IES Question Papers

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CE2305 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING L T P C3 0 0 3

OBJECTIVE
At the end of this course student acquires the capacity to assess the soil
condition at a given location in order to sugest suitable foundation and also gains
the knowledge to design various foundations.
UNIT I SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION 9

Scope and objectives - Methods of exploration-auguring and boring - Water boring and
rotatory drilling - Depth of boring - Spacing of bore hole - Sampling - Representative
and undisturbed sampling - sampling techniques - Split spoon sampler, Thin tube
sampler, Stationary piston sampler - Bore log report - Penetration tests (SPT and
SCPT) - Data interpretation (Strength parameters and Liquefaction potential) -
Selection of foundation based on soil condition.
UNIT II SHALLOW FOUNDATION 9
Introduction - Location and depth of foundation - codal provisions - bearing capacity of
shallow foundation on homogeneous deposits - Terzaghi's formula and BIS formula -
factors affecting bearing capacity - problems - Bearing Capacity from insitu tests (SPT,
SCPT.and plate load) - Allowable bearing pressure, Settlement - Components'Of
settlement - Determination of settlement of foundations on granular and clay deposits -
Allowable settlements - Codal provision - Methods of minimising settlement, differential
settlement.
UNIT III FOOTINGS AND RAFTS 9
Types of foundation - Contact pressure distribution below footings and raft - Isolated
and combined footings - Types and proportioning - Mat foundation- Types, applications
uses and proportioning-- floating foundation.
<, UNIT IV PILES 9
Types of piles and their function - Factors Influenclnq tre selection of pile - Carrying
capacity of single pile in granular and cohesive soil - Static formula - dynamic formulae
(Engineering news and Hiley's) - Capacity from insitu tests (SPT and SCPT) - Negative
skin friction - uplift capacity - Group capacity by different methods (Feld's rule,
Converse Labarra formula and block failure criterion) - Settlement of pile groups -
Interpretation of pile load test - Forces on pile ~p;; - under reamed piles - Capacity
under compression and uplift. /1Y f
UNIT V RETAINING WALLS 9
Plastic equilibrium in soils - active and passive states - Rankine's theory - cohesion less
and cohesive soil - Coloumb's wedge theory - condition for critical failure plane - Earth
pressure on retaining walls of simple configurations - Graphical methods (Rebhann and