College Entrance Exam Reviewer

( Day 3 )

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 TRIGONOMETRY

What is Trigonometry?
− from the Greek words “trigonon” (triangle) and “metron” (measure), Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that
studies triangles and its relationship with its sides and angles.
− Very important in Physics and Engineering

Degree and Radian Measures

− since we are dealing with angles in Trigonometry, how to convert angles in their different forms is important
− for degrees, 1 revolution = 360 degrees (360o)
− for radians, 1 revolution = 2π radians

Trigonometric Functions
− Trigonometric functions express ratios between the sides of a triangle and its internal angles. They are fundamental
in understanding Trigonometry
− Trigonometric Functions of an Acute Angle of a Right Triangle:
> opp: side of triangle opposite of Θ (A)
> adj: side of triangle adjacent to Θ (B)
> hyp: hypotenuse of right triangle (C)

Signs of Trigonometric Functions in the Four Quadrants

• The xy-plane is divided into four quadrants

• Angles in Trigonometry start from the positive x-axis (0 degrees) and rotate counter-
clockwise

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Trigonometric Functions of Special Angles (30o, 45o, 60o)

− notice patterns for sin Θ and cos Θ

− remember: tan Θ= sin Θ/ cos Θ
− sec Θ = 1/ cos Θ, csc Θ = 1/ sin Θ, cot Θ = 1/ tan Θ

Trigonometric Functions of Multiples of 90o

Trigonometric Identities:

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 Sine Law Cosine Law
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
= 𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝑩 = 𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝑪 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝑪
𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝑨
𝒂𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝑨
𝒃𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝑩

*Note: Be careful! The sine law only works on acute angles.

Applications:
− Angle of elevation: angle made by the line of sight and a horizontal ray below the line of sight (example: Horizontal
ray = x-axis; line of sight = any ray lying on the 1st quadrant)
− Angle of depression: angle made by line of sight and horizontal ray above the line of sight (example: Horizontal ray
= x-axis; line of sight = any ray lying on the 4th quadrant)

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Review Problems:

1) A tower is 150 ft high and from its top, the angle of depression of an object is 36.4o

a) Determine the distance from the base of the tower to the object.
b) How far is the object from the top of the tower?

2) Prove the identity:

cos t – cos 5t = 4 sin 3t

cos t sin t

3) A building is 1250 ft tall. What is the angle of elevation of the top from a point on the ground 1 mile (5280 ft) from the base of the
building?

4) Determine the quadrant containing the angle Θ:

a) cos Θ > 0 and tan Θ< 0

b) sin Θ< 0 and cot Θ> 0
c) cos Θ< 0 and tan Θ> 0
d) sin Θ> 0 and cot Θ< 0

5) Express the trigonometric function value in terms of a function of the associated reference angle; then determine the exact value:

a) sin(135o)
b) cos(210o)
c) tan(- 240o)
d) cot(330o)
e) csc(- 120o)

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 SCIENCE MODULE

GENERAL SCIENCE
A. Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere

1. Atmosphere (Composed of : 77% Nitrogen, 22% Oxygen and 1% Others)

Atmosphere Layer Approximate height from the earth’s Specific Characteristics
surface
Troposphere Varies from equator to poles - layer where life exists
About 8-17 km - where different weather conditions
prevail
- has the lowest temperature
Stratosphere 17-50 km - contains ozone that serves as a
protective shield against ultraviolet rays
- where jetstreams are found
Mesosphere 50-85 km - layer where meteoroids that enter the
earth’s atmosphere are burned
Thermosphere 85-600 km - Aurora usually occurs here
Ionosphere 48-965 km - contains ions, electrically charged gas
particles that are used for radio
communications
Exosphere 600 km - above - orbit space for artificial satellites

Gases found in the atmosphere:

a. Nitrogen
- largest quantity in the atmosphere (about 78%)
- nitrogen in air reacts with chemicals to produce nitrates, which are used by living things to manufacture proteins
- is returned to the atmosphere through decomposition (decay)
b. Oxygen
- second most abundant gas in the atmosphere
- used by living things for respiration
- required for combustion process

Ozone Layer - found between Stratosphere and Mesosphere

- absorbs large percentage of the ultraviolet rays from the Sun

2. Hydrosphere
- Bodies of water formed by three states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) and their distribution (i.e. ocean, snow, cloud, water vapor)

Water cycle: evaporation, condensation (cloud formation), and precipitation

Source: http://www.enchantedlearning.com
3. Lithosphere
• Coverage and Composition
o Consists of crust and upper mantle
o Primarily made up of a granite continental crust, basalt oceanic crust, and peridotite mantle
• Minerals– building blocks of rocks

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 Some Characteristics of Minerals
Definition • Naturally occurring
• Inorganic
• Homogenous solid – composition is constant throughout the element/object
• Definite Range of Chemical Composition
• Ordered Atomic arrangement
Physical Properties • Color
• Streak – color of the fine powder
• Luster – ability to reflect light
• Double Refraction Ability – ability to split light into two components when light enters crystalline
structure of material
• Cleavage – tendency to break along flat surfaces
• Fracture – how a mineral breaks other than the cleavage point
• Specific Gravity – density of a substance divided by that of water (1g/cm³)
• Hardness – resistance of a mineral from scratching, or its ability to scratch or to be scratched
(softest: talc, hardest: diamond)

