Microsoft Word - Chapter 12

AC voltage regulators 328
{sin (ωt - φ ) − sin (α − φ ) e }

2V -ωt +α
tan φ
i (ωt ) = (A)
Z (12.2)
α ≤ ωt ≤ β (rad)
12
i (ωt ) = 0 (A)
(12.3)
π ≤ β ≤ ωt ≤ π + α (rad)
2 2 2
where Z = √(R + ω L ) (ohms) and tan φ = ω L / R = 1/ Q
Provided α > φ both ac regulator thyristors will conduct and load current flows symmetrically as shown
in figure 12.1b. The thyristor conduction period is given by the angle θ = β – α.
The thyristor current extinction angle β for discontinuous load current can be determined with the aid of
figure 11.9a, but with the restriction that β - α ≤ π, or figure 12.1d, or by solving equation 11.78, that is:
AC Voltage Regulators sin( β - φ ) = sin(α - φ ) e(α -β ) / tan φ
From figure 12.1b the rms output voltage is
(12.4)
( ) sin ωt dωt 

½ ½
Vrms =  1π ∫ = 2 V  1π ∫ (1 − cos 2ωt ) d ωt 
β 2 β
2
2V
 α  α 
(12.5)
= V 1π {( β − α ) − ½(sin 2β − sin 2α )} = V 1π {( β − α ) − sin ( β − α ) cos(α + β )}
½ ½
AC voltage regulators have a constant voltage ac supply input and incorporate semiconductor switches
which vary the rms voltage impressed across the ac load. These regulators generally fall into the ∧
category of naturally commutating converters since their thyristor switches are naturally commutated by The maximum rms output voltage is when α = ϕ in equation (12.5), giving V rms = V .
the alternating supply. This converter turn-off process is termed line commutation. The rms load current is found by the appropriate integration of equation (12.2) squared, namely
The regulator output current, hence supply current, may be discontinuous or non-sinusoidal and as a ½
1 2

{ }
consequence input power factor correction and harmonic reduction are usually necessary, particularly at β  2V  - ωt +α 2
I rms =  ∫  sin (ωt - φ ) − sin (α − φ ) e d ωt 
tan φ

low output voltage levels (relative to the input ac voltage magnitude). π 
 Z 
α
A feature of direction conversion of ac to ac is the absence of any intermediate energy stage, such as a   (12.6)
½
capacitive dc link or energy storage inductor. Therefore ac to ac converters are potentially more efficient V 1  sin ( β − α ) 
but usually involve a larger number of switching devices and output is lost if the input supply is =   β −α − cos ( β + α + φ )  
Z  π  cos φ 

temporarily lost.
There are three basic ac regulator categories, depending on the relationship between the input supply ∧
The maximum rms output current is when α = ϕ in equation (12.6), giving I rms = V / Z .
frequency fs, which is usually assumed single frequency sinusoidal, possibly multi-phased, and the
output frequency fo. Without the use of transformers (or boost inductors), the output voltage rms
magnitude VOrms is less than or equal to the input voltage rms magnitude Vs , Vo rms ≤ Vs .
• output frequency increased, fo > fs, for example, the matrix converter
• output frequency decreased, fo < fs, for example, the cycloconverter
• output frequency fundamental = supply frequency, fo = fs, for example, a phase controller (c)
12.1 Single-phase ac regulator

Figure 12.1a shows a single-phase thyristor ac regulator supplying an L-R load. The two inverse parallel
connected thyristors can be replaced by any of the bidirectional conducting and blocking switch Φ = 90°
270°
arrangements shown in figure 12.1c or figure 6.11. Equally, in low power applications the two thyristors vo
are usually replaced by a triac. cos φ = 0
Φ = 75°
The ac regulator in figure 12.1a can be controlled by two methods
β=2π - α
• phase angle control – using symmetrical delay angles φ
• integral (or half integral) cycle control – using zero phase angle delay 240°
Φ = 60°
β=α + π
12.1.1 Single-phase ac regulator – phase control with line commutation Φ = 45°

VTH β
For control by phase angle delay, the thyristor gate trigger delay angle is α, where 0 ≤ α ≤ π, as indicated
in figure 12.1b. The fundamental of the output angular frequency is the same as the input angular 210° Φ = 30°
frequency, ω = 2πfs. The thyristor current, shown in figure 12.1b, is defined by equation (11.76); that is
di
L + Ri = 2V sin ωt (V) α ≤ ωt ≤ β (rad) Φ = 15°
dt (12.1)
φ
=0 otherwise 180°
The solution to this first order differential equation has two solutions, depending on the delay angle α 0 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
relative to the load natural power factor angle, φ = tan −1 ω L R . Delay angle α
Because of symmetry, the mean supply and load, voltages and currents, are zero.
(d)
Case 1: α > φ Figure 12.1. Single-phase full-wave symmetrical thyristor ac regulator with an R-L load:
When the delay angle exceeds the load power factor angle the load current always reaches zero before (a) circuit connection; (b) load current and voltage waveforms for α>φ; (c) asymmetrical voltage
π+φ, thus the differential equation boundary conditions are zero. The solution for i is blocking thyristor alternatives; and (d) current extinction angle β versus triggering delay angle α.
BWW
329 Power Electronics AC voltage regulators 330
From equation (12.6), the thyristor rms current is given by ITh = I rms / 2 and is a maximum when α ≤ φ ,
rms
. The Fourier component magnitudes and phases are given by
φn = tan−1 a n
that is
c n = a n2 + bn2 and (12.16)
bn
I Th rms = I rms =V (12.7)
2 2Z .
If α ≤ φ , then continuous ac load current flows, and equation (12.14) reduces to a1 = 0 and b1 = √2V,
Using the fact that the average voltage across the load inductor is zero, the rectified mean voltage when β = α + π and α = φ are substituted.
(hence current) can be used to determine the thyristor mean current rating.
β The supply apparent power can be grouped into a component at the fundamental frequency plus
V o = I o R = 1π ∫ α
2 V sin ωt d ωt
(12.8) components at the harmonic frequencies.
= 2 V 1π {cos α − cos β } (V) S2 = V 2 I 12 + V 2 I 32 + V 2 I 52 + ...
The mean thyristor current I Th = ½ I o = ½V o / R , that is = V 2 I 12 + V 2 I 12 +V 2 I 32 + V 2 I 52 + ... −V 2 I 12
½Vo 2V 1 = V 2 I 12 + V 2 I rms
2
−V 2 I 12
ITh =
=  π ( cos α − cos β )  (A) (12.9)
R 2R  = V I 2
1
2
+V 2
(I 2
rms − I 12 ) (12.17)
The maximum mean thyristor current is for a load α = φ and β = π+φ, that is
∧
= S 1
2
+ D 2
2 V cos φ 2V
I Th = πR = πZ (12.10) = P2 + Q12 + D2
The thyristor forward and reverse voltage blocking ratings are both √2V. S = (VI 1 cos φ1 ) + (VI 1 sin φ1 )
2 2 2
+ D2
The load current form factor, using cosφ = R/Z, is
where D is the supply current distortion due to the harmonic currents.
I rms
FFi load = The current harmonic components are found by dividing the load Fourier voltage components by the
Io load impedance at that frequency. Equation (12.16) given the current harmonic angles φn and
½
magnitudes according to
  sin ( β − α )  (12.11)
cos φ  π1  β − α − cos ( β + α + φ )   cn
  cos φ 
 Vn Vn 2
= In = = = (12.18)
2  π ( cos α − cos β ) 
1 .  Zn R 2 + (ωL )
2
R 2 + (ωL )
2
∧
which is a maximum when α = ϕ, giving FF i Load = π /2 2 .
.
Case 2: α ≤ φ (continuous gate pulses)

∧
The thyristor current form factor is FF i Th = 2 FF i Load , which is a maximum when α = ϕ, FF = ½π . When α ≤ φ , a pure sinusoidal load current flows, and substitution of α = φ in equation (12.2) results in
i Th
The load power is 2V

i (ωt ) = sin (ωt - φ ) (A) α ≤ φ (rad) (12.19)
Po = I rms
2
R Z
If a short duration gate trigger pulse is used and α < φ , unidirectional load current may result. The device
(V cos φ )  β − α sin ( β − α )
2
 (12.12) to be turned on is reverse-biased by the conducting device. Thus if the gate pulse ceases before the
=  − cos (α + φ + β )  previous half-cycle load current has fallen to zero, only one device conducts. It is therefore usual to
R  π π cos φ  employ a continuous gate pulse, or stream of pulses, from α until π, then for α < φ a sine wave output
2
∧
V2 V  current results.
which is a maximum when α = ϕ, giving P o = cos φ =   R . For both delay angle conditions, equations (12.5) to (12.14) are valid, except the simplification β=α+π is
Z Z 
used when α ≤ φ , which gives the maximum values for those equations. That is, for α ≤ φ , substituting
The supply power factor is
α =φ
Po
pf = ∧
V =V =V
∧
I rms = I = V / Z ITh rms = ITh rms = V
V I rms rms rms rms
2Z (12.20)
½ (12.13)
 β − α sin ( β − α )
∧ ∧ ∧
 FF iLoad = FFiLoad = π / 2 2 P o = Po = Irms
2
R = V 2 cos φ / Z pf = pf = cos φ I Th = 2V / π Z
= − cos (α + φ + β )  × cos φ
.
 π π cos φ 
∧ 12.1.1i - Resistive load
which is a maximum when α = ϕ, giving pf = cos φ .
For an inductive L-R load, the fundamental load voltage components (cos and sin respectively) are For a purely resistive load, the load voltage and current are related according to
 2 V sin (ωt )
a1 =
2V
( cos 2α − cos 2β ) v (ωt )  α ≤ ωt ≤ π , α + π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π
io (ωt ) = o = R (12.21)
2π R 
(12.14) 0 otherwise
2V
b1 =
2π
( 2 ( β − α ) − ( sin 2 β − sin 2α ) ) The equations (12.1) to (12.20) can be simplified if the load is purely resistive. Continuous output
current only flows for α = 0, since φ = tan −1 0 = 0° . Therefore the output equations are derived from the
2V  cos ( n + 1) α − cos ( n + 1) β cos ( n − 1) α − cos ( n − 1) β  discontinuous equations (12.2) to (12.14), with φ = 0.
an =  − 
π  n +1 n −1 
The average output voltage and current are zero. The mean half-cycle output voltage, used to determine
(12.15) the thyristor mean current rating, is found by integrating the supply voltage over the interval α to π, (β =
bn =
2V  sin ( n + 1 ) α − sin ( n + 1 ) β
−
sin ( n − 1 ) α − sin ( n − 1 ) β  π).
 
π  n +1 n −1 
for n = 3, 5, 7, .. odd.
π
Vo = 1π ∫ 2 V sin ωt d ωt 1
α
2(π −α ) + sin2α
2V V rms = V 2π
= (1 + cos α ) (V) (12.22)
π
V rms = V = V1 rms Distortion factor
Vo 2V FFi TH/10
whence I o = = (1 + cos α ) = 2 I T (A)
power factor and output voltage (rms) pu

R πR Power factor
∧
The average thyristor current is I T = ½ I o , which has a maximum value of I T = 2V / π R when α = 0. V1
thyristor distortion factor FFiTh

rms
From equation (12.5) the rms output voltage for a delay angle α is 2/π 1/FFi TH
∫ ( )
π 2
Vrms = 1
π 2 V sin ωt d ωt Vn rms
α Reciprocal of
(12.23) Distortion factor
2(π −α ) + sin 2α
=V 2π
(V) ½
which has a maximum of V rms = V when α = 0.

The rms output current and supply current from I rms = Vrms / R is
V3 rms
Vrms V
I rms = = 1 − 2α −2sin2
π
α = 2 I T rms (A)
R R (12.24)
and IT rms = I rms / 2 .
V5
The maximum rms supply current is I rms = V / R at α = 0 when the maximum rms thyristor current is ½π/10 rms
I T rms = I rms / 2 = V / 2R .
.
Therefore the output power, with Vrms = R Irms, for a resistive load, is V7 rms
0
{ }
2
R = rms = V 1 − 2α −sin2α
V 2
Po = I rms
2
(W) (12.25)
R R 2π 0 30º 60 º 90 º 120 º 150 º 180 º
The input power is Pin = VI 1 cos φ1 ( = Pout ) . 0 π π π π π π
The supply power factor λ is defined as the ratio of the real power to the apparent power, that is delay angle α
P V I V
pf = λ = o = rms = rms = 2(π −α2)π+sin 2α (12.26) Figure 12.2. Normalised RMS harmonics (voltage and current) for a single-phase full-wave ac
S VI V regulator with a pure resistive load.
where the apparent power is
½
V 2  α sin 2α  The fundamental supply current is
S = VI rms = 1− + (12.27)
R  π 2π  V  ½
( cos 2α − 1) + ( 2π − 2α + sin 2α ) 
2 2
I s1 = (12.32)
and Q = S 2 − P 2 . The fundament reactive power is 2π R 
V 2 cos 2α − 1
Q1 = (12.28) If the thyristors are modelled by
R 2π v TH = v o + i × ro
Then the thyristor losses are given by
The thyristor current (and voltage for a resistive load) form factor (rms to mean), shown in figure 12.2, is 2
π (π − α + ½ sin 2α ) 
½ PTH = v o I Th + ro × I Th2 rms = v o I TH + ro × I T h × FFi Th (α ) (W) (12.33)
I Th rms
FFiTh = =  (12.29)
I Th 1 + cos α
From equation (12.140) , the thyristor current crest factor is 12.1.1ii - Pure inductive load
 2π
 0 ≤ α ≤ ½π For a purely inductive load, the load power factor angle is φ = ½π . Since the inductor voltage average is
I T 1 + cos α zero, current conduction will be symmetrical about π. Thus equations (12.2) to (12.14) apply except they
δ = = (12.30)
I T  2π sin α can be simplified since β = π – α. These bounds imply that the delay angle should be greater than ½π,
 ½π ≤ α ≤ π
1 + cos α but less than π. Therefore, if the delay angle is less than ½π, conduction extends into the next half
cycle, and with short gate pulses, preventing the reverse direction thyristor from conducting, as shown in
The Fourier voltage components for a resistive load (with β = π in equations (12.14) and (12.15)) are figure 12.3c. The output is then a series of half-wave rectified current pulses as with the case α ≤ φ
considered in 12.3iii. For the purely inductive load case, the equations and waveforms for the half-wave
2V 2V
a1 = ( cos 2α − 1) b1 = (π − α + ½ sin 2α ) controlled rectifier in section 11.3.1ii, apply. Kirchhoff’s voltage law gives
2π π
(12.31) di
2 V  cos ( n + 1 ) α − 1 cos ( n − 1 ) α − 1  2 V  sin ( n + 1 ) α sin ( n − 1 ) α  L = 2V sin ωt (12.34)
an =  −    bn = − dt
π  n +1 n −1  π  n +1 n −1  The load current is given by:
for n = 3, 5, 7, … odd. Figure 12.2 show the relative harmonic rms magnitudes and dependence on α. 2V
The load current harmonics are found by dividing the voltage components by R, since i(ωt) = v(ωt)/R. i (ωt ) = cos α − cos (ωt )
ωL
( ) α ≤ ωt ≤ 2π − α (12.35)
The current waveform is symmetrical about π.

