitamins.
o Produces urea from the amino acid
 GALL BLADDER
o Storage of bile
 PANCREAS
o Has two antagonistic hormones
 Insulin- once the pancreas secreted or increases the level of insulin, our cell absorbs glucose
therefore the sugar content of our blood decreases. This hormone is responsible for decrease of
blood sugar.
 Glucagon – increase of blood sugar.
o The pancreas (either insulin or glucagon) will report to the liver if there is a need for the release of
sugar in the blood stream because the sugar level is low
o We have reserve glucose found in the liver and muscles.
 SPLEEN
o No spleen; prone to infection
o Stores our platelets (blood clot) and white blood cells (contains lysosomes, fight diseases)