B. Rocks
Rock Formation Cycle

Source: http://www.e-education.psu.edu

Types of Rocks
Type Formation Remarks Examples
Igneous Cooling and solidification Most common types are Granite and Basalt. • Andesite
of magma Granite solidifies the Earth’s interior while Basalt • Basalt
solidifies the Earth’s surface • Decite
• Pumice
• Obsidian
• Rhyolite
Sedimentary Lithification (compaction Fossils are commonly found in sedimentary • Conglomerate
and cementation ) of rocks • Breccia
sediments • Sandstone
• Siltstone
• Shale
• Limestone
Metamorphic • Recrystallization of Regional metamorphism frequently creates • Quartzite
sedimentary rock due to foliation. It appears because certain mineral in a • Marble
great pressure and heat rock naturally form in parallel planes • Slate
• Change in Mineral • Phyllite
Composition • Schist
• Gneiss

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C. Plate Movements
1. Continental Drift Theory and Seafloor Spreading Theory

Theory Theorist Year Content

Continental Drift Theory Alfred Wegener 1912 2 billion years ago, there was a supercontinent called Pangaea
Pangaea was then divided into two:Laurasia (north) and
Gondwanaland (south)
Seafloor Spreading Harry Hess 1962 Lava wells out of a mid-ocean ridge without ceasing then cools to
Theory form a new ocean floor. Over time, it spreads apart of diverges to
two sides of the ridge.

2. Plate Tectonic Theory

– Pangaea began to rift around 200 million years ago.
– Oceans filled the areas between these new sub-continents.
– The land masses continued to move apart, riding on separate plates, until they reached the positions they currently
occupy.
– These Continents are still on the move today.
– Philippines actually belong to the Eurasian Plate and not Philippine Plate.
– There are multiple factors that cause these plates to move: Gravity, convection currents, and thermal plumes (molten
material that rise up to through the Earth’s interior called asthenosphere).

3. Plate Movement
Plate Boundary Special Characteristics Example
Divergent • Rift Valley Mid-Atlantic Ridge
• Mid-Ocean Ridge
Convergent • Fold Mountain range Mariana Trench
• Marine trench
• Island arc
Transform • Strike-Slip San Andreas Fault

4. Earthquakes
• Result of an adjustment of the surface of the earth usually caused by faulting. Other causes are volcanic eruptions,
meteors, and nuclear explosions.
• Fault- fracture in the plate
• Focus or Hypocenter- site within the earth along the rupturing fault; where an earthquake originates; where waves come
from
• Epicenter- position on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus
• Seismic Waves- vibrations caused by moving rocks; detected by seismographs
Measuring an Earthquake:
1. Magnitude Scale
• Using the Richter Scale.
• Measures the amplitude of the ground motion recorded by a seismograph
2. Intensity Scale
• Using the Mercalli Scale
• scale is based on observations of the people (damage of buildings, injuries and casualties, etc.) who
experienced the earthquake

5. Geologic Timeline (youngest to oldest)

Era Period/Epoch Age (in millions of

years)
Cenozoic Pleistocene- dominated by Ice Age 1.8
(Age of Mammals)

Mesozoic • Cretaceous- amphibians are represented only by existing groups 65-144

(Age of Reptiles) such as frogs and salamanders.

• Jurassic- dinosaurs began to walk on land 144-213

• Triassic- Plants such as ferns, cycads, and seed-ferns all 213-248

flourished.

Paleozoic • Permian- Great mass extinction 248-570

(Age of insects, fishes, - 90% Marine species became extinct
invertebrates)
• Carboniferous- Age of insects

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 • Devonian- Age of fishes
• Silurian
• Ordovician- Corals become more abundant, and Crinoids,
Echinoids and Starfish become established.

• Cambrian

Pre-Cambrian – emergence of cyanobacteria > 570

*Eon vs. Era vs. Epoch

From largest to smallest: Eon, Era, Period, Epoch.

D.Space
1. Star
- Stars are first formed when clouds of dust and gas in outer space start spinning around together and are pulled inward
by gravity.
- Emits light because of nuclear fusion.
- The color of the star depends on its temperature with blue being the hottest and red as the coolest.
- Life of a star depends on its size:
o Sun-sized Stars: Red Giant --> Planetary Nebula -->White Dwarf -->Black Dwarf
o Huge Stars: Red Super Giant -->Supernova --> Neutron Star
o Giant/Massive Stars: --> Red Super Giant -->Supernova -->Black Hole

2. Sun
- A star mainly made of helium and hydrogen that undergoes nuclear fusion (atomic nuclei bump into one another)
3. Moon
- Revolves around a planet but does not produce its own light. The moon reflects the light of a star seen from the Earth as a
new, quarter or full moon.
4. Planets
a. Terrestrial planets:
• Mercury – Closest to the sun; smallest planet in the solar system.
• Venus – Atmosphere is 90 times denser than earth and contains high concentration of carbon
dioxide. It is the brightest morning star.
• Earth – Our planet
• Mars – It appears reddish. Can’t maintain water in a liquid state.
b. Jovian planets:
• Jupiter – Largest planet composed of cold, liquid hydrogen. It has 16 moons.
• Saturn – Second largest planet(has lowest density).Its ring contains dusts, rocks and ice.
• Uranus – 15 moons orbit this planet. Denser and contain heavier elements.
• Neptune – 8 moons orbit this planet. Denser and contain heavier elements.
5. Asteroid Belt
- Consists of rocks and metals
- Found between Mars and Jupiter

6. Meteor
- Streak of bright light that can be seen from Earth when a meteorite enters the atmosphere.
- It actually is a piece of Asteroid.
- Meteoroid vs. Meteor vs. Meteorite
Meteoroid: in space
Meteor: reached the Earth’s Atmosphere
Meteorite: hits the Earth’s ground

Solar and Lunar Eclipse

1. Solar Eclipse - occurs when the Sun, Moon, and Earth in that order falls on the same line
- the moon covers the Sun either partially of completely, resulting in an eclipse
2. Lunar Eclipse – occurs when the Sun, Earth and Mon in that order falls on the same line
- the Moon partially of totally enters the umbra of the Earth

Time
• Longitude or meridian extends from the North Pole to the South Pole. Zero longitude is assigned to meridian passing
through the Royal Astronomical Observatory in Greenwich, England.
• Longitudes are measured from 0 to 180 degrees east and 0 to 180 degrees west. When the earth rotates around its axis,
one line of longitude is directly facing the sun.
• Each hour the Earth rotates = 360/24 = 15 degrees
• If the local time in one longitude is 12 nn, then 15 degrees longitude to the east the local time is 1 pm and 15 degrees
longitude to the west the local time is 11 am.