vo
vo 3
β= short gate pulses
2π - α ωt
normalised average and rms currents

equations (12.36) and (12.38)
o α π 2π
ITh ave
2
ITh rms
io
1 pu = I (90º)
iT1 2π ωt
o π iT2
β=
2π - α ITh ave ITh rms
iG1 (a) 1 Ireference
symmetrical delay
Gate firing sequence iG2 Long gate pulses
equations (12.42) and (12.44)
equation (12.41)
ITh ave ITh rms
vo
vo
0 30º 60º 90º 120º 150º 180º
Delay angle α
o ωt
α ½π π 2π
io
iT1 symmetrical delay
2π ωt V
1
o
normalised rms output voltage

π (b)
iT2
iG1
iG2 symmetrical delay

Gate firing sequence short gate pulses
equation (12.45)
equation (12.40) High dv/dt
vo ½
vo
vs
ωt
2π- α
o
α π 2π
0
io
0 30º 60º 90º 120º 150º 180º
iT1 iT1
(c) Delay angle α
ωt
o Figure 12.6. Normalised ac-chopper purely inductive load control characteristics of:
π 2π- α 2π
iG1 (a) thyristor average and rms currents and (b) rectified average output voltage.
Gate firing sequence iG2
Figure 12.3. Single-phase full-wave thyristor ac regulator with a pure inductor load: The rectified average load voltage is
(a) α > ½π; (b) α < ½π, gate pulse until π; and (c) α < ½π, short gate pulse. 2V
Vo = (1 + cos α ) 0 ≤ δ ≤ ½π (12.37)
π
α < ½π The rms load and supply (and one thyristor) current is
i. short gate pulse period
2 V 1 ½
( cos α - cos ωt ) dωt 

2π −α
ω L  ∫ α
With a purely inductive load, the average output voltage is zero. If uni-directional current flows (due to I rms = 2π
2
the uses of a narrow gate pulse), as shown in figure 12.3c, the average load current, hence average
(12.38)
thyristor current, for the conducting thyristor, is V 1  3 
½
 (π − α )( 2 + cos 2α ) + sin 2α  
=
X  π 
2π −α
2 V
Io = IT = 1
2π ∫ α ωL
{cos α - cos ωt} d ωt
The thyristor current form factor is
2 
(12.36)
= (π − α ) cos α + sin α 
2 V ½π (π − α )( 2 + cos 2α ) + ¾π sin 2α
πω L  FFi T = (12.39)
sin α + (π − α ) cos α
which with uni-polar pulses has a maximum of √2 V/ωL at α = 0.
which has a maximum value of ½π when α =½π. v

The rms load voltage is Th1 β Th1
VR β
io = i L io = i L
∫ ( 2V )
½
=  12π sin ωt d ωt 
2π −α 2 v
2 VL
Vrms VR
 α 
(12.40) Th2 Th2
VL VR
= V 1π {(π − α ) + ½ sin 2α )}
½ L Vb ac R
v Vsinωt vo/p φ v Vsinωt vo/p φ

Vb ac
ψ ψ io
ii. extended gate pulse period Vbsin(ωt-ψ)
Vb ac
Vbsin(ωt-ψ)
Vb ac α
α io
When the gate pulses are extended to π, continuous current flows, as shown in figure 12.3b, given by α α
Irms=V/ωL, lagging V by ½π. Each thyristor conducts an average current and rms current of
2V
I Th =
πωL (12.41)
I V
ITh rms = rms = vo/p vo/p
2 πωL
v vo/p v vo/p
π ≥ α ≥ ½π (symmetrical gate pulses) Vb ac VL

The output voltage and current are symmetrical, as shown in figure 12.3a, hence the average output Vb ac
ψ
ωt ωt
voltage and current are both zero, as is the average input current. The average thyristor current is given
o o
by
2π −α ψ α φ α
2 V
IT = 1
2π ∫ α ωL
{cos α - cos ωt} d ωt
equal
(12.42) φ
areas
VR
(π − α ) cos α + sin α 

2 V β 2π-α
=
πω L 
which has a maximum of √2 V/πωL at α = ½π. i io = i R
io
The rectified average load voltage over half a cycle is VL
IR
vR = RiR
2 2V
Vo = (1 + cos α ) (12.43) io
½π
iL
π ωt ωt
o o
The rms load and supply current is
V  2 2π −α ½ α 2π-α φ α
( cos α - cos ωt ) d ωt 
ω L  ∫ α
2
I rms = 2 I Th rms =
.
π
½ (12.44) ½π
V 2 3 
=  (π − α )( 2 + cos 2α ) + sin 2α  
X  π  2 
The rms load voltage is (a) (b)
φ
( ) sin ωt dωt 
½
Vrms =  1π ∫
2π −α 2
2
2V 90º
 α ψ
(12.45) Vb ac ½
= V  2π {(π − α ) + ½ sin 2α )}
½
π +
V ½
The maximum rms voltage and current are V rms = V and I rms = V / X at α = ½π . ϕ = 60º
1
The rms equations for α greater than and less than ½π are basically the same except the maximum 0.9
period over which a given thyristor conducts changes from π to 2π (respectively), hence the rms values 0.8 30º
differ by √2. Since the output power is zero, the supply power factor is zero, for bidirectional current. 0.6 Vb leads V ψ
If the controller in figure 12.1a is use in the half-controlled mode (thyristor and anti-parallel diode), the 0.4
0.2 30º 60º 90º
resultant dc component precludes its use in ac transformer applications. The controller is limited to low
power ac applications because of dc restrictions on the ac mains supply.
-90º -60º -30º 0.2
ψ 0.4
12.1.1iii - Load sinusoidal back emf Vb lags V 0.6
-30º 0.8
When the ac controller load comprises an ac back emf vb ac of the same frequency as the ac supply v, as 0.9
1
with embedded generation, then, when the thyristors conduct, the load effectively sees the vector
-60º ψ
difference between the two ac voltages, v-vb ac, as shown in figure 12.5. (c) ½ Vb ac
v R ,L = v − v b ac π + V
−½
= V ∠0 −V b ac ∠ψ = V + 0 j −V b ac ( cos ψ + j sinψ ) -90 º ϕ =
(12.46) φ
= V −V b ac cos ψ − jV b ac sinψ
= v R ,L ∠ϕ Figure 12.5. AC-chopper characteristics with ac back emf and purely resistive or inductive load.
Circuit, phasor diagram and circuit waveforms for:
where (a) purely resistive and ac source load and (b) purely inductive and ac source load.
(c) Phase displacement of resultant voltage of an ac emf opposing the ac mains.
(V −V b ac cos ψ ) + (V b ac sinψ ) = V 2 + V b2ac − 2V V b ac cos ψ I rms = Po / R

2 2
v R ,L =
−V b ac sinψ (12.47) = 4.07kW / 7.1Ω = 23.8A
ϕ = tan−1 The input power factor is the load natural power factor, that is
V −V b ac cos ψ
P 4.07kW
The passive part of the load can now be analysed as in sections 12.1.1i and ii, but the thyristor phase pf = o = = 0.70
S 240V × 23.8A
triggering delay angles are shifted by φ with respect to the original ac supply reference, as shown in the
phasor diagrams in figure 12.5. = µ cos φ = µ / 2
If the voltage is normalised with respect to the ac supply V, then the normalised curves in figure 12.5 Thus the current input distortion factor is µ = 1, for this sinusoidal current case.
can be used to obtain the phase angle φ, with respect to the ac mains reference. Therefore curves give
the angle of the voltage (and the current in the case of a resistor load) across the passive part of the ii. α = ⅓π
load.
As seen in the waveforms in figure 12.5, the load current is dependent on the relative magnitudes and (a) Since α = π / 3 > φ = ¼π , the load hence supply current is discontinuous. For
angle between the two ac sources, the type of load, and the thyristor phase delay angle. Performance α = π / 3 > φ = ¼π the extinction angle β = 3.91 rad or 224.15° can be extracted from figure 11.7a or
features with a resistive load and inductive load are illustrated in Example 12.1d. determined after iteration using equation (12.4). The rms load voltage is given by equation (12.5).
Vrms = V 1π {( β − α ) − ½(sin 2β − sin 2α )}
½
= 240 × 1π {( 3.91 − 1 3 π ) − ½(sin 2 × 3.91 − sin 2 3 π )}

½
12.1.1iv - Semi-controlled single-phase ac regulator
A semi-controlled single-phase ac regulator is formed by replacing one thyristor in figure 12.1a with a = 240 × 2.71π = 226.4V
diode. A dc component results in the load current and voltage. For a resistive load, the diode average (b) The rms output (and input) current is given by equation (12.6), that is
and rms currents are found by substituting α = 0 in equations (12.22) and (12.24). Using these
sin ( β − α )
½
V 1  
equations, the load resistance average and rms currents (hence voltages) are I Orms =   β − α − cos ( β + α + φ )  
Z  π  cos φ 

I R = I D − I T = 2 2 − 2 2 (1 + cos α ) = 2 2 (1 − cos α )
πR πR πR sin ( 3.91 − 13 π )
½
(12.48) 240  1  
V  2α - sin 2α 
½
V   3.91 − 13 π −
= cos ( 3.91 + 13 π + ¼π )   = 18.0A
I R rms = I D rms + I T rms =
2 2
= rms 10  π  cos¼π 


2R  π  R 

The output power is given by
The power dissipated in the resistive load is
Po = I rms
2
R
V 2  2α − sin 2α 
PR = (12.49)
R  4π 

= 18.02 ×7.1Ω = 2292W
The load and supply power factors are
P 2292W P 2292W
pf o = o = = 0.562 pf = o = = 0.531
Example 12.1a: Single-phase ac regulator – 1 S 226.4V × 18.0A S 240V × 18.0A
The Fourier coefficients of the fundamental, a1 and b1, are given by equation (12.14)
If the load of the 50 Hz 240V ac voltage regulator shown in figure 12.1 is Z = 7.1+j7.1 Ω, calculate the
load natural power factor angle, φ . Then, assuming bipolar load current conduction, calculate
a1 =
2V
2π
( cos 2α − cos 2β ) =
2 240V
2π 3 (
cos 2 π − cos 2 × 3.91 = −28.8V )
(a) the rms output voltage, and hence
(b) the output power and rms current, whence input power factor and supply current distortion
factor, µ
2V
b1 =
2π
2 240V
( ( ) )
( 2 ( β − α ) − sin 2β + sin 2α ) = 2π 2 × 3.91 − π 3 − sin 2 × 3.91 − sin 2 × π 3 = 302.1V
for The fundamental power factor is
i. α = π
ii. α = ⅓π
 a 
(
cos φ1 = cos  tan−1  1   = cos tan−1 −28.8V
  b1   302.1V( = 0.995 ))
The current distortion factor is derived from
Solution pf = µ × cos φ1
From equation (12.3) the load natural power factor angle is 0.531 = µ × 0.995
φ = tan −1 ω L / R = tan −1 X L / R = tan −1 7.1/ 7.1 = ¼π (rad) That is, the current distortion factor is µ = 0.533.
♣
Z = R 2 + (ω L) 2 = 7.12 + 7.12 = 10Ω
i. α = π
(a) Since α = π / 6 < φ = π / 4 , the load current is continuous and bidirectional, ac. The rms load
voltage is 240V. Example 12.1b: Single-phase ac regulator – 2
(b) From equation (12.20) the power delivered to the load is
V2 If the load of the 50 Hz 240V ac voltage regulator shown in figure 12.1 is Z = 7.1+j7.1 Ω, calculate the
Po = Irms
2
R= cos φ minimum controllable delay angle. Using this angle calculate
Z i. maximum rms output voltage and current, and hence
2
240 ii. maximum output power and power factor
= cos¼π = 4.07kW
10Ω iii. thyristor I-V and di/dt ratings
The rms output current and supply current are both given by
Solution a. If the delay angle π >α > ½π and symmetrical, then the load current is discontinuous
alternating polarity current pulses as shown in figure 12.3a.
As in example 12.1a, from equation (12.3) the load natural power factor angle is b. If the delay angle 0 < α < ½π, and a short duration gate pulse is used for each thyristor, then
φ = tan −1 ω L / R = tan −1 7.1/ 7.1 = π / 4 the output comprises discontinuous unidirectional current pulses of duration 2π-2α, as
The load impedance is Z=10Ω. The controllable delay angle range is ¼π ≤ α ≤ π . shown in figure 12.3c.
i. The maximum controllable output occurs when α = ¼π.
a. α = ¾π: symmetrical gate pulses - discontinuous alternating current pulses.
From equation (12.2) when α = φ the output voltage is the supply voltage, V, and
The average output voltage and current are zero, I o = v o = 0 . The maximum rms load voltage and
2V current, with bidirectional output current and voltage, are when α = ½π
i (ωt ) = sin (ωt -¼π ) (A)
Z
V rms = V = 240V
The load hence supply rms maximum current, is therefore
I rms = 240V /10Ω = 24A V 240V
I rms = = = 24A
X 10Ω
ii. Power = I rms
2
R = 242 × 7.1Ω = 4090W i. The rms output current and voltage are given by equations (12.44) and (12.45), respectively, with
power output Φ = π and β = 2π-α, that is
power factor = ½
apparent power output V 2 3 
I rms =  (π − α )( 2 + cos 2α ) + sin 2α  
2
I R 24 × 7.1Ω
2
X  π  2 
= rms
= = 0.71 (= cos φ )
VI rms 240V × 10A 240V  2  3 
½
 3  3
=   (π − ¾π )  2 + cos π  + sin π   = 5.1A
10Ω  π   2  2 2  
iii. Each thyristor conducts for π radians, between α and π+α for T1 and between π+α and 2π+α for T2.
Vrms = V  2π {(π − α ) + ½ sin 2α )}
½
The thyristor average current is
α +π =φ +π
IT = 1
2π ∫ 2 V sin (ωt − φ ) d ω t ½
α =φ   3 
= 240V  2π (π − ¾π ) + ½ sin π )  = 54.65V
2V 2 × 240V   2 
= = = 10.8A
πZ π × 10Ω
The thyristor rms current rating is ii. Each thyristor conducts half the load current hence IT = 5.1A/√2=3.6A rms. Before start-up, at shut-
½ down or during operation, each thyristor has to block bi-directionally √2 240 = 340V, peak.
 1
{ } 
α +π =φ +π 2
ITrms = ∫ 2 V sin (ωt − φ ) dωt  The average thyristor current is
 2π α =φ