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Earth
• Only planet in the universe that can sustain life
• Shape: Oblate Spheroid
• Approximately 71% is covered with water
• Has 4 layers (outer to inner): Crust, Upper Mantle, Inner Mantle, and Core
o Crust –outer most layer
– Solid (Al, Si, Ca, Na)
– Continental (thicker) and Oceanic (thinner) Crust
~Mohorovicic Discontinuity~
o Upper Mantle - Plastic like/ dense liquid (Al, Fe, Si, O)
o Lower Mantle- Solid (Mg, Fe, Si, O)
~Gutenberg Discontinuity~
o Outer Core- Liquid (Fe, S)
o Inner Core – Solid (Fe, Ni)
Origin of the Universe/Earth
1. Big Bang Theory
i. Single dense point that had a high temperature, high density, but low volume
ii. Single dense point exploded
iii. Atoms like Hydrogen and Helium came into existence
iv. Quickly expanded, cooled down
v. Galaxies composed of stars and other heavenly bodies were formed
vi. Continuing expansion
vii. Time and space became limited

Weather and Climate

Terms:
1. Meteorology– the study of the earth’s atmosphere, weather and climate
2. Weather– the daily condition of the earth’s atmosphere
3. Climate– general conditions of temperature and precipitation in a large area over a long period of time
4. Clouds – tiny drops of condensing clear water vapor and/or ice crystals that settle on dust particles in the atmosphere.

Basic Cloud Types:

a. Cirrus
– made of ice crystals
– usually mean fair weather
– usually cannot be seen because of its height (high cloud)
b. Cumulus
– puffy clouds
– suspect for icing in freezing conditions
c. Stratus Clouds
– form in blanket-like layers
– usually form very low to the ground
*If a cloud causes rain, nimbo or nimbus is added to the word.

Atmosphere– the mixture of gases that envelopes the earth

Tropical Cyclones – intense low pressure system over tropical region of the earth
– mass of clouds that circulates
– also known as typhoon

Typhoons are measured according to their wind speed (and not amount of rainfall)
• Tropical depression – junior typhoon (less than 63kph windspeed)
• Tropical storm- sustained windspeed at 63-117 kph
• Typhoon – 117-242 kph windspeed
• Super typhoon – greater than 242 kph

Other Weather disturbances

• Thunderstorms
• Monsoons:
a. Northeast Monsoon (Amihan)
b. Southwest Monsoon (Habagat) – July to August
– More rain

D. Land Breeze and Sea Breeze

• Land breezes and sea breezes arise because of differential heating between land and water surfaces.

Sea Breeze Land Breeze

Day Night

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 Warm air expand and rise on land (low pressure) Cool air sink on land (high pressure)
Cool air sink along sea (high pressure) Warm air expand and rise on sea (low pressure)
Wind blows an area of high pressure to low pressure Wind blows and area of low pressure to high pressure
Wind blows from the sea towards the land Wind blows from the land towards the sea

E. Earth’s Seasons
• When earth moves around the sun it is tilted at 23.5 degrees along the axis of rotation.
• June 21 is the summer solstice- North Pole leans towards the sun. The sun strikes directly overhead 23.5 degrees N
latitude. This is the Tropic of Cancer. North Pole will have 24 hours of daylight, the South Pole tilts away from the sun, so
it is the beginning of winter.
• December 22, the North pole tilts away from the sun causing winter solstice. The sun strikes directly at the Tropic of
Capricorn at 23.5 degrees S latitude. There is darkness in the North Pole while daylight in the South Pole.
• March 21 and September 23, the earth’s axis is at right angles to the sun. The sun shines directly at the equator. These
are the vernal equinox and the autumnal equinox.

F. Three types of Heat Transfer:

1. Conduction- particles of matter are in direct contact; heat is transferred by means of conduction. The adjacent atoms of
higher energy vibrate against one another, which transfers the higher energy to the lower energy, or higher
temperature to lower temperature.

2. Convection- Heat transfer between a surface and a liquid or gas in motion. As the fluid or gas travels faster, the convective
heat transfer increases.

3. Radiation- Heat transfer through empty space. There is no medium needed in this form of heat transfer; radiation works
even in and through a perfect vacuum.

G. Scientific Method
1. Make an observation.
2. Formulate questions about the observation.
3. Formulate an intelligent guess or hypothesis.
4. Test the formulated hypothesis through experimentation.
5. Draw a conclusion for the experiment.
6. Perform a number of experiments and summarize it to a natural law
7. Formulate a theory.

H. Experiment Variables
Dependent Variable – the variable or result being tested for
Independent Variable – variables that affect the outcome of the dependent variable. These are usually adjusted
across the different set-ups of the experiment

Example:
We want to know the effect of microwaves on the pH level of soy sauce.
Dependent variable: pH level (the result we’re looking for)
Independent variable: Lots of options. Examples are: amount of time spent in the microwave, amount of soy sauce,
brand of soy sauce

Natural Law - Describes how nature behaves.

Theory – Attempts to explain why nature behaves in a particular way, using concepts from natural laws. This has yet to be
proven and is subject to discussion.

Review Questions:
1. What causes earthquakes?
2. Why are plates constantly moving?
3. Differentiate the three types of rocks and based on their definition, explain the rock cycle.
4. What are the 3 main spheres/divisions of the earth?
5. What is the solar system composed of?

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 BIOLOGY
Biology - the science that deals with the study of life (bios = life; logos = study).

Branches of Biology

1. Morphology - the study of the structure and form of living things.

a. Gross morphology: external form or structure
b. Anatomy: internal structure
c. Histology: tissues
d. Cytology: structure and function of cells
2. Ecology - the study of interrelationships among organisms and between organisms and the environment.
3. Biosystematics - the study of the taxonomy and evolution of the diverse forms of life on earth.
a. Bacteriology: bacteria
b. Phycology: algae
c. Mycology: fungi
4. Physiology - the study of the functions and processes of life.
5. Genetics - the study of heredity; the storage, transmission, and behavior of hereditary factors and the control, expression,
and variation of inherited traits.

Levels of Biological Organization

● Structural hierarchy of life (arranged in an increasing level of organization)

zLevel Definition

Chemical structure consisting of two or more small units

Molecules
called atoms

Any of the membrane-enclosed structures with

Organelles specialized functions found in the cytosol of the
eukaryotic cell

Cell The cell is the smallest functional unit of life.

Tissues A tissue is a group of cells performing similar functions

An organ is a group of different tissues joined structurally

Organs
and cooperating functionally to perform a specialized task

An organ system is a group of organs that contribute to

Organ Systems
the performance of one or more major functions

Organism Individual living things

A localized group of individuals from the same species

Population
that can interbreed, producing fertile offspring

All the organisms that inhabit a particular area; an

Community assemblage of different species living close enough
together for potential interaction

Sum of all living things in a particular area and the non-

Ecosystem living components of the environment in that area (soil,
water, etc.)

Biosphere Totality of all environments on earth inhabited by life

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 ● Manifestations of life
Manifestation Definition

Order Living things exhibit an order in structure

Adaptations evolve over many generations by the

Evolutionary
reproductive success of those individuals with
adaptation
heritable traits best suited to their environment

Response to the
Reaction to different stimuli in their environment
environment

Require regulation of circulation and other

Regulation
processes in the body; homeostasis

Require the chemical energy in food for continued

Energy processing
living

Reproduction Produce young of its own kind

Growth and
Undergo growth and change
development

Acronym: OMG I Really Hate Exams (Organization, Metabolism and transfer of energy, Growth and development, Irritability and
movement, Reproduction, Homeostasis, Evolution and adaptation)

The Cell

The functional unit of life is the cell. All living things, whether plants, animals, or microorganisms, are made up of cells.
Cells come from pre-existing cells.

Notable Scientists
● Robert Hooke (1636-1703). He coined the term “cell” and was responsible for the beginnings of cytology as a
subdiscipline in biology.
● Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) He discovered the bacteria and other microscopic organisms and studied the
structure of plant and animal tissues.
● Robert Brown (1831). An English botanist who discovered the presence of nuclei within cells.
● Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) Augustinian Friar established laws of heredity by studying generations of pea plants
● James Watson (1928), Francis Crick (1916-2004), Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958) Discovered the double helix structure of
DNA.

Requirements of a True Cell

● Genetic materials that permit the reproduction of new cells of the same type. DNA and RNA are the blueprints of heredity.
● Plasma membrane that establishes a boundary and regulates all exchanges of matter and energy. Diffusion, osmosis,
and active transport facilitate this exchange.
● Metabolic machinery that can transform energy trapped by the cell or obtained from foodstuffs into usable forms for
maintenance and preservation of life. Cellular respiration and enzymes in cells facilitate energy transfer.
● A biosynthetic machinery for the synthesis of proteins and other biomolecules for growth, development and reproduction.

Viruses
● These are microorganisms consisting of DNA or RNA.
● They are not considered to be true cells because they lack biosynthetic machinery, although they share common cellular
properties as heredity and mutation.
● Viruses are dependent on the host cell and are regarded as obligatory parasites, relying on the biosynthetic machinery of
the host.

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

● Cells are identified as one of two types: prokaryotic or eukaryotic
● The main difference between the two: prokaryotic cell lacks a nuclear envelope; the DNA occupies a space in the cell
called the central body or nucleoid

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 Prokaryote Characteristic Eukaryote

Archaebacteria and Eubacteria Organisms Protists, fungi, plants and animals

Anaerobic or aerobic Metabolism Anaerobic or aerobic

Nucleus, mitochondrion, endoplasmic

Few Organelles
reticulum, chloroplasts, etc.

Cytoskeleton that are homologous to Cytoskeleton composed of protein

Cytoplasm
eukaryotes filaments

Binary fission Cell division Mitosis

Cellular
Unicellular unicellular or multicellular
organization

Nuclear
Absent Present
Membrane

Plant cells and Animal cells

Eukaryotic Plant Cells Characteristic Eukaryotic Animal Cell

Cell wall (with middle

Present Absent
lamella)

Absent Lysosomes Present

Present Large Vacuoles Absent

Phragmoplast (during
Present (with cell plate) Absent
cytokinesis)

Present chloroplasts Absent

Present (in cell walls);