(π − α ) cos α + sin α 
2 V
2V 2 × 240V IT =
= = = 17.0A πω L 
2Z 2 × 10Ω
Maximum thyristor di/dt is derived from =
2 240V

π × 10Ω 
(π − ¾π ) cos ¾π + sin ¾π  = 1.64A
d i (ω t ) 2V
=d sin (ωt -¼π )
dt dt Z b. α = ¼ π: short gate pulses – discontinuous unidirectional current pulses.
2V The average output voltage and current are not zero, I o ≠ 0 and v o ≠ 0.
= ω cos (ωt -¼π ) (A/s)
Z
This has a maximum value when ωt-¼π = 0, that is at ωt = α = φ , then i. The rms output current and voltage are given by equations (12.44) and (12.45), respectively, with
Φ = π and β = 2π-α, that is
di ( ω t ) 2V ω
V 1 
½
= 3 
dt I rms =  (π − α )( 2 + cos 2α ) + sin 2α  
X  π 
Z
2 
2 × 240V × 2π × 50Hz
= = 10.7A/ms 240V  1  3 
½
 (π − ¼π )( 2 + cos½π ) + sin ½π   = 37.75A

10Ω =
Thyristor forward and reverse blocking voltage requirements are √2V = √2×240 = 340Vdc. 10Ω  π  2 
♣ Vrms = V 1π {(π − α ) + ½ sin 2α )}
½
= 240V 1π {(π − ¼π ) + ½ sin ½π )} = 228.8V

½
Example 12.1c: Single-phase ac regulator – pure inductive load
If the load of the 50 Hz 240V ac voltage regulator shown in figure 12.1 is Z = jX= j10 Ω, and the delay ii. Although only one thyristor conducts, which one that actually conducts may be random, thus both
angle α is first ¾π then second ¼π calculate thyristor are rms rated for IT = 37.75A. Whilst operational, the maximum thyristor voltage is √2
i. maximum rms output voltage and current, and hence 240 sin¼π, that is 240V. But before start-up or at shut-down, each thyristor has to block bi-
ii. thyristor I-V ratings directionally, √2 240 = 340V, peak.
The average thyristor (and supply and load) current is
Assume the thyristor gate pulses are of a short duration relative to the 10ms half period.
IT =
2 V

πω L 
(π − α ) cos α + sin α 
Solution
(π − ¼π ) cos¼π + sin ¼π  = 25.6A
2 240V
=
For a purely inductive load, the current extinction angle is always β = 2π-α, that is, symmetrical about π π × 10Ω 
and tanΦ→∞. ♣
Example 12.1d: Single-phase ac regulator – 1 with ac back emf composite load inductive load across the 130.3V ac voltage, the current lags this voltage by 90º. From the phasor
diagram in figure 12.5, the thyristor firing angle with respect to the load inductor voltage is αL = α + φ =
A 230V 50Hz mains ac thyristor chopper has a load composed of 10Ω resistance in series with a138V 90º + 32.8º = 122.8º. Since the effective delay angle αL is greater than 90º, symmetrical, bipolar,
50Hz ac voltage source that leads the mains by 30º. If the thyristor triggering angle is 90º with respect to discontinuous load current flows, as considered in section 12.1ii.
the ac mains, determine
i. The rms load current and maximum rms load current for any phase delay angle i. With a 20mH load inductor, the load rms current is given by equation (12.44), that is
ii. The power dissipated in the passive part of the load VL  2  3 
½
iii. The thyristor average and rms current ratings and voltage ratings I rms = (π − αL )( 2 + cos 2αL ) + sin 2αL  
iv. Power dissipated in the thyristors when modelled by vT = vo + ro×iT =1.2 + 0.01×iT X  π  2 
130.3V  122.8°  3
Repeat the calculations if the passive part of the load is a 20mH inductor and the ac back emf lags the = 2− ( 2 + cos 2 × 122.8° ) + sin 2 × 122.8°
2π 50Hz × 0.02H  90°  π
50Hz ac mains by 30º.
= 20.74A × 0.373 = 7.73A
Solution The maximum bipolar rms load current is when αR = 90º, Irms = 20.74, and α = 90 - φ = 32.8º.
ac back emf with a pure resistive load ii. The 20mH inductor losses are zero.
From equation (12.47), the voltage across the resistive part of the load is
v R = V 2 + V b2ac − 2VV b ac cos ψ iii. The thyristor current ratings are
I T rms = I rms / 2 .
= 230 + 138 − 2 × 230 × 138 × cos 30 = 130.3V

2 2
with an angle of φ = -32.8º with respect to the ac mains, given by ψ = 30º and Vb ac / V = 138V/230V = 0.6 = 7.73 / 2 = 5.47A .
in the fourth quadrant of figure 12.5. From the phasor diagram in figure 12.5, the thyristor firing angle From equation (12.42), the average thyristor current is
with respect to the load resistor voltage is αR = α - φ = 90º - 32.8º = 57.8º. 2 VL
IT = (π − α L ) cos α L + sin α L 
πωL 
i. The load rms current is given by equation (12.24), that is
V 2α − sin 2α R 2   122.8°  
= 20.74A π 1− × cos122.8° + sin122.8°  = 2.80A
I rms = R 1 − R π   180°  
R 2π
The thyristors effectively experience a forward and reverse voltage associated with a single ac
130.3V 57.8° sin 2 × 57.8°
= 1− + = 13.03A × 0.732 = 9.54A source of 130.3V ac. Without phase control the maximum thyristor voltage is
10Ω 180° 2π √2×130.3V=184.3V. Since αR ≥ 90º is necessary for continuous bipolar load current, 184.3V will
The maximum rms load current is 13A when is αR = 0, that is when α = -φ = 32.8º. always be experienced by the thyristors for any αR > 90º.
ii. The 10Ω resistor losses are iv. The power dissipated in each thyristor is
P10 Ω = I rms
2
× 10Ω PT = v o I T + ro I T2 rms
= 9.54 2 × 10Ω = 910.1W = 1.2V × 2.8A + 0.01Ω × 5.472 = 3.66W
♣
iii. The thyristor current ratings are
I T rms = I rms / 2 .
= 16.83 / 2 = 11.9A .
12.1.2 Single-phase ac regulator – integral cycle control - line commutated
From equation (12.22), the average thyristor current is
In thyristor heating applications, load harmonics are unimportant and integral cycle control, or burst
2 VR firing, can be employed. Figure 12.6a shows the regulator when a triac is employed and figure 12.6b
IT =½ (1 + cos α R )
πR shows the output voltage indicating the regulator’s operating principle. Because of the low frequency
2 × 130.3V sub-harmonic nature of the output voltage, this type of control is not suitable for incandescent lighting
=½ (1 + cos 57.8°) = 4.5A loads since flickering would occur and with ac motors, undesirable torque pulsations would result.
π × 10Ω In many heating applications the load thermal time constant is long (relative to 20ms, that is 50Hz) and
The thyristors effectively experience a forward and reverse voltage associated with a single ac an acceptable control method involves a number of mains cycles on and then off. Because turn-on
source of 130.3V ac. Without phase control the maximum thyristor voltage is occurs at zero voltage cross-over and turn-off occurs at zero current, which is near a zero voltage cross-
√2×130.3V=184.3V. If the triggering angle α is less than 90º-φ=122.8 º (with respect to the ac over, supply harmonics and radio frequency interference are low. The lowest order harmonic in the load
mains) then the maximum off-state voltage is less, namely is 1/Tp.
V T = 2 × 130.3 × sin (α − 32.8° ) if α < 122.3° For a resistive load, the output voltage (and current) is defined by
v o = i o R = 2V sin (ωt ) for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ 2π m
iv. The power dissipated in each thyristor is (12.50)
=0 for 2π m ≤ ωt ≤ 2π N
PT = v o I T + ro I T2 rms where Tp = 2πN/ω.
= 1.2V × 4.5A + 0.01Ω × 11.92 = 6.8W
The rms output voltage (and current) is
ac back emf with a pure reactive load  1 2π m / N
( ) 
2
The voltage across the inductive part of the load is the same as for the resistive case, namely 130.3V. In Vrms =  ∫
 2π 0
2V sin N ω t dω t 
 (12.51)
this case the ac back emf lags the ac mains. The phase angle with respect to the ac mains is φ = 32.8º,
given by ψ = -30º and Vb ac / V = 138V/230V = 0.6 in the second quadrant of figure 12.5. Being a purely Vrms = I rms R = V m / N = V δ where the duty cycle δ = m
N
.
The Fourier coefficient and phase angle for each load voltage harmonic (for n ≠ N) are given by resistive heating type application. Temperature effects on load resistance R have been neglected, as
2N have semiconductor on-state voltages. Finer resolution output voltage control is achievable if integral
c n = 2V sin π n δ
π N2 −n( 2
) half-cycles are used rather than full cycles. The equations remain valid, but the start of multiplies of half
cycles are alternately displaced by π so as to avoid a dc component in the supply and load currents.
φn = π (1 − n δ ) for n < N (12.52) Multiple cycles need not be consecutive within each period.
φn = π ( n δ − 1) for n > N
When n > N the harmonics are above 1/ Tp, while if n < N subharmonics of 1/ Tp are produced. Example 12.2: Integral cycle control
For the case when n = N, the coefficient and phase angle for the sin πm term (an=N = 0) are
m The power delivered to a 12Ω resistive heating element is derived from an ideal sinusoidal supply √2
bn = N = c n = N = 2 V = 2V δ and φn =N = 0 (12.53) 240 sin 2π 50 t and is controlled by a series connected triac as shown in figure 12.6. The triac is
N controlled from its gate so as to deliver integral ac cycle pulses of three (m) consecutive ac cycles from
four (N).
Note the displacement angle between the ac supply voltage and the load voltage frequency component
at the supply frequency, n = N, is φn =N = 0 . Therefore the fundamental power factor angle Calculate
cos φn =N = cos 0 = 1 . i. The percentage power transferred compared to continuous ac operation
ii. The supply power factor, distortion factor, and displacement factor
1 iii. The supply frequency (50Hz) harmonic component voltage of the load voltage
iv. The triac maximum di/dt and dv/dt stresses
Po w e r, cu rre n t, volta g e , a n d p o w e r fa cto r

Irms
pf = v. The phase angle α, to give the same load power when using phase angle control. Compare the
V
R maximum di/dt and dv/dt stresses with part iv.
¾
Irms vi. The output power steps when m, the number of conducted cycles is varied with respect to N = 4
V /R cycles. Calculate the necessary phase control α equivalent for the same power output.
Include the average and rms thyristor currents.
Vrms /V vii. What is the smallest power increment if half cycle control were to be used?
P
½ V2
pu viii. Tabulate the harmonics and rms subharmonic component per unit magnitudes of the load
R
voltage for m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4; and for harmonics n = 0 to 12. (Hint: use Excel)
Solution
¼
The key data is: m = 3 N = 4 (δ = ¾) V = 240 rms ac, 50Hz
0
i. The power transfer, given by equation (12.54), is
2
m 2
2402
0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1 P= V = V δ= ×¾ = 4800×¾ = 3.6kW
R N R 12Ω
δ=m/N
m That is 75% of the maximum power is transferred to the load as heating losses.
(c)
m ii. The displacement factor, cosψ, is 1. The distortion factor is given by
m 3
µ= = δ= . = 0.866
N 4
Thus the supply power factor, λ, is
m
λ = µ cosψ = = δ = 0.866×1 = 0.866
.
N
Figure 12.6. Integral half-cycle single-phase ac control: (a) circuit connection using a triac;
(b) output voltage waveforms for one-eighth maximum load power and nine-sixteenths maximum iii. The 50Hz rms component of the load voltage is given by
power; and (c) normalised supply power factor and power output. m
V50 Hz = V = V δ = 240×¾ = 180V rms
N
The output power is
2
m 2
P= V = δ × V = I rms
2
R (W) (12.54) iv. The maximum di/dt and dv/dt occur at zero cross over, when t = 0.
R N R dVs d
= 2 240 sin 2π 50t |
where n is the number of on cycles and N is the number of cycles in the period Tp. dt |max dt t =0
The average and rms thyristors currents are, respectively,
= 2 240 ( 2π50 ) cos2π50t|
2V m 2V 2V m 2V t =0
IT = = δ IT = = δ (12.55)
πR N πR rms
2R N 2R = 2 240 ( 2π50 ) = 0.107 V/µs
d Vs d 2 240
From equation (12.53), the supply displacement factor cosψ n= N is unity and supply power factor λ | = sin 2π 50t |
dt R max dt 12Ω t =0
is m / N = P / P = δ . From pf = λ = µ cos φn =N = µ , the distortion factor µ is m / N = δ . The rms
= 2 20 ( 2π50 ) cos2π50t|
. .
voltage at the supply frequency is V m /N = δV and the power transfer ratio is m/N = δ. For a given t =0
percentage of maximum output power, the supply power factor is the same for integral cycle control and = 2 20 ( 2π50 ) = 8.89 A/ms
phase angle control. The introduction of sub-harmonics tends to restrict this control technique to
v. To develop the same load power, 3600W, with phase angle control, with a purely resistive load,
implies that both methods must develop the same rms current and voltage, that is, δ and m
Vrms = R P = V m / N = V δ . From equation (12.5), when the extinction angle, β = π, since the Normalised components
0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1 m/N
.
load is resistive
n Hz 0 1 2 3 4
Vrms = R × P = V m / N = V δ = V 1π {(π − α ) + ½ sin 2α }
½
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
that is 1 12.5 0 0.120 0.170 0.120 0
m 1 2 25 0 0.212 0 -0.212 0
δ= = π {(π − α ) + ½ sin 2α } = ¾ = 1π {(π − α ) + ½ sin 2α }
N 3 37.5 0 0.257 -0.364 0.257 0 m/N
Solving 0 = ¼π − α + ½ sin 2α iteratively gives α = 63.9°. 4 50 0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1 fundamental
5 62.5 0 0.200 -0.283 0.200 0
When the triac turns on at α = 63.9°, the voltage across it drops virtually instantaneously from √2 240 sin 6 75 0 0.127 0 -0.127 0
63.9 = 305V to zero. Since this is at triac turn-on, this very high dv/dt does not represent a turn-on dv/dt 7 87.5 0 0.055 0.077 0.055 0
stress. The maximum triac dv/dt stress tending to turn it on is at zero voltage cross over, which is 107 8 100 0 0 0 0 0
V/ms, as with integral cycle control. Maximum di/dt occurs at triac turn on where the current rises from 9 112.5 0 -0.028 -0.039 -0.028 0
zero amperes to 305V/12Ω = 25.4A quickly. If the triac turns on in approximately 1µs, then this would 10 125 0 -0.030 0 0.030 0
represent a di/dt of 25.4A/µs. The triac initial di/dt rating would have to be in excess of 25.4A/µs.
11 137.5 0 -0.017 0.024 -0.017 0
12 150 0 0 0 0 0
12
cycles period duty power I Th IThrms Delay

angle
Displacement
factor
Distortion
factor
Power
factor
all n sum square 0 0.249 0.499 0.749 1 ∑c
1
2
n
m N δ W A A α cosψ µ λ 12
0 4 0 0 0 0 180° all n rms 0 0.499 0.707 0.866 1 ∑c 1

2
n
1 4 ¼ 1200 2.25 7.07 114° 1 ½ ½

all n m
2 4 ½ 2400 4.50 10.0 90° 1 0.707 0.707 check
exact rms 0 0.5 0.707 0.866 1 = δ
4
.
3 4 ¾ 3600 6.75 12.2 63.9° 1 0.866 0.866 all n 12
4 4 1 4800 9 14.1 1 1 1 1 but not ac harmonic rms 0 0.432 0.499 0.432 0 ∑c 2

n − c 42
n=4 1
3
sub harmonics
vi. The output power can be varied using m = 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 cycles of the mains. The output power in
n≤3
rms
0 0.354 0.401 0.354 0 ∑c 1
2
n
each case is calculated as in part 1 and the equivalent phase control angle, α, is calculated as in part v. 12
upper harmonics
The appropriate results are summarised in the table. n≥5
rms
0 0.247 0.297 0.247 0 ∑c 5
2
n
vii. Finer power step resolution can be attained if half cycle power pulses are used as in figure 12.6b. If 2
n≥5 upper harmonics m 3
m 
one complete ac cycle corresponds to 1200W then by using half cycles, 600W power steps are 0 0.249 0.298 0.249 0 − ∑ c n2 −  
possible. This results in nine different power levels if N = 4, from 0W to 4800W. check rms 4 1  4 
vii. The following table show harmonic components, rms subharmonics, etc., for N = 4, which are m
pf = λ power factor 0 ½ 0.707 0.866 1 = δ
4
.
calculated as follows.
power pu 0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1 ¼m
For n ≠ 4, (that is not 50Hz) the harmonic magnitude is calculated from equation (12.52).
♣
2 2V N  π nm  8 2V  π nm 
cn = sin  = × sin   when N = 4 and n ≠ 4
(
π N2 −n
2
)
 N  π 16 − n
2
( 4  ) 12.2 Single-phase transformer tap-changer – line commutated
while equation (12.53) gives the 50Hz load component (n = 4). Figure 12.7 shows a single-phase tap changer where the tapped ac voltage supply can be provided by a
m m tapped transformer or autotransformer.
c n =N = 4 = 2V = 2V when N = 4 and n = 4
Thyristor T3 (T4) is triggered at zero voltage cross-over (or later), subsequently under phase control T1
N 4
The rms output voltage is given by equation (12.51) or the square root of the sum of the squares of the (T2) is turned on. The output voltage (and current) for a resistive load R is defined by
harmonics, that is vo (ωt ) = io (ωt ) × R = 2 V2 sin ωt (V)
∞
(12.56)
for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ α
Vrms = V m / N = V ∑c
n=1
2
n
(rad)
The ac subharmonic component (that is components less than 50Hz) is given by vo (ωt ) = io (ωt ) × R = 2 V1 sin ωt (V)
½ (12.57)
V ac ,sub = 2 V c 12 + c 22 + c 32  for α ≤ ωt ≤ π (rad)
where α is the phase delay angle and v2 < v1.
From equations (12.51) and (12.53), the non fundamental (50Hz ac) component is given by
2 If 0 ≤ δ = V2 / V1 ≤ 1, then for a resistive load the rms output voltage is
m m 
V ac = V rms
2
−V 502 Hz = V − = V δ (1 − δ ) ½ ½
N  N  V 2 V2   1 
Vrms =  π2 (α − ½ sin 2α ) + π1 (π − α + ½ sin 2α )  = V1  1 − π (1 − δ 2 ) (α − ½ sin 2α )  (12.58)
   
Vo=IoR √2×11sinωt √2×23sinωt
IT1 IT2 IT1 IT2
ID1 ID2 ID1 ID2

α
o α=90º π 2π 3π 4π ωt
α
= δv1 Ip
√2×23sinωt
VT1
√2×5.26sinωt
ωt
VD1
α=90º
Ip Vo
Figure 12.7. An ac voltage regulator using a tapped transformer:
(a) circuit connection and (b) output voltage waveform with a resistive load. Vp
Io
The Fourier coefficients of the output voltage, which has only odd harmonics, are o α=90º π 2π 3π 4π ωt ID2
2 1−δ
an = V  cos α cos n α + n sin α sin n α − 1
π 1 − n2  IT2
(12.59) VD1
2 1−δ √2×230sinωt √2×110sinωt √2×340sinωt
bn = V
π 1 − n2
( cos α sin nα − n sin α cos n α )
The amplitude of the fundamental quadrature components, n = 1, are (b) (a)
1
a1 = V (1 − δ ) sin2 α √2×120sinωt
π ωt
(12.60)
1
b1 = V
π
(1 − δ ) (α sin 2
α − cos 2 α − sin α cos α ) α=90º
VT1
Initially v2 is impressed across the load, via T3 (T4). Turning on T1 (T2) reverse-biases T3 (T4), hence T3 √2×230sinωt
(T4) turns off and the load voltage jumps to v1. It is possible to vary the rms load voltage between v2 and
v1. It is important that T1 (T2) and T4 (T3) do not conduct simultaneously, since such conduction short-
circuits the transformer secondary. √2×460sinωt
Both load current and voltage information (specifically zero crossing) is necessary with inductive and
capacitive loads, if winding short circuiting is to be avoided. Figure 12.8. An ac voltage regulator using a tapped transformer connected as a rectifier with a
With an inductive load circuit, when only T1 and T2 conduct, the output current is resistive load: (a) circuit diagram and symbols and (b) circuit waveforms, viz., output voltage and
2V current, transformer primary current, diode reverse blocking voltage, and thyristor blocking voltages.
io = sin (ωt − φ ) (A) (12.61)
Z
where Z = R 2 + (ω L) 2 (ohms) φ = tan −1 ω L / R (rad)
Example 12.3: Tap changing converter
It is important that T3 and T4 are not fired until α ≥ φ , when the load current must have reached zero.
Otherwise a transformer secondary short circuit occurs through T1 (T2) and T4 (T3). The converter circuit shown in figure 12.8 is a form of ac to dc tap changer, with a 230V ac primary. The
For a resistive load, the thyristor rms currents for T3, T4 and T1, T2 respectively are inner voltage taps can deliver 110V ac while the outer tap develops 230V ac across the 10Ω resistive
V2 1 load. If the thyristor phase delay angle is 90º determine
ITrms = ( 2α − sin 2α ) i. The mean load voltage hence mean load current
2R π ii. The average diode and thyristor current
(12.62)
V1 1 iii. The primary rms current
ITrms = ( sin 2α − 2α ) + 2π iv. The peak thyristor and diode voltage, for any phase angle
2R π
The thyristor voltages ratings are both v1 - v2, provided a thyristor is always conducting at any instant. Solution
An extension of the basic operating principle is to use phase control on thyristors T3 and T4 as well as T1
and T2. It is also possible to use tap-changing in the primary circuit. The basic principle can also be The output voltage is similar to that shown in figure 12.7b, except rectified, and α=90º.
extended from a single tap secondary to a multi-tap transformer.
i. The mean load voltage can be determine from equation (12.22)
The basic operating principle of any multi-output tap changer, in order to avoid short circuits,
independent of the load power factor is
• switch up in voltage when the load V and I have the same direction, delivering power
• switch down when V and I have the opposite direction, returning power.
T2 on T4 on T2 on
α 2V110 2V 230
Vo = (1 + cos 0°) + (1 + cos α ) T1 T3 T1
π π π
fs
½π 2 110V 2 230V δ=¾
= (1 + cos 0°) + (1 + cos 90°)
π π π
= 49.5V + 103.5V = 153V
fundamental
Vo 153V δ≈¾ fo
whence Io = = = 15.3A
R 10Ω
ii. The diode current is associated with the 49.5V component of the average load voltage, while the
thyristor component is 103.5V. Taking into account that each semiconductor has a maximum
duty cycle of 50%: 0 π ωt
The average diode current is
49.5V
I D = 50% × = 2.475A
10Ω (c)
The average thyristor current is
103.5V
I T = 50% × = 5.175A
10Ω T2 on T4 on T2 on
T1 T3 T1
iii. The primary rms current has two components fs
δ=¼
When the diode conducts the primary current is
110V 110V
i p1 = 2 × sin ωt = 2 × 5.26 sin ωt 0 ≤ ωt ≤ α
230V 10Ω
fo
230V 230V
i p2 = 2 × sin ωt = 2 × 23 sin ωt α ≤ ωt ≤ π fundamental
230V 10Ω
δ≈¼
The rms of each component, on the primary side, is
½
I rmsD =  1 2π ∫ ( )
2 × 5.26 sin2 ωt d ωt 
α 2
0 π ωt
 0  1
Power factor
 1 
= 2 × 5.26  1 4π {α − ½ sin 2α )} = 2 × 5.26 
½ phasecontrol, α
 = 2.63A equation
2 2  (b)
½
=  1 2π ( )
2 × 23 sin ωt d ωt 
π 2
I rmsT ∫
2 ¾
 α  Power factor T3
4th 3rd 2nd
 1  acchopper, δ
= 2 × 23  1 4π {(π − α ) + ½ sin 2α )} = 2 × 23 
½
 = 11.5A
p e r u n it
2 2  ½
(d) L-C
The total supply side rms current comprised the contribution of two diodes and two thyristors fundamental
filter
a
I p = I rmsD + I rmsD + I rmsT + I rmsT
2 2 2 2
c
T1
¼
R L
s vo
= 2.63 + 2.63 + 11.5 + 11.5 = 16.68A
2 2 2 2
ac O
u A
p 2 V sin ωt (a)
p L D
iv. The peak diode voltage is associated with the turn-on of the thyristor associated with the other l T4 T2
half cycle of the supply and worst case is when α<½π. y
0
V D = 2 × 230V + 2 × 110V = 466.7V 0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1
and 466.7×sinα for α>½π. on-statedutycycle δ
The thyristor peak forward and reverse voltages are experienced at α=½π:
F
V T = 2 × ( 230V − 110V ) = 169.7V
R
V T = 2 × 2 × 230V = 650.5V Figure 12.9. An ac voltage regulator using a chopper, with commutable switches:
(a) circuit configuration and output voltage waveform with a resistive load at (b) low modulation,
The thyristor forward voltage is controlled by its associated diode and is less than 169.7V if
δ≈¼; (c) high modulation, δ≈¾; and (d) harmonic characteristics.
α<½π, viz. 169.7×sinα. The peak reverse voltage of 650.5V is experienced if the
complementary thyristor is turned on before α=½π, otherwise the maximum is 650.5×sinα for
α>½π.
♣
12.3 Single-phase ac chopper regulator – commutable switches

ia
An ac step-down chopper is shown in figure 12.9a. The switches T1 and T3 (shown as reverse blocking a
IGBTs) impress the ac supply across the load while T2 and T4 provide load current freewheel paths ZL
when the main switches T1 and T3 are turned off. In order to prevent the supply being shorted, switches L
b O
T1 and T4 can not be on simultaneously when the ac supply is in a positive half cycle, while T2 and T3 ZL A
can not both be on during a negative half cycle of the ac supply. Zero voltage information is necessary. ib D
If the rms supply voltage is V and the on-state duty cycle of T1 and T3 is δ, then rms output voltage Vo is
ZL
Vo = δ V (12.63) c
When the sinusoidal supply is modulated by a high frequency rectangular-wave carrier ωs (2πfs), which ic
is the switching frequency, the ac output is at the same frequency as the supply fo but the fundamental
magnitude is proportional to the rectangular wave duty cycle δ, as shown in figure 12.9b. Being based (c)
on a modulation technique, the output harmonics involve the fundamental at the supply frequency fo and Optional tapped neutral
components related to the high frequency rectangular carrier waveform fs. The output voltage is given by
T5 T6
T5 T6 T6 T1 T1
v a = 2V sin (ωt )
.
T6 T1 T1 T2 T2 T5 T6 T1 T2
 2V  T6 T1 T2 T3 v b = 2V sin (ωt − 23 π )
Vo = 2δV sin ωo t + ∑  sin n δ sin (ωo + n ωc ) t − sin (ωo − n ωc ) t  {
(12.64) }
. .
n
.
∀n > 1 
  v c = 2V sin (ωt − 43 π )
.
The carrier (switching frequency) components can be filtered by using an output L-C filter, as shown in
figure 12.9a, which has a cut-off frequency of f½ complying with fo < f½ < fs.
12.4 Three-phase ac regulator
12.4.1 Fully-controlled three-phase ac regulator with wye load and isolated neutral
va
The power to a three-phase star or delta-connected load may be controlled by the ac regulator shown in
½(va-vc)
figure 12.10a with a star-connected load shown. The circuit is commonly used to soft start three-phase ½(va-vb)
induction motors. If a neutral connection is made, load current can flow provided at least one thyristor is
conducting. At high power levels, neutral connection is to be avoided, because of load triplen currents
that may flow through the phase inputs and the neutral. With a balanced delta connected load, no triplen
or even harmonic currents occur. ½(va-vc) va ½(va-vc)
If the regulator devices in figure 12.10a, without the neutral connected, were diodes, each would
conduct for ½π in the order T1 to T6 at ⅓π radians apart. As thyristors, conduction is from α to ½π.
Purely resistive load