Plasmodesmata Absent
links adjacent cells

Structure and Function of Cellular Components

STRUCTURE DESCRIPTION FUNCTION

Cellular Nucleus
Spherical structure surrounded by a double membrane; Contains DNA that controls cell’s genetic program and
Nucleus
contains nucleolus and chromosomes metabolic activities (control center of cell)
Rounded mass within nucleus (not distinct cellular Pre-assembly point for ribosomes; site of ribosomal
Nucleolus
structure); contains RNA and proteins RNA synthesis
Composed of a complex of DNA known as chromatin; Contain genes (unit of hereditary information that govern
Chromosomes
visible as rod like structures when the cell divides structure and activity of cell)
Membrane System
Protein-studded phospholipid bilayer that envelops the Protection; regulation of material movement; cell-to-cell
Cell membrane
cell recognition

An extensive membrane system extending throughout

Endoplasmic
the cytoplasm from the plasma membrane to the nuclear Storage and internal transport
reticulum (ER)
envelope

● Smooth ER Lacks ribosomes on outer surface Lipid biosynthesis; drug detoxification; makes steroids

Serves as site for attachment of ribosomes; manufacture

● Rough ER Ribosomes stud outer surface
of proteins desired for secretion
Contains RNA and proteins; some are free while some
Ribosome Sites of protein synthesis
are attached to ER

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Golgi bodies Stacks of disk-like membranes Packages and routes cell’s synthesized products

Lysosome Membrane-bound sphere Digests materials

Membrane-surrounded; often large; space in the Site of storage of food and other compounds;
Vacuole
cytoplasm osmoregulation
Energy–Transducing (Transforming) Organelles

Mitochondria Organelle with double-folded membranes Converts energy into a form usable by the cell (ATP)
Plastids Light energy is trapped, transformed, and used to
Double-membrane organelle that contains chlorophyll
(Chloroplasts) convert CO2 and H2O into glucose and O2
The Cytoskeleton
Assist in movement of cilia, flagella, and chromosomes;
Microtubules Hollow cylindrical structures
transport system
Microfilaments Rodlike structures containing the protein actin Gives structural support and assist in cell movement
Located within centrosome; contains nine microtubule Forms basal body of cilia and flagella; functions in
Centriole
triplets mitotic spindle formation
Long projections made of 2 central and 9 peripheral Means of cell locomotion by sperm cells and some other
Flagella microtubules (9 + 2 structure); extend from surface of single-celled organisms; used to move materials on
cell; covered by plasma membrane surface of some tissues
Cell Wall Sturdy polysaccharide substance found outside the
Protection, sturdiness and shape of the (plant) cell
(Plant Cell) plasma membrane of plant cell
Semifluid enclosed within plasma membranes; consists Dissolves substances; houses organelles, vesicles,
Cytoplasm
of fluid cytosol, organelles, and other structures inclusions
Fluid part of cytoplasm; enclosed within plasma Houses organelles; serves as a fluid medium for
Cytosol
membrane; surrounds nucleus metabolic reactions
A small membrane-surrounded space; contains
Vesicle Site of intracellular digestion, storage, or transport
enzymes or secretory products

Cellular Respiration
● The breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce energy in the form of ATP.
● Sugars and other substances resulting from the digestion of food are broken down in the presence oxygen to produce
water, carbon dioxide, and energy.
● Can be either aerobic, which requires oxygen to pave way to the process, or anaerobic, which does not entail oxygen for
the process.

General equation of cellular respiration

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6𝑂2 → 6𝐶𝐶2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴

● General Steps of Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis – occurs in the cytoplasm
- Independent of oxygen
- Breakdown of glucose to pyruvate
2. Kreb’s Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle – occurs inside the mitochondrion
- consumes acetyl-coA to reduce NAD+ to NADH which is essential to the next step – oxidative
phosphorylation
3. Oxidative phosphorylation
- NADH from the Kreb’s Cycle is oxidized releasing ATP.

Evolution and Diversity of Life

● Evolution – change through time. To survive, populations must constantly evolve to cope with an ever-changing
environment
● Mutation – a heritable radical change in the gene of an individual, brought on by factors such as radiation, chemicals, or
extremes in temperature

Concept of Evolution
● Based on the premise that the species of organisms today were not created in their present form but were products of
gradual changes and adaptation through time.
o Paleontology - fossils from sedimentary strata
o Catastrophism – by Cuvier (who developed paleontology), advocates that past events were sudden and
occurred with mechanisms different from present events
o Uniformitarianism – by Lyell, advocate that mechanisms of change are constant over time
● Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck – use and disuse (parts of the body that are extensively used become larger and stronger,

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 while unused ones deteriorate) and inheritance of acquired characteristics (organism can pass these modifications to its
offspring)
● Charles Darwin (1809-1882). He formulated and published the Theory of Natural Selection and evolution. His two main
ideas on The Origin of Species are:
1. Descent with Modification – descendants of ancestral organisms lived in various habitats over millions of years,
and thus have accumulated diverse modifications to fit them to specific ways of life
2. Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, Adaptation
▪ Artificial Selection – humans modified species through selective breeding (domestication) of
individuals that possess desired traits
▪ Adaptation – characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific
environments
▪ Natural Selection – individuals with characteristics more suitable to their environment are more likely
to survive and pass on those traits to offspring

● Observations of nature and their inferences:

1. Members of a population vary greatly in their traits
2. Traits are inherited from parents to offspring
3. Species are capable of producing more offspring than the environment can support
4. Due to lack of resources, many of the offspring do not survive
● Inferences:
1. Individuals with inherited traits that give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing within a given
environment will leave more offspring
2. The above leads to accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations

Key points:
Individuals do not evolve. Populations evolve over time.
Only heritable traits are amplified or diminished by natural selection.