In the fully controlled ac regulator of figure 12.10a without a neutral connection, at least two devices
must conduct for power to be delivered to the load. The thyristor trigger sequence is as follows. If
T6 T1 T6 T1
thyristor T1 is triggered at α, then for a symmetrical three-phase load voltage, the other trigger angles are T1 T2 T1 T2
T3 at α + ⅔π and T5 at α + 4π/3. For the antiparallel devices, T4 (which is in antiparallel with T1) is
triggered at α + π, T6 at α + 5π/3, and finally T2 at α + 7π/3. Figure 12.10. Three-phase ac full-wave voltage controller: (a) circuit connection with a star load;
Figure 12.10b shows resistive load, line-to-neutral voltage waveforms (which are symmetrical about zero (b) phase a, line-to-load neutral voltage waveforms for four firing delay angles; and (c) delta load.
volts) for four different phase delay angles, α. Three distinctive conduction periods, plus a non-
conduction period, exist. The waveforms in figure 12.10b are useful in determining the required bounds
of integration. When three regulator thyristors conduct, the voltage (and the current) is of the
∧ The Fourier coefficients of the fundamental frequency are
form 3 sin φ , while when two devices conduct, the voltage (and the current) is of the form
V
∧
3 3
V sin ( φ − 1 π ) .
∧
2 6 a1 = V ( cos 2α − 1) b1 = V ( sin 2α + 43 π − 2α ) (12.66)
V is the maximum line voltage,√3 √2V. 4π 4π
Using the five integration terms as in equation (12.65), not squared, gives the average half-wave
i. 0 ≤ α ≤ ⅓π [mode 3/2] – alternating every π between 2 and 3 conducting thyristors, (half-cycle) load voltage, hence specifies the average thyristor current requirement with a resistive
Full output occurs when α = 0, when the load voltage is the supply voltage and each thyristor load. That is
conducts for π. For α ≤ ⅓π, in each half cycle, three alternating devices conduct and one will be ½cycle 1
π
2π α∫
turned off by natural commutation. The output voltage is continuous. Only for ωt ≤ ⅓π can three Vo = 2 × I T R = 2V sin ωt d ωt
sequential devices be on simultaneously. (12.67)
Examination of the α = ¼π waveform in figure 12.10b shows the voltage waveform is made from 2V
(1 + cos α )
½cycle
Vo = 2 × IT R =
five sinusoidal segments. The rms load voltage per phase (line to neutral), for a resistive load, is π
½
 
π 1
3 π +α
2
3π

∧
2V
∫ sin 2φ dφ + ∫ sin 2 ( φ + π ) dφ + ∫ sin 2φ dφ
3
The thyristor maximum average current is when α = 0, that is I T =

1 1 1
∧ 
1  3 4
1
6 3
 .
α 3π
πR
1 1 π +α
Vrms =V  
3

π 3 π +α
2 π
 +∫ 1
sin 2 (φ − π ) dφ + ∫
1 1
sin 2φ dφ  ii. ⅓π ≤ α ≤ ½π [mode 2/2] – two conducting thyristors
 
4 6 3
 2
3π
2
3π +α The turning on of one device naturally commutates another conducting device and only two phases
Vrms = I rms R = V 1 − 23π α + 43π sin 2α 
½
(12.65) can be conducting, that is, only two thyristors conduct at any time. Two phases experience half the
difference of their input phase voltages, while the off thyristor is reverse biased by 3/2 its phase π. The transitions between 3 and 2 thyristors conducting and between the two modes involves
voltage, (off with zero current). The line-to-neutral load voltage waveforms for α = ⅓π and ½π, solutions to transcendental equations, and the rms output voltage, whence currents, depend on the
which are continuous, are shown in figures 12.10b. solution to these equations.
Examination of the α = ⅓π or α = ½π waveforms in figure 12.10b show the voltage waveform is
Purely inductive load
comprised from two segments. The rms load voltage per phase, for a resistive load, is
{∫ }
∧
 1 π +α 2 π +α

½ For a purely inductive load the natural ac power factor angle is ½π, where the current lags the voltage
Vrms = V  π1 sin 2 ( φ + π ) dφ +∫ sin 2 (φ − π ) dφ
3 3
1 1
4
1
6
1 π +4α
1
6
 by ½π. Therefore control for such a load starts from α = ½π, and since the average inductor voltage
 α 3  must be zero, conduction is symmetrical about π and ceases at 2π - α. The conduction period is 2(π- α).
½ ½
Vrms = I rms R = V ½ + 89π sin 2α + 38π3 cos 2α  = V ½ + 34π3 sin ( 2α + π 6 )  (12.68) Two distinct conduction periods exist.
The Fourier co-efficients of the fundamental frequency are i. ½π ≤ α ≤ ⅔π [mode 3/2] – either 2 or 3 conducting thyristors
3 3
a1 =
4π
(
V cos 2α − cos 2 (α − π3 ) b1 =
4π
)
V 23π + sin 2α − sin 2 (α − π3 ) ( ) (12.69) Either two or three phases conduct and five integration terms give the load half cycle average
voltage, whence average thyristor current, as
The non-fundamental harmonic magnitudes are independent of α, and are given by 2 2V
( )
½cycle
3 Vo = 2 cos α − 3 sin α + 1 + 3 (12.75)
Vh = ×V × sin ( h ± 1) π6 for h = 6k ± 1 k = 1, 2, 3,.. (12.70) π
π ( h ± 1) The thyristor maximum average current is when α=½π.
Using the same two integration terms, not squared, gives the average half-wave (half-cycle) load When only two thyristors conduct, the phase current during the conduction period is given by
voltage, hence specifies the average thyristor current with a resistive load. That is 2V  3 3  π 
1 1 π +α 2 π +α i (ωt ) =  cos α − cos  ωt +   (12.76)
ωL  2 6  
½cycle
sin (ωt + 1 6 π ) d ωt + ∫ 13 sin (ωt − 1 6 π ) d ωt
2π ∫ α
Vo = 2 × I T R = 3 2V 3
2 
3
π +α
(12.71) The load phase rms voltage and current are
3 2V  π
( 52 − π3 α + 23π sin 2α )
½cycle ½
Vo = 2 × IT R = sin  α +  V rms = V
π  3
(12.77)
V
( ( ) )
½
I rms = 5 − 3 α + 7 − π6 α cos 2 α + 9 sin 2α
iii. ½π ≤ α ≤ π [mode 2/0] – either 2 or no conducting thyristors 2 π 2π
ωL
Two devices must be triggered in order to establish load current and only two devices conduct at The magnitude of the sin term fundamental (a1 = 0) is
anytime. Line-to-neutral zero voltage periods occur and each device must be retriggered ⅓π after 3
the initial trigger pulse. These zero output periods (discontinuous load voltage) which develop for α V1 = b1 = V ( 53 π − 2α + sin 2α ) = I 1ωL (12.78)
2π
≥ ½π can be seen in figure 12.10b and are due to a previously on device commutating at ωt = π while the remaining harmonics (ah = 0) are given by
then re-conducting at α +⅓π. Except for regulator start up, the second firing pulse is not necessary
if α ≤ ½π. 3  sin ( h + 1) α sin ( h − 1) α 
V h = bh = V  +  (12.79)
Examination of the α = ¾π waveform in figure 12.10b shows the voltage waveform is made from π  h +1 h −1 

two discontinuous voltage segments. The rms load voltage per phase, for a resistive load, is
{∫ }
½
∧
 5π 7π
 ii. ⅔π ≤ α ≤ π [mode 2/0] – either 2 or no conducting thyristors
Vrms = V  π1 sin 2 ( φ + 1 6 π ) dθ + ∫ sin 2 (φ − 1 6 π ) dφ 
6 6
1 1
 α
4 4
1π +
3
α
 Discontinuous current flows in two phases, in two periods per half cycle and two integration terms
½ (reduced to one after time shifting) give the load half cycle average voltage, whence average
Vrms = I rms R = V  54 − 23π α + 83π sin 2α + 38π3 cos 2α  = V  54 − 23π α + 43π sin ( 2α + 13 π ) 
½
(12.72) thyristor current, as
The Fourier co-efficients of the fundamental frequency are 2 2V
3 1 + cos α + π ( ( ))
½cycle
Vo = (12.80)
3 3 π 6
4π
(
a1 = − V 1 + cos 2 (α − 13 π ) )
b1 =
4π
V 53 π − 2α − sin 2 (α − 13 π ) ( (12.73) ) which reduces to zero volts at α = π.
Using the same two integration terms, not squared, gives the average half-wave (half-cycle) load The average thyristor current is given by
5
voltage, hence specifies the average thyristor current with a resistive load. That is π −α
1 3
3 2V   π  π 
3 2V
1 + cos α + π ( ( )) IT = 2× ∫  cos  α +  − cos  ωt +   d ωt
½cycle
Vo = 2 × IT R = (12.74) 2π 2ωL   6  6 
π 6 α (12.81)
iv. π ≤ α ≤ π [mode 0] – no conducting thyristors 3 2V   5   π  π 
=  π − 2α cos α + − 2 sin α + 
The interphase voltage falls to zero at α = π, hence for α ≥ π the output becomes zero. 2πωL  3 


 6  
 6  
When two thyristors conduct, the phase current during the conduction period is given by
In each case the phase current and line to line voltage are related by VLrms = 3 I rms R and the peak 2V 3  π π 
 
voltage is V = 2 VL = 6 V . For a resistive load, load power 3I rms
2
R for all load types, and V rms = I rms R . i (ωt ) =  cos  α +  − cos  ωt +   (12.82)
ωL 2   6  6 
Both the line input and load current harmonics occur at 6n±1 times the fundamental.
The load phase rms voltage and current are
( sin ( 2α + 13 π ) )
½
Inductive-resistive load V rms = V 5
2
− π3 α + 3
2π
½ (12.83)
Once inductance is incorporated into the load, current can only flow if the phase angle is at least equal V  5 3α  6α  9 
I rms =  − + 5 − cos 2 (α + 16 π ) + sin ( 2α + 16 π ) 
to the load phase angle, given by φ = tan−1 ωL R .Due to the possibility of continuation of the load current ωL 2 π  π  2π 
because of the stored inductive load energy, only two thyristor operational modes occur. The initial
mode at φ ≤ α operates with three then two conducting thyristors mode [3/2], then as the control angle
increases, operation in a mode [2/0] occurs with either two devices conducting or all three off, until α =
The magnitude of the sin term fundamental (a1 = 0) is 12.4.2 Fully-controlled three-phase ac regulator with wye load and neutral connected
3
V1 = b1 =
2π
V 53 π − 2α − sin 2 (α − 13 π ) = I 1ωL ( ) (12.84) If the load and supply neutral is connected in the three phase thyristor controller with a wye load as
while the remaining harmonics (ah = 0) are given by shown dashed in figure 12.10a, then (possibly undesirably) neutral current can flow and each of the
three loads can be controlled independently. Undesirably, the third harmonic and its odd multiples are
3  sin ( h ± 1) α sin ( h ∓ 1)(α − 13 π )  algebraically summed and returned to the supply via the neutral connection. At any instant iN = ia + ib + ic.
V h = bh = ± V  +  for h = 6k ∓ 1 (12.85)
π  h ±1 h ∓1 
 For a resistive balanced load there are three modes of thyristor conduction.
When 3 thyristors conduct ia + ib + ic =IN = 0, two thyristor conduct I N = − 2V sin (ωt − 43 π ) , and for
R
.
Various normalised voltage and current characteristics for resistive and inductive equations derived are
shown in figure 12.11. one thyristor I N = I T = 2V R sin ωt . .
Mode [3/2] 0 ≤ α ≤ ⅓π
Periods of zero neutral current occur when three thyristors conduct and the rms of the discontinuous
1 1 neutral current is given by
normalised ave ½ half cycle voltages, R and L loads

α +π 3 2
2√2/π 3  − 2V sin (ωt − 43 π ) dt
I N2 = ∫
normalised rms voltages, R and L loads
 R
.
Equation Equation π π
3
 
(12.65) (12.77)
Equation Equation ½
0.75 0.75 (12.67) (12.75) V 3 
I N = ×  (α − ½ sin 2α )  (12.86)
VR VL R π 
Equation The average neutral current is
(12.68) 3 2V
0.5 0.5 Equation
(12.71) V½L
IN = (1 − cos α ) (12.87)
πR
V½R At α = 0°, no neutral current flows since the load is seen as a balance load supplied by the three-phase
ac supply, without an interposing controller.
0.25
V rms Equation 0.25
Vo½
Equation
Mode [2/1] ⅓π ≤ α ≤ ⅔π
V (12.83) V (12.80)
From α to ⅔π two phase conduct and after ⅔π the neutral current is due to one thyristor conducting.
Equation Equation
(12.72) (12.74) The rms neutral current is given by
2π 2 α +π 3 2
3 3
 sin (ωt − 43 π ) dt + 3  2V sin ωt 
0 0 I N2 = ∫  − 2V ∫   dt
R R
. .
π α  π 2π  
0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150 3
½
delay angle α (a) (b) delay angle α V  3 3 
I N = × 1 − cos 2 α  (12.88)
.
R  π 
(c) (d) Maximum rms neutral current occurs at α = ½π, when IN = V/R.
1 1 The average neutral current is
normalised fundamental output voltage R & L load
3 2V
( )
VRo
IN = 3 sin α − 1 (12.89)
πR
normalised output current, with L load
Equation Equation Equation

(12.77) (12.66) (12.78) The maximum average neutral current, at α = ½π, is
0.75 0.75
3 2V V
IN = 3 − 1 = 0.9886
πR
( ) R
(12.90)
Equation I rms
rms
Equation VLo (12.88)
1 neutral V
0.5 IL 0.5 (12.69) current R
rms and average neutral current

average IN
0.75 neutral
Equation current V
I L ωL v1 (12.89) R
0.25 0.25
V V Equation Equation Equation
Equation (12.73) 0.5 (12.86) (12.91)
(12.83)
Equation
(12.84)
0 0 0.25
0 30 60 90 120 150 0 30 60 90 120 150 Equation Equation
(12.87) (12.92)
delay angle α delay angle α
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Figure 12.11. Three-phase ac full-wave voltage controller characteristics for purely resistive and
inductive loads: (a) normalised rms output voltages; (b) normalised half-cycle average voltages; (c) delay angle
normalised output current for a purely inductive load; and (d) fundamental ac output voltage. Figure 12.12. Three-phase ac full-wave voltage neutral-connected controller with resistive load,
normalised rms neutral current and normalised average neutral current.
Mode [1/0] ⅔π ≤ α ≤ π
The neutral current is due to only one thyristor conducting. The rms neutral current is given by Mode [2/1] ⅓π ≤ α ≤ ⅔π
3π
2 The line current is given by

IN 2
= ∫  2V R sin ωt  dt 3 8
(1 + )
.
½
π α  IL = V 9 − 1 α+ 3
3 sin 2α + cos 2α 
.
 π 6π 
R
.
½ (12.96)
V 3
IN = × (π − α + ½ sin 2α ) (12.91) 3
6π (
1 + 2 sin ( 2α + π ) ) 
½
R  π V  89 − π1 α + 3
= 1
.
 R   6
The average neutral current is

3 2V Mode [1/0] ⅔π ≤ α ≤ π
IN = (1 + cos α ) (12.92) The line current is given by
πR
The neutral current is greater than the line current until the phase delay angle α > 67°. The neutral 3
IL = V  23 − 2
α+ 1
sin 2α  (12.97)
.
3π 3π
current reduces to zero when α = π, since no thyristors conduct. R
The normalised neutral current characteristics are shown plotted in figure 12.12. The thyristors must be retriggered to ensure the current picks up after α.
12.4.3 Fully-controlled three-phase ac regulator with delta load Half-controlled

When the delta thyristor arrangement in figure 12.13 is half controlled (T2, T4, T6 replaced by diodes)
The load in figure 12.10a can be replaced with the start delta in figure 12.10c. Star and delta load there are two mode of thyristor operation, with a resistive load.
equivalence applies in terms of the same line voltage, line current, and thyristor voltages, provided the Mode [3/2] 0 ≤ α ≤ ⅔π
load is linear. A delta connected load can be considered to be three independent single phase ac The line current is given by
regulators, where the total power (for a balanced load) is three times that of one regulator, that is 3 ½
IL = V 1 − 32π α + 31π sin 2α  (12.98)
.
Power = 3 ×VI 1 cos φ1 = . 3VI L1 cos φ1 (12.93) R

Mode [2/1] ⅔π ≤ α ≤ π
For delta-connected loads where each phase end is accessible, the regulator shown in figure 12.13 can The line current is given by
be employed in order to reduce thyristor current ratings. Each phase forms a separate single-phase ac 3 8
α − 123π (1 − 2 sin ( 2α − 16 π ) ) 
½
controller as considered in section 12.1 but the phase voltage is the line-to-line voltage, √3V. For a IL = V 9− 1
(12.99)
.
R  2π 
resistive load, the phase rms voltage, hence current, given by equations (12.23) and (12.24) are
increased by √3, viz.:
½
 α sin 2α 
Vrms = 3 V 1 − +  = 3 I rms R 0≤α ≤π (12.94) 12.4.4 Half-controlled three-phase ac regulator
 π 2π 
The line current is related to the sum of two phase currents, each phase shifted by 120º. For a resistive
The half-controlled three-phase regulator shown in figure 12.14a requires only a single trigger pulse per
delta load, three modes of phase angle dependent modes of operation can occur.
thyristor and the return path is via a diode. Compared with the fully controlled regulator, the half-
controlled regulator is simpler and does not give rise to dc components but does produce more line
1.75 harmonics.
Equation Figure 12.14b shows resistive symmetrical load, line-to-neutral voltage waveforms for four different
1.5 (12.98)
Equation
phase delay angles, α.
(12.95)
1.25 Resistive load
rms line current
Equation
(12.99) Three distinctive conduction periods exist.
1 Semi-
Equation controlled
(12.96) i. 0 ≤ α ≤ ½π – [mode3/2]
0.75 Before turn-on, one diode and one thyristor conduct in the other two phases. After turn-on two
I rms thyristors and one diode conduct, and the three-phase ac supply is impressed across the load. The
0.5 V output phase voltage is asymmetrical about zero volts, but with an average voltage of zero.
R
Examination of the α = ¼π waveform in figure 12.14b shows the voltage waveform is made from
0.25 Equation
(12.97) three segments. The rms load voltage per phase (line to neutral) is
controlled ½
V rms = I rms R = V 1 − 3 α+ 3 sin 2α 
0 ≤ α ≤ ½π (12.100)
0 4π 8π
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 The Fourier co-efficients for the fundamental voltage, for a resistive load are
3 3
delay angle a1 = V ( cos 2α − 1) b1 = V ( 83π − 2α + sin α ) (12.101)
8π 8π
Using three integration terms, the average half-wave (half-cycle) load voltage, for both halves,
Figure 12.13. A delta connected three-phase ac regulator: (a) circuit configuration and (b) specifies the average thyristor and diode current requirement with a resistive load. That is
normalised line rms current for controlled and semi-controlled resistive loads.
2V
( 3 + cos α )
½cycle
Vo = 2 × I T R = 2 × I Diode R = 0 < α < 13 π (12.102)
2π
Mode [3/2] 0 ≤ α ≤ ⅓π ∧ ∧
2V
The line current is given by The diode and thyristor maximum average current is when α = 0, that is I T = I Diode = .
πR
3 ½
IL = V 1 − 4
α+ 2
sin 2α  (12.95)
.
3π 3π
R
After α = ⅓π, only one thyristor conducts at one instant and the return current is a diode. The resistive load fundamental is
Examination of the α = π and α = π waveforms in figure 12.14b show the voltage waveform is
made from three segments, although different segments of the supply around ωt=π.
3
a1 = − V b1 =
4π
3
4π
V ( 116 π − 2α ) → V1 =
3
4π
V 1 + ( 116 π − 2α ) = I 1R
2
(12.105) .
( )
Using three integration terms, the average half-wave (half-cycle) load voltage, for both halves, Using two integration terms, the average half-wave (half-cycle) load voltage, for both halves,
specifies the average thyristor and diode current requirement with a resistive load. That is specifies the average thyristor and diode current requirement with a resistive load. That is
2V
( ) 2V
( )
½cycle
Vo = 2 × I T R = 2 × I Diode R = 1 + 2 cos α + 3 sin α α > 13 π (12.103) Vo
½cycle
= 2 × I T R = 2 × I Diode R = 1 + 3 + 2 cos α (12.106)
2π 2π
iii. ⅔π ≤ α ≤ 7π/6 – [mode2/0]
Current flows in only one thyristor and one diode and at 7π/6 zero power is delivered to the load.
The output is symmetrical about zero. The output voltage waveform shown for α=¾π in figure
12.14b has one component.
½
 8 − 4π α + 8π sin ( 2α − 3 ) 
½
Vrms = I rms R = V  78 − 43π α + 163π sin 2α − 16
3 3 
π cos 2α  = V 
7 3 3 π
(12.107)
2
3 π ≤ α ≤ 76π
with a fundamental given by
3 3 7
a1 = - V cos 2 (α − 23 π ) b1 = V π − α − ½ sin 2 (α − 23π )  (12.108)
4π 4π  6
Using one integration term, the average half-wave (half-cycle) load voltage, for both halves,
specifies the average thyristor and diode current requirement with a resistive load. That is
2V
3 1 + cos α − π ( ( ))
½cycle
Vo = 2 × I T R = 2 × I Diode R = (12.109)
2π 6
1 1
Equation
(12.99) rms
rms and fundamental phase voltage

voltage
rms and average phase voltage

rms voltage
Equation Equation Equation
0.75 V rms 0.75
(12.99) (12.99) (12.110) V rms
V
V
Equation
(12.99)
0.5 0.5
Equation Equation
(12.99) (12.99) ½ cycle Equation Equation
Vo (12.111) (12.112) V1
V V
0.25 0.25
½ fundamental
Equation average voltage
(12.99) voltage Equation
(12.113)
0 0
0 60 120 180 90 120 150 180 210
delay angle α (a) (b) delay angle α
Figure 12.15. Three-phase half-wave ac voltage regulator characteristics: (a) rms phase and average
half cycle voltages for a resistive load and (b) rms and fundamental voltages for an inductive load.
Purely inductive load

Two distinctive conduction periods exist.
Figure 12.14. Three-phase half-wave ac voltage regulator: (a) circuit connection with a star load and
(b) phase a, line-to-load neutral voltage waveforms for four firing delay angles. i. ½π ≤ α ≤ π – [mode3/2]
For a purely inductive load (cycle starts at α =½π)
V rms = I rms ωL = V 7
4
− 3
2π
α+ 3
4π
sin 2α ½π ≤ α ≤ 56 π (12.110)
ii. ½π ≤ α ≤ ⅔π – [mode3/2/0]
while for a purely inductive load the fundamental voltage is (a1 = 0)
Only one thyristor conducts at one instant and the return current is shared at different intervals by
3
one (⅓π ≤ α ≤ ½π) or two (½π ≤ α ≤ ⅔π) diodes. Examination of the α = π and α = π waveforms in b1 = V1 = V ( 73π − 2α + sin 2α ) = I 1ωL (12.111)
figure 12.14b show the voltage waveform comprises two segments, although different segments of 4π
the supply around ωt = π. The rms load voltage per phase (line to neutral) is 7
ii. π ≤ α ≤ π – [mode2/0]
Vrms = I rms R = V { 11
8 − 2π α }
6
½
3  ½π ≤ α ≤ 2 3 π (12.104)
For a purely inductive load, no mode 3/2/0 exist and rms load voltage for mode2/0 is
V rms = I rms ωL = V .
( 7
4
− 3
2π
α+ 3
4π
sin ( 2α − π
3 )) (12.112) Mode [2/1]
Mode [2/1/0]
-⅓π ≤ α ≤ π
π ≤ α ≤ ⅓π
with a fundamental given by (a1 = 0) Mode [1/0] ⅓π ≤ α ≤ π
3
b1 = V1 = V  7π − 2α − sin 2 (α − 2π
) = I ωL (12.113) The control angle reference has been moved to the phase voltage crossover, the first instant the device
4π  3 3 1
becomes forward biased, hence able to conduct. This is ⅓π earlier than conventional three-phase fully
When α >π, the load current is dominated by harmonic currents. controlled type circuits.
Normalised semi-controlled inductive and resistive load characteristics are shown in figure 12.15.
Another simplification, at the expense of harmonics, is to connect one phase of the load in figure 12.10a
directly to the supply, thereby eliminating a pair of line thyristors.
12.4.5 Other thyristor three-phase ac regulators
Table 12.1. Thyristor electrical ratings for four ac controllers
i. Delta connected fully controlled regulator Thyristor Thyristor Control delay angle range
Circuit
For star-connected loads where access exists to a neutral that can be opened, the regulator in figure
figure voltage 2V rms current pu Resistive load Inductive load
12.16a can be used. This circuit produces identical load waveforms to those for the regulator in figure
.
12.10 regardless of the type of load, except that mean device current ratings are halved (but the line 3 1 0≤α ≤ π ½π ≤ α ≤ π
12.10 2
5 5
currents are the same). Only one thyristor needs to be conducting for load current, compared with the . 2 6 6
circuit of figure 12.10 where two devices must be triggered. The triggering control is simplified but the 12.13 2 ½ 2 0≤α ≤π ½π ≤ α ≤ π
maximum thyristor blocking voltage is increased by 2/√3, from 3V/√2 to √6V.
.
3
12.14 3 1 0≤α ≤ 7 π ½π ≤ α ≤ 7 6 π
Three output voltage modes can be shown to occur, depending of the delay control angle. 2 . 2 6
Mode [2/1] 0 ≤ α ≤ ⅓π 12.16a . 6 1/√2 0≤α ≤ 5