● Evidences for evolution:

1. Direct observations
2. Fossil record
3. Homology – similarity from common ancestry
a. Homologous structures – variations on structural theme present on common ancestor
b. Vestigial structures – remnants of features that served important functions in ancestors of organism
c. Analogous structures – similar features from different lineages evolving through convergent evolution
4. Biogeography – geographic distribution of species

Endemism – species found nowhere else in the world (i.e. in a certain island only)
Continental drift – from Pangaea, which broke apart 250 mya to today’s continents

Diversity of Life
● Phylogeny – evolutionary history of a species or a group of species
● Systematics – classification of organisms and determination of their evolutionary relationships
● Taxonomy – how organisms are named and classified:
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

o Binomial nomenclature – by Carolus Linnaeus, Genus species

The Five-Kingdom Classification Scheme

NUTRITIONAL
KINGDOM CELL TYPE CELL NUMBER DOMAIN CELL WALL UNIQUE PROPERTIES
MODE

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 Loop of naked DNA not arranged
in linear chromosomes, no
Monera / Bacteria / Autotrophic /
Prokaryotic Unicellular Various membrane-bound organelles,
Prokaryota Archaea Heterotrophic
respire through mesosomes (rather
than mitochondria)

Unicellular Autotrophic / Possess plant-like or animal-like

Protista Various
(except algae) Heterotrophic characteristics

Plantae Multicellular Cellulose Autotrophic Chlorophyll

Eukaryotic Eukarya
Unicellular / Multinucleate, mycelium composed
Fungi Chitin Saprophytic
Multicellular of hyphae

Animalia Multicellular None Heterotrophic Motility

Plant Form and Function

The basic plant organs are the roots, stems, and leaves
● A root is a multicellular organ that
o anchors a vascular plant in the soil
o absorbs minerals and water
o stores food
o transports water and food
o produce hormones
● A stem is an organ consisting of an alternating system of nodes, the points at which leaves are attached, and
internodes, the stem segments between nodes. Stems increase in length through the activity of an apical meristem
at the apex of the root or shoot.
● In most vascular plants, the leaf is the main photosynthetic organ. It is also a site of transpiration and it stores food
and water.

Plant Tissue System - each plant organhas dermal, vascular, and ground tissues.
● The dermal tissue system is the plant's outer protective covering.
● The vascular tissue system (xylem and phloem) carries out long-distance transport of materials between the root and
shoot systems.
● Tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular are part of the ground tissue system (pith and cortex)

Plant Cell Types

Plant cells are classified based on the thickness of cell wall.
● Parenchyma cells – primary cell wall is uniformly thin and function for photosynthesis, meristematic activities and
secretions
● Collenchyma cells – primary cell wall is unevenly thickened and function as support for the growing plant
● Sclerenchyma cells - primary and secondary cell walls are both present and function as mechanical support. They are
functionally dead at maturity for they lack protoplasts unlike parenchyma and collenchyma cells.

Photosynthesis
A process of food-making within plant cells wherein light energy is converted to chemical
energy. It occurs in the chloroplast of plants.
● Chloroplast – organelle containing chlorophyll in plants.
o It includes the inner and outer membrane, intramembranous fluid or stroma, and
thylakoids stacked in a granum.

General equation of photosynthesis:

Figure SEQ Figure \*
𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ARABIC 1.
6𝐶𝐶2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6𝑂2
𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ𝑦𝑦𝑦

Chlorophyll – a pigment which absorbs red, violet and blue light but reflects green light.

● Two Steps of Photosynthesis

1. Light-dependent Reaction (Light Reaction) - Occurs in the thylakoid of the chloroplast.
- Trapping of light energy by the chlorophyll excites its electrons (light energy captured)
- Water is oxidized to oxygen
- Energy is stored in the form of ATP and NADPH

2. Light-independent Reaction (Dark Reaction or Calvin cycle) – happens in stroma

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 - ATP and NADPH move to the stroma and are used to reduce CO2 to glucose
-

The Living Animal

● On the complementarity of structure and function

o Animals have structures which permit them to perform functions such as the following:
1. Movement
2. Food-gathering
3. Digestion
4. Respiration
5. Circulation
6. Excretion
o The structure of an organ is specially designed to perform its function.
● In multicellular animals, cells are organized into tissues, organs, and organ systems.
● Growth in animals results from an increase in the number of body cells by cell division and increase in size of individual
cells.

Organ Systems

System Associated Organs Function

Skin
For protection, osmoregulation, temperature control, waste
Integumentary (Epidermis. Dermis, Subcutaneous elimination, and as a sensory organ for touch.
tissue)

Heart, blood vessels, blood, and Helps in the transport of nutrients, oxygen, and hormones and in
Circulatory
exchange organs the removal of wastes and carbon dioxide

Nasal passages, pharynx, larynx,

Respiratory Responsible for gas exchange
bronchi, bronchioles, and the lungs

Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder, and Excretion of wastes, maintenance of salt and water balance,
Excretory
urethra and regulation of blood pressure and blood volume

Muscles Facilitates body movement through the alternating contraction

Muscular
(skeletal, cardiac, smooth) and extension of the muscles

Lymph nodes, tonsils, spleen, bone Helps in the recognition and elimination of foreign invaders to
Immune (and Lymphatic)
marrow, Peyer’s patches defend the body from disease-causing factors.

Works with the endocrine system to control animal behavior.

Brain, spinal cord, nerves (axons,
Nervous Behavior is an externally directed activity in response to a
dendrites, myelin sheath)
stimulus.

Mouth, tongue, teeth, pharynx,

esophagus, stomach, small and Helps in the physical and chemical breakdown of food, and
Digestive
large intestine, and accessory absorption of nutrients
organs (liver and pancreas)

Manufacture hormones, which are important in the maintenance

Sex organs, Hypothalamus,
of homeostasis (internal equilibrium). Hormones are organic
Pituitary, Pineal, Thyroid,
Endocrine substances that are produced in the endocrine glands and
Parathyroid, and other ductless
transported to specific target organs to regulate specific body
glands
functions.

Male and female reproductive

Reproductive organs (testes, ovaries, penis, Necessary for the sexual reproduction of animals
vagina)

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 Skeletal Bones Provides framework for support and movement of the body.

Reproduction
Reproduction – the process by which organisms give rise to new individuals like themselves to perpetuate the species.
● Two major types of reproduction:
a. Sexual Reproduction – the new individual comes from the fusion of two sex cells called gametes. If the gametes
are differentiated, the female sex cell is called an egg while the male sex cell is called the sperm.
● Special Cases
i. Hermaphroditism
▪ Hermaphrodite – An organism capable of producing both eggs and sperm
▪ A hermaphrodite may be able to fertilize itself (see Self-fertilization), can fertilize
other eggs or may have eggs which can be fertilized
ii. Self-Fertilization
▪ The organism has both male and female parts. The organism sperm can fertilize
the eggs it produces.
b. Asexual Reproduction – the new individual comes from either
● Cell division by binary fission;
● A portion of the organism’s body by fragmentation; or
● A spore which, unlike a gamete, can develop by cell division into a complete individual.

● Sexual reproduction is found among animals, plants, fungi, and protists. It is very common among animals and generally
not observed among bacteria.
● Asexual reproduction is widespread among monerans, protists, and plants. It is also found but rarely among animals.
● Chromosome number (ploidy level) is a genetically determined number.
a. Every species has a characteristic chromosome number.
b. Diploid cells in gamete-producing organs undergo meiosis and give rise to haploid gametes, with half the
chromosome number. During fertilization, two haploid gametes (usually one male and one female) unite and form a
single-celled diploid zygote. Thus, the chromosome number of the species is maintained.

Mitosis – division of the (eukaryotic cell's) nucleus that conserves the number of chromosomes obtained by each daughter cell;
usually followed by cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm)

Stages in the mitotic division of an animal cell:

a. Prophase
● chromatin fibers more tightly coiled
● nucleoli disappear
● each duplicated chromosome appears as two
sister chromatids
● mitotic spindle (centrosomes and microtubules
that eventually attach to each sister chromatid)
begins to form
● the centrosomes of the mitotic spindle move
away from each other, towards opposite poles of
the cell
b. Metaphase
● longest phase
● centrosomes now at opposite poles
● chromosomes convene on metaphase plate (imaginary line equidistant from the poles)
c. Anaphase
● Shortest stage
● Sister chromatids separate, becoming liberated daughter chromosomes.
● They move in opposite directions, toward each pole.
● Two ends of the cell now have equivalent numbers of chromosomes.
d. Telophase
● Two daughter nuclei form in the cell.
● Nucleoli and nuclear envelopes for each of the daughter nuclei also form.
● Cytokinesis occurs in late telophase
◦ In the animal cell, a cleavage furrow forms to pinch cell into two daughter cells

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 ◦ In the plant cell, a cell plate forms, separating regions of the cell into two daughter cell
Meiosis – Cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in a cell by half; occurs in the gametes and counterbalances the
process of fertilization

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 2. Diagram of the

mitosis of an animal cell
a. Interphase – Chromosomes replicate, homologous chromosomes pair up.
b. Meiosis 1 – Homologous chromosomes separate.
1. Prophase 1 – crossing over* between homologous chromosomes occurs
2. Metaphase 1
3. Anaphase 1
4. Telophase 1- separation of homologous chromosomes
c. Meiosis 2- Sister chromatids separate.
1. Prophase 2
2. Metaphase 2
3. Anaphase 2
4. Telophase 2

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 4. Simple Figure 4. Diagram of Meiotic Division.

diagram of meiosis (Meiosis 1 and 2 shown, Crossing
Over shown in Prophase 1)

* Crossing over –occurs between homologous chromosomes.

● Chromatids exchange segments which leads to shuffling of alleles of genes. Exchange of segments promotes variation,
which in turn may prove valuable in a changing environment.

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 Summary of Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis

One Division Two (2) Divisions

1 cycle of Mitosis → 2 Daughter Cells → Total of 4 daughter cells

Genetically identical daughter cells NON-identical Daughter cells

Chromosome number of daughter cell (2N) Chromosome number of daughter cell (N) is
is equal to the chromosome number of the one-half (½) of chromosome number of the
parent cell (2N) parent cell (2N)

Used for asexual reproduction, growth, and Used for gametogenesis (Production of
repair (replacement of dead or damaged gametes)
cells)