6 π
Mode [1] ⅓π ≤ α ≤ ½π
12.16b 2 0.766 − 13 π ≤ α ≤ 5
6 π ½π ≤ α ≤ 7
6 π
Mode [1/0] ½π ≤ α ≤ π .
In figure 12.16a, at α = 0, each thyristor conducts for π, which for a resistive line load, results in a -ib ia -ic ib -ia ic -ib
maximum thyristor average current rating of
3 2 VL −L 3 3 2V
IT = = (12.114)
2π R 2π R
A half-controlled version is not viable.
ωt
ia ia -ia
T4 T4 T4
-ib T2 ib T2 ib T2
T6 T6 T6
ic -ic ic
ia -ia -ia
T4 T4 T4
-ib T2 ib T2 -ib T2
Figure 12.16. Open-star three-phase ac regulators: (a) with six thyristors and (b) with three thyristors. T6 T6 T6
-ic -ic ic
ii. Three-thyristor delta connected regulator Figure 12.17. Open-star three-phase ac regulators with three thyristors (figure 12.16b):
The number of devices and control requirements for the regulator of figure 12.16a can be simplified by (a) thyristors currents and (b) six line current possibilities during consecutive 60° segments.
employing the regulator in figure 12.16b. In figure 12.16b, because of the half-wave configuration, at α =
-⅓π, each thyristor conducts for ⅔π, which for a resistive line load, results in a maximum thyristor Example 12.4: Star-load three-phase ac regulator – untapped neutral
average current rating of
2 V L −L
A 230V (line to neutral) 50Hz three-phase mains ac thyristor chopper has a symmetrical star load
3 3 2V
IT = = (12.115) composed of 10Ω resistances. If the thyristor triggering delay angle is α = 90º determine
2π 3R 2π R i. The rms load current and voltage, and maximum rms load current for any phase delay angle
Two thyristors conduct at any time as shown by the six sequential conduction possibilities that complete ii. The power dissipated in the load
one mains ac cycle in figure 12.17. iii. The thyristor average and rms current ratings and voltage ratings
iv. Power dissipated in the thyristors when modelled by vT = vo + ro×iT =1.2 + 0.01×iT
Three output voltage modes can be shown to occur, depending of the delay control angle. Repeat the calculations if each phase load is a 20mH.
Solution
(a) 10Ω Resistive load - α = 90º

i. rms voltage from equation (12.68)
½
V rms = I rms R = V ½ + 3 3
cos ( 2α + π 6 ) 
 4π 
½
= 230V ½ + 34π3 cos ( 2 × 90° + 30° )  = 230V × 0.377=86.6V
 
Whence the rms current
V 86.6V
I rms = rms = = 8.66A
R 10Ω
ii. The load power is
P10 Ω = I rms
2
R = 8.662 × 10Ω = 750.7W
iii. Thyristor average current from equation (12.71)
3 2V
IT = ( sin α − ½ )
2π R
=
3 2 230V
2π 10Ω
(
sin π − ½ = 4.48A
2 )
Thyristor rms current
I 8.66A
I T rms = rms = = 6.12A
2 2
iv. Thyristor loss
PT = v o I T + ro iT2 rms = 1.2 × I T + 0.01 × iT2 rms
= 1.2 × 4.48A + 0.01 × 6.122 = 5.75W
(b) 20mH Inductive load - α = 90º

i. rms voltage and current from equation (12.77)
( 52 − π3 α + 23π sin 2α )
½
V rms = V
= 230V ( 52 − π3 ½π ) = 230V
½
V
( 52 − π3 α + ( 7 − π6 α ) cos α + 29π sin 2α )
½
I rms = 2
ωL
230V 230V
( 52 − π3 ½π )
½
= = = 36.6A
2π 50Hz × 0.02H 2π 50Hz × 0.02H Figure 12.18. Single-phase cycloconverter ac regulator: (a) circuit connection with a purely resistive
load; (b) load voltage and supply current with 180° conduction of each thyristor; and (c) waveforms
ii. The load power is zero. when phase control is used on each thyristor.
iii. Since the delay angle is 90º, the natural power factor angle, continuous sinusoidal
current flows and the thyristor average current is
1 2 2 1 2 2 Figure 12.18b shows how an output frequency of one-fifth of the input supply frequency is generated.
IT = I rms = 36.6A = 23.3A The P group conducts for five half-cycles (with T1 and T2 alternately conducting), then the N group
2 π 2 π
conducts for five half-cycles (with T3 and T4 alternately conducting). The result is an output voltage
Thyristor rms current
waveform with a fundamental of one-fifth the supply with continuous load and supply current.
I 36.6A The harmonics in the load waveform can be reduced and rms voltage controlled by using phase control
I T rms = rms = = 25.88A
2 2 as shown in figure 12.18c. The phase control delay angle is greater towards the group changeover
iv. Thyristor loss portions of the output waveform. The supply current is now distorted and contains a subharmonic at the
PT = v o I T + ro iT2 rms = 1.2 × I T + 0.01 × iT2 rms cycloconverter output frequency, which for figure 12.18c is at one-fifth the supply frequency.
With inductive loads, one blocking group cannot be turned on until the load current through the other
= 1.2 × 25.88A + 0.01 × 36.62 = 44.45W group has fallen to zero, otherwise the supply will be short-circuited. An intergroup reactor, L, as shown
♣ in figure 12.18a can be used to limit any inter-group circulating current, and to maintain a continuous
load current.
A single-phase ac load fed from a three-phase ac supply, and three-phase ac load cycloconverters can
12.5 Cycloconverter also be realised as shown in figures 12.19a and both of 12.19b and c, respectively. A transformer is
needed in figure 12.19a, if neutral current is to be avoided. The three-pulse per ac cycle cycloconverter
The simplest cycloconverter is a single-phase, two-pulse, ac input to single-phase ac output circuit as in figure 12.19b uses 18 thyristors, while the 6-pulse cycloconverter in figure 12.19c uses 36 thyristors
shown in figure 12.18a. It synthesises a low-frequency ac output from selected portions of a higher- (inter-group reactors are not shown), where the load (motor) neutral connection is optional. The output
frequency ac voltage source and consists of two converters connected back-to-back. Thyristors T1 and frequency, with considerable harmonic content, is limited to about 40% of the input frequency, and motor
T2 form the positive converter group P, while T3 and T4 form the negative converter group N. reversal and regeneration are achievable.
If a common neutral is used, no transformer is necessary. Most cycloconverters are 6-pulse, and the
A
Three–phase neutral connection in figure 12.19c removes the zero sequence component.
B ac voltage supply
C The positive features of the cycloconverter are

• Natural commutation
positive negative • No intermediate energy storage stage
group group • Inherently reversible current and voltage
intergroup
reactor L The negative features of the cycloconverter are
• High harmonics on the input and output
• Requires at least 18 thyristors usually 36
• High reactive power
L
O single-phase
A ac
D load 12.6 The matrix converter
N
Commutation of the cycloconverter switches is restricted to natural commutation instances dictated by
the supply voltages. This usually results in the output frequency being significantly less than the supply
Three–phase (a) frequency if a reasonable low harmonic output is required. In the matrix converter in figure 12.20c, the
ac voltage supply
thyristors in figure 12.19b are replaced with fully controlled, bidirectional switches, like thOSE shown in
A figures 12.20a and b. Rather than eighteen switches and eighteen diodes, nine switches and thirty-six
diodes can be used if a unidirectional voltage and current switch in a full-bridge configuration is used as
B
shown in figure 6.11. These switch configurations allow converter current commutation as and when
C desired, provide certain conditions are fulfilled. These switches allow any one input supply ac voltage
and current to be directed to any one or more of the output lines. At any instant, only one of the three
input voltages can be connected to a given output. This flexibility implies a higher quality output voltage
can be attained, with enough degrees of freedom to ensure the input currents are sinusoidal and with
+ group - + group - + group - unity (or adjustable) power factor. The input L-C filter prevents matrix modulation frequency components
IGR IGR IGR
from being injected into the input three-phase ac supply system.
The relationship between the output voltages (va, vb, vc) and the input voltages (vA, vB, vC) is determined
by the states of the nine bidirectional switches (Si,j), according to
 va   S Aa S Ba SCa   v A 
Φ1
3-phase     
load  vb  =  S Ab S Bb SCb   vB  (V) Vout = S Vin (12.116)
v  S  
 c   Ac S Bc SCc   vC 
Φ3 Φ2
N
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the number of switches on in each row must be either one or none,
otherwise at least one input supply is shorted, that is
(b) 3
A
∑Si j
i =1
≤1 for any j (12.117)
Three–phase
B
C
ac voltage supply With the balanced star load shown in figure 12.20c, the load neutral voltage vo is given by
vo = 13 ( va + vb + vc ) (12.118)
The line-to-neutral and line-to-line voltages are the same as those applicable to svm (space voltage
modulation, Chapter 14.1.3vii), namely
 vao  2 −1 −1  va 
  1  
group 3 group 1 group 2  vbo  = 6
−1 2 −1   v b  (V) (12.119)
v   −1 −1 2   v 
 co    c 
from which
Φ1 3-phase  vab   1 −1 −1   v a 
load     
 vbc  = ½  0 1 0   vb  (V) (12.120)
v   −1 0 1   v 
 ca    c 
Φ3 Φ2
N Similarly the relationship between the input line currents (iA, iB, iC) and the output currents (ia, ib, ic) is
determined by the states of the nine bidirectional switches (Si,j), according to
T
(c)  iA   S Aa S Ba SCa   ia 
     
Figure 12.19. Cycloconverter ac regulator circuits:  iB  =  S Ab S Bb SCb   ib  (A) I in = S T I out (12.121)
(a) three-phase to single-phase; and three–phase supply to three-phase load (b) 3-pulse without i   S S Bc SCc  i 
 C   Ac  c
neutral connection; and (c) 6-pulse with optional load neutral connection.
input line filter requirement is ac. For a given temperature, ripple current, etc., the lifetime of an ac capacitor is
significantly longer than a dc voltage electrolytic capacitor, as is required for a dc link. The use of oil
VAN impregnated paper bipolar capacitors to improve dc-link inverter reliability, significantly increases
iA L
A capacitor volume and cost for a given capacitance and voltage.
C
SAa SAb SAc
12.7 Power Quality: load efficiency and supply current power factor
VBN
B
iB L One characteristic of ac regulators is non-sinusoidal load current, hence supply current as illustrated in
C figure 12.1b. Difficulty therefore exists in defining the supply current power factor and the harmonics in
C SBa SBb
the load current may detract from the load efficiency. For example, with a single-phase motor, current
3Φ ac supply SBc
components other than the fundamental detract from the fundamental torque and increase motor
VCN
heating, noise, and vibration. To illustrate the procedure for determining load efficiency and supply
power factor, consider the circuit and waveforms in figure 12.1.
C L
12.7.1 Load waveforms
SCa SCb SCc
SAa
The load voltage waveform is constituted from the sinusoidal supply voltage v and is defined by
a b c
VAN Vao vo (ωt ) = 2 V sin ωt (V)
ia ic
Sij
SAc SAc
α ≤ ωt ≤ β (12.123)
ZL
π + α ≤ ωt ≤ π + β
SBa SBa
and vo = 0 elsewhere.
VBN Vbo
3Φ ac load
SBb VOCc Fourier analysis of vo yields the load voltage Fourier coefficients van and vbn such that
SBc SBc
o vo (ωt ) = ∑{ van cos nωt + vbn sin nωt} (V) (12.124)
SCa SCa
for all values of n.
VCN Vco ZL ZL The load current can be evaluated by solving
SCc
di
Rio + L o = 2 V sin ωt (V) (12.125)
dt
(a) (b) (c) over the appropriate bounds and initial conditions. From Fourier analysis of the load current io, the load
current coefficients ian and ibn can be derived.
Figure 12.20. Three-phase input to three-phase output matrix converter circuit: bidirectional switches
(a) reverse blocking igbts conventional igbts; and (b) switching matrix; and Derivation of the current waveform Fourier coefficients may prove complicated because of the difficulty
(c) three–phase ac supply to three-phase ac load. of integrating an expression involving equation (12.2), the load current. An alternative and possibly
simpler approach is to use superposition and the fact that each load Fourier voltage component
produces a load current component at the associated frequency but displaced because of the load
where the switches Sij are constrained such that no two or three switches short between the input lines impedance at that frequency. That is
or cause discontinuous output current. Discontinuous output current must not occur since no natural ian = vRan cos φn (A)
default current freewheel paths exist. The input short circuit constraint is complied with by ensuring that vbn
only one switch in each row of the 3×3 matrix in equation (12.116) (hence row in equation (12.121)) is ibn = R cos φn (A) (12.126)
on at any time, viz., equation (12.117), while continuous load current in equation (12.121) (hence where φn = tan -1 nω L
column in equation (12.116)) is ensured by Kirchhoff’s current law, that is R
3 The load current io is given by
∑Si j
j =1
≥1 for at least any two i (12.122) io (ωt ) = ∑{ian cos ( nωt − φn ) + ibn sin ( nωt − φn )} (A) (12.127)
∀n
More than one switch on in a column implies that an input phase is parallel feeding more than one The load efficiency, η, which is related to the power dissipated in the resistive component R of the load,
output phase, which is allowable. is defined by
η = fundamental active power
Thus given Kirchhoff’s voltage and current law constraints, not all the 512 (29) states for nine switches total active power
can be used, and only 27 states of the switch matrix can be utilised. ½ ( ia21 R + ib21 R ) ia21 + ib21
= = (12.128)
The maximum voltage gain, the ratio of the peak fundamental ac output voltage to the peak ac input ½∑ ( i R + i R )
2
an
2
bn ∑ (ian2 + ibn2 )
∀n ∀n
voltage is ½√3 = 0.866. Above this level, called over-modulation, distortion of the input current occurs.
Since the switches are bidirectional and fully controlled, power flow can be bidirectional. Control involves
the use of a modulation index that varies sinusoidally. In general, the total load power is ∑ vn rms × in rms × cos φn .
∀n
Since no intermediate energy storage stage is involved, such as a dc link, this so called total silicon
solution to ac to ac conversion provides no ride-through, thus is not well suited to ups application. The
advantage of the matrix converter over a dc link approach to ac to ac conversion lies not in the fact that
a dc link capacitor is not required. Given the matrix converter requires an input L-C filter, capacitor size
and cost requirements are similar. The key feature of the matrix converter is that the capacitor voltage
12.7.2 Supply waveforms (b) Alternatively, the supply total rms harmonic factor ρRMS is defined as:
total harmonic (non - fundamental) rms current (or voltage)
Linear load: ρ RMS =
total rms current (or voltage)
For sinusoidal single and three phase ac supply voltages feeding a linear load, the load power and (12.139)
apparent power are given by Ih is21
= = 1− = 1− µ 2
P = Vs I s cos φ S = Vs I s irms 2
I rms
(12.129)
P = 3 VLL I s cos φ S = VLL I s
and the supply power factor is iii. The supply crest factor δ is defined as the ratio of peak supply current i s to the total rms current:
P δ = i s / I rms (12.140)
cos φ = (12.130)
S
iv. The energy conversion factor υ is defined by
Non-linear loads (e.g. rectification): fundamental output power
i. The supply distortion factor µ, displacement factor cosψ, and power factor λ give an indication of the υ=
fundamental input power
adverse effects that a non-sinusoidal load current has on the supply as a result of SCR phase control. (12.141)
In the circuit of figure 12.1a, the load and supply currents are the same and given by equation (12.2). 1 va21 + vb21 × 1 ia21 + ib21 × cos φ1
=
2 2
The supply current Fourier coefficients isan and isbn are the same as for the load current Fourier v× 1
i + i × cosψ 1
2 2
2 sa1 sb1
coefficients isa and isb respectively, as previously defined.
The total supply power factor λ can be defined as
λ = real power apparent power = total mean input power total rms input VA
Example 12.5: Power quality - load efficiency
vsa2 1 + vsb2 1 × isa2 1 + isb2 1 × cosψ 1 (12.131)
v i cosψ 1 1 1
If a purely resistive load R is fed with a voltage
= 1rms 1rms =
2 2
Vrms I rms v× 1
ia21 + ib21
2 2V
vo = 2 V sin ωt + sin 3ωt
3
The supply voltage is sinusoidal hence supply power is not associated with the harmonic non- what is the fundamental load efficiency?
fundamental currents.
v ½ ( isa2 1 + isb2 1 ) cosψ 1 Solution
λ=
v I rms The load current is given by
(12.132)
½ ( isa2 1 + isb2 1 ) cosψ 1
i 2V  1 
io = vo R = sin ωt + sin 3ωt 
=
I rms
= s1 × cosψ 1
I rms R  3 
where cos ψ, termed the displacement power factor, is the fundamental power factor defined as The load efficiency is given by equation (12.128), that is
(
cosψ 1 = cos − tan −1 isa1 isb1 ) (12.133)
 2V 
2
Equating with equation (12.132), the total supply power factor is defined as  R  R
λ = µ cosψ 1 0 ≥ λ ≥1 (12.134) η=  
2 2
 2V   2V 
  R +   R
The supply current distortion factor µ is the ratio of fundamental rms current to total rms current isrms, that  R   3R 
is
1
½ ( isa2 1 + isb2 1 ) is1
= = 0.90
µ= = (12.135) 1 + 19
irms I rms
The introduced third harmonic component decreases the load efficiency by 10%.
♣
ii. (a) The supply fundamental harmonic factor ρF is defined as
total harmonic (non - fundamental) rms current (or voltage)
ρF =
fundamental rms current (or voltage)
2
(12.136)
Ih Ih I rms 1
= = = −1 = −1 Example 12.6: Power quality - sinusoidal source and constant current load
is1 i +i
2 2
i + isb2 1
2
µ 2
sa1 sb1 sa1
where Ih is the total harmonic (non-fundamental) current (assuming no dc component) A half-wave rectifier with a load freewheel diode as shown in figure 11.3 has a 10A constant current
load, Io. If rectifier circuit is supplied from the ac mains with voltage v(ωt) = √2 230×sin 2π50t determine:
I h = I rms
2
− i2 s1 i. the supply apparent power and average load power
∞ ∞ (12.137) ii. the total supply power factor, λ, hence distortion, µ, and displacement factors
= ∑I
n≠1
2
nrms
= 1
2 ∑i n≠1
2
san
+ isbn
2
iii. the average and rms current rating of each diode and diode reverse voltage requirements
The general relationships between the various current forms can be summarised as Solution
I rms = I dc2 + I12rms + I 22rms + I 32rms + ....
(12.138) The rms supply voltage is 230V, at 50Hz. The supply current is a 10ms, 10A current block occurring
= I dc2 + I12rms + I H2 or = I dc2 + I ac2 every 20ms. The rms supply current is therefore 10/√2 = 7.07A.
i. The supply apparent power is P50 Hz = Vs 50 Hz I s 50 Hz cos φ50 Hz

S = V rms I rms 15A
× cos 1 6 π = 2113W
= 230V ×
= 230V × 7.07A = 1626.1VAr 2
The fundamental power factor cos 1 6 π = 0.866, leading.
The average load voltage is that for half wave rectification, viz.,
2V ii. The total supply power factor is
Vo = = 103.5V
π P V I × cos φ50 Hz I s 50 Hz
pf = λ = 50 Hz = s 50 Hz s 50 Hz = × cos φ50 Hz = µ cosψ 1
The average load power, which must be equal to the input power from the 50Hz source, is S Vs 50 Hz × I s Is
Po = Pin = Vo I o = 103.5V × 10A = 1035W The supply rms current Is is
2 2 2
The fundamental of a square wave, with a dc offset of half the magnitude is  15A   3A   2A 
I s = 10A 2 +   +  +  = 14.8A
1 ∧ 1 2  2   2  2
I 1rms = I1 = × × 10A = 4.50A
2 2 π Hence
which is in phase with the ac supply, that is cosØ50Hz = 1. P50 Hz 2113W
λ= = = 0.62
S 230V × 14.8A
Alternately, the load power, hence input power, which is at the supply voltage frequency of 15A
50Hz, can be confirmed by 2
= × 0.866 = 0.717 × 0.866 = µ cosψ 1
Pin = V rms I rms cos φ50Hz 14.8A
= 230V × 7.07A × 1 = 1035W The total supply power factor λ is 0.62 and the current distortion factor µ is 0.717.
ii. The power factor is iii. From equation (12.137) the supply harmonic (non 50Hz) current is
P 1035W I h = I rms
2
− is2
pf = λ = in = = 0.64 1
S 1626.1VAr 2
 15 
The current distortion factor is = 14.82 −   = 10.3A
I 1rms 4.50 A  2
DF = µ = = = 0.64
I rms 7.07 A and from equation (12.138) the ac supply current (non-dc) is
which, since the supply is single frequency sinusoidal, confirms that the displacement factor for I ac = I rms
2
− I dc2
the fundamental current is
= 14.8A 2 − 10A 2 = 10.9A
λ 0.64
cos ψ 1 = = = 1 = cos φ50Hz
µ 0.64 iv. From equations (12.136) and (12.139), total harmonic distortions on the supply current are
that is φ50Hz = 0° total harmonic (non - 50Hz) rms current
ρF =
fundamental rms current
iii. The average and rms current ratings of both the rectifying diode and the freewheel diode are the Ih 1 1
same, viz., = = −1 = − 1 = 0.97
is1 µ2 0.717 2
I 10A I 10A
ID = o = = 5A I D rms = o = = 7.07A and
2 2 2 2 total harmonic (50Hz) rms current
In reverse bias, each diode experiences alternate ac supply peak voltages of √2 230V = 325.3V ρ RMS =
total rms current
♣
I
= h = 1 − µ 2 = 1 − 0.717 2 = 0.70
irms
Example 12.7: Power quality - sinusoidal source and non-linear load v. The current crest factor is given by equation (12.140), namely δ = i s / I rms . The maximum supply
current will be dominated by the dc and 50Hz components thus the maximum will be near ωt+π
An unbalanced single-phase rectifier circuit is supplied from the ac mains with voltage v(ωt) = √2 =½π, ωt =π. Iteration around ωt =π gives i s =28.85A at ωt =0.83 rad.
230×sin 2π50t. The dominant resultant harmonics in the supply current are is 28.85A
i (ωt ) = 10 + 15 × sin (ωt + 1 6 π ) + 3 × sin ( 2ωt + ¼π ) + 2 × sin ( 4ω t − ¼π ) δ= = = 1.95
I rms 14.8A
Determine ♣
i. the fundamental power factor hence power delivered from the supply
ii. the total supply power factor, hence distortion factor
iii. the harmonic current and the ac current
iv. the total harmonic distortion with respect to the fundamental current and the total rms current
v. the current crest factor.
Solution
i. The power from the supply delivered to the load is only at the supply frequency
Reading list
12.8. The ac controller in problem 12.3 delivers 2.88 kW. Determine the duty cycle, m/N, and the input
Bird, B. M., et al., An Introduction to Power Electronics, power factor, λ.
John Wiley & Sons, 1993.
12.9. A single-phase ac controller with a 240Vac 50Hz voltage source supplies an R-L load of R=40Ω
Dewan, S. B. and Straughen, A., Power Semiconductor Circuits, and L=50mH. If the thyristor gate delay angle is α = 30°, determine:
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1975. i. an expression for the load current
ii. the rms load current
General Electric Company, SCR Manual, iii. the rms and average current in the thyristors
6th Edition, 1979. iv. the power absorbed by the load
v. sketch the load, supply and thyristor voltages and currents.
Hart, D.W., Introduction to Power Electronics,
Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1994.
12.10. A single-phase thyristor ac controller is to delivery 500W to an R-L load of R=25Ω and L=50mH.
If the ac supply voltage is 240V ac at 50Hz, determine
Rombaut, C., et al., Power Electronic Converters – AC/Ac Conversion,
i. thyristor rms and average current
North Oxford Academic Publishers, 1987.
ii. maximum voltages across the thyristors.
Shepherd, W., Thyristor Control of AC Circuits,
Granada, 1975. 12.11. The thyristor T2 in the single-phase controller in figure 12.1a is replaced by a diode. The supply
is 240 V ac, 50 Hz and the load is 10 Ω resistive. Determine the
i. and expression for the rms load voltage in terms of α
ii. the range of rms voltage across the load resistor.
Problems
12.1. Determine the rms load current for the ac regulator in figure 12.14, with a resistive load R.
Consider the delay angle intervals 0 to ½π, ½π to ⅔π, and ⅔π to 7π /6.
12.2. The ac regulator in figure 12.14, with a resistive load R has one thyristor replaced by a diode.
Show that the rms output voltage is
½
 1 
Vrms =  ( 2π − α + ½ sin 2α ) 
 2π 
while the average output voltage is
2V
Vo = ( cos α − 1)
2π
12.3. Plot the load power for a resistive load for the fully controlled and half-controlled
2
three-phase ac
regulator, for varying phase delay angle, α. Normalise power with respect to V / R .
12.4. For the tap changer in figure 12.7, with a resistive load, calculate the rms output voltage for a
phase delay angle α. If v2 = 200 V ac and v1 = 240 V ac, calculate the power delivered to a 10
ohm resistive load at delay angles of ¼π, ½π, and ¾π. What is the maximum power that can be
delivered to the load?
12.5. A. 0.01 H inductance is added in series with the load in problem 12.4. Determine the load
voltage and current waveforms at a firing delay angle of ½π. Assuming a 50 Hz supply, what is
the minimum delay angle?
12.6. The thyristor T2 in the single-phase controller in figure 12.1a is replaced by a diode. The supply
is 240 V ac, 50 Hz and the load is 10 Ω resistive. For a delay angle of α = 90°, determine the
i. rms output voltage
ii. supply power factor
iii. mean output voltage
iv. mean input current.
[207.84 V; 0.866 lagging; 54 V; 5.4 A]
12.7. The single-phase ac controller in figure 12.6 operating on the 240 V, 50 Hz mains is used to
control a 10 Ω resistive heating load. If the load is supplied repeatedly for 75 cycles and
disconnected for 25 cycles, determine the
i. rms load voltage,
ii. input power factor, λ, and
iii. the rms thyristor current.

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AC voltage regulators 328

{sin (ωt - φ ) − sin (α − φ ) e }

( ) sin ωt dωt 

12.1 Single-phase ac regulator

12.1.1 Single-phase ac regulator – phase control with line commutation Φ = 45°

Case 2: α ≤ φ (continuous gate pulses)

The load power is 2V

power factor and output voltage (rms) pu

The average thyristor current is I T = ½ I o , which has a maximum value of I T = 2V / π R when α = 0. V1

thyristor distortion factor FFiTh

which has a maximum of V rms = V when α = 0.

The current waveform is symmetrical about π.

normalised average and rms currents

normalised rms output voltage

iG2 symmetrical delay

( cos α - cos ωt ) dωt 

which has a maximum value of ½π when α =½π. v

v Vsinωt vo/p φ v Vsinωt vo/p φ

π ≥ α ≥ ½π (symmetrical gate pulses) Vb ac VL

(π − α ) cos α + sin α 

(V −V b ac cos ψ ) + (V b ac sinψ ) = V 2 + V b2ac − 2V V b ac cos ψ I rms = Po / R

= 240 × 1π {( 3.91 − 1 3 π ) − ½(sin 2 × 3.91 − sin 2 3 π )}

 (π − ¼π )( 2 + cos½π ) + sin ½π   = 37.75A

= 240V 1π {(π − ¼π ) + ½ sin ½π )} = 228.8V

Example 12.1c: Single-phase ac regulator – pure inductive load

= 230 + 138 − 2 × 230 × 138 × cos 30 = 130.3V

Po w e r, cu rre n t, volta g e , a n d p o w e r fa cto r

cycles period duty power I Th IThrms Delay

0 4 0 0 0 0 180° all n rms 0 0.499 0.707 0.866 1 ∑c 1

1 4 ¼ 1200 2.25 7.07 114° 1 ½ ½

3 4 ¾ 3600 6.75 12.2 63.9° 1 0.866 0.866 all n 12

4 4 1 4800 9 14.1 1 1 1 1 but not ac harmonic rms 0 0.432 0.499 0.432 0 ∑c 2

( 4  ) 12.2 Single-phase transformer tap-changer – line commutated

Vo=IoR √2×11sinωt √2×23sinωt

IT1 IT2 IT1 IT2

ID1 ID2 ID1 ID2

12.3 Single-phase ac chopper regulator – commutable switches

12.4 Three-phase ac regulator

Purely resistive load

The thyristor maximum average current is when α = 0, that is I T =

normalised ave ½ half cycle voltages, R and L loads

Equation Equation Equation

rms and average neutral current

The average neutral current is

12.4.3 Fully-controlled three-phase ac regulator with delta load Half-controlled

Power = 3 ×VI 1 cos φ1 = . 3VI L1 cos φ1 (12.93) R

rms and fundamental phase voltage

rms and average phase voltage

Purely inductive load

Mode [2/1] 0 ≤ α ≤ ⅓π 12.16a . 6 1/√2 0≤α ≤ 5

(a) 10Ω Resistive load - α = 90º

(b) 20mH Inductive load - α = 90º

C The positive features of the cycloconverter are

i. The supply apparent power is P50 Hz = Vs 50 Hz I s 50 Hz cos φ50 Hz

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