* N represents ploidy, the number of sets of chromosomes, of the cell

Genetics

● Genetics is the branch of biology which attempts to describe similarities and differences among organisms (variation),
explain the way in which these characteristics are transmitted through successive generations (heredity), provide cellular or
physical basis of heredity (cytogenetics), characterize the chemical nature of the genetic material and the mode by which it
brings about the trait it controls (molecular genetics) and describe the behavior of genetic material in large groups of
individuals with passage of time (population genetics).
● Heredity and variation are two of the principles of genetics that explain why offspring are like their parents in some ways
but differ from their parents in other ways.
● Phenotype is the observable feature by which we recognize an organism while genotype is the organism's full hereditary
information.
● Gregor Mendel explained the phenomenon of heredity through the following:
a. Law of independent unit characters
- Hereditary characters are controlled by a pair of genes.
b. Law of dominance
- In a heterozygote, only one of the two genes is physically expressed. That which is expressed is dominant and
that which is hidden from expression is recessive.
c. Law of segregation
- During formation of gametes, the two genes in a pair segregate so that only one gene of every pair is
transmitted to each gamete. When the egg and the sperm unite, the zygote formed receives gene pairs, one
gene of the pair is received from the father through the sperm and the other gene is received from the mother
through the egg.
d. Law of independent assortment
- If hereditary traits are controlled by genes on different chromosomes, the inheritance of one trait does not
influence the inheritance of the other for the two are independent.
● The genetic material was found to be the DNA of chromosomes.
● The discovery of chromosomes reinforced Mendel’s principles of heredity.
● Other principles of inheritance:
a. Chromosome principle of inheritance
- Chromosomes appear in pairs. Homologous chromosomes carry the same genes.
- Homologous chromosomes segregate during gamete formation
- Diploid chromosome number is restored after fertilization.
b. Gene principle of inheritance
- Genes are linearly arranged on the chromosome. Genes, like chromosomes, appear in pairs.
- Genes that are located on the same chromosome are inherited together.
- Gene linkages may be broken by crossing over.
- Genes control the inheritance of characters.
● Examples of inheritance that do not follow the principles of Mendelian inheritance.
a. Incomplete dominance
- In a heterozygote, neither one of the two genes is physically expressed. (e.g. A purebred red flowered plant
when crossed with a purebred white-flowered plant will produce a heterozygous offspring which is pink-colored
flower.)
b. Codominance
- The alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed, resulting in an offspring with a phenotype
that is neither dominant nor recessive. (e.g. ABO blood system of humans. A parent with A allele and another
with B allele will have an offspring with blood type AB.)

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 c. Multiple alleles
- An allele is a gene form. Traits that are controlled by genes with more than two forms or alleles are multiple
allelic. (e.g. The ABO blood groups in humans are determined by three alleles of a single gene IA, IB, i.)
d. Polygenes
- Polygenic traits are those controlled by two or more gene pairs. As a result, there is a wide array of expression
of the trait between the two extremes.
● Mendelian genes are found in autosomes. Sex is defined by a different kind of chromosome, the sex chromosomes.
Females have two X chromosome while males have X and Y chromosomes.
● There are other types of inheritance for sex chromosomes. The following are examples of sex-related inheritance.
a. Sex-linked traits
- Genes found on the sex chromosomes are said to be sex-linked.
- Sex-linked traits generally refer to those controlled by genes on the X-chromosome. Holandric traits are
controlled by genes located on the Y chromosome.
b. Sex-limited traits
- Autosomal genes are found in both sexes but the trait is manifested in only one sex because of anatomical or
physiological reasons. (e.g. milk production)
c. Sex-influenced traits
- Autosomal genes are found in both sexes but expression of dominance is affected by the sex. (e.g. baldness in
humans)
● In a monohybrid cross, each parent contributes two alleles, producing four possible combinations for the one trait. In a
dihybrid cross, two traits are involved. Each parent produces four kinds of gametes producing sixteen combinations.
● A change in structure and number of chromosomes may bring about mutation, a sudden change in a hereditary trait.
● Mutation occurs naturally. They can be induced by mutagens, which include:
- chemicals that react with DNA
- radiation
- extremes of temperature
- microorganisms

Ecology

Roles in the ecosystem

● Producer – manufactures food for the other members of the community
● Consumer – feeds either directly on the producer or on other consumers
● Decomposer – feeds on organic wastes and on dead organisms; and, in the process, returns their nutrients on the
environment

Ecological Relationships
● Mutualism - two organisms of different species exist in a relationship in which each individual benefits.
● Commensalism - relationship between two organisms where one organism benefits without affecting the other.
● Amensalism - interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits received by
the actor.
● Parasitism - a non-mutual symbiotic relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the
expense of the other, the host.
● Predation - is a biological interaction where a predator (an organism that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism that is
attacked).
● Competition - an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of
another.

Trophic Levels in an ecosystem

● The amount of energy available to each trophic level is determined by the total primary production and the production
efficiency.
● The percentage of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next (trophic efficiency) is typically 10%.

Biogeochemical cycles
● Nutrient cycles that involve biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem
● Water, Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus Cycles

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 Water Cycle

Water is an important factor in all organisms. 97% of the water in the world are saltwater
(oceans and seas) and the remaining 3% are fresh water (polar caps, glaciers, lakes,
groundwater). Evaporation and precipitation are the key mechanisms driving the water
cycle.

Carbon Cycle
● Carbon is considered as the building block
element of organism. Carbon comes in the form of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is used
up by plants and expired by animals.

Phosphorus Cycle
● Energy used by
organisms are in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Phosphorus is also used up in making nucleic acids and glycolipids.
Phosphorus cycles in the form of phosphate ion (PO43--). This ion is
absorbed by plants and is leached in bodies of water after
decomposition.

Nitrogen Cycle
● Nitrogen is an essential in the formation of protein, nucleic
and amino acids. Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted to
nitrates (NO3-), nitrites (NO2-) and ammonia (NH4+) to be
absorbed by plants. This occurs through a process called
nitrogen fixation. These forms of nutrients are then used up
by organisms and is converted back by decomposers
(bacteria) through denitrification.

References:
Campbell, N.A., Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L.,
Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., Jackson, R.B.
2008. BIOLOGY. 9th ed. San Francisco, CA:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Mauseth, J. D. 1989. Plant Anatomy. Menlo Park, CA: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.
Umaly, R.C. & Roderos, R.R. 1986. Lecture Notes on Modern Genetics. Quezon City, Philippines: Vital Publishing House,
Inc.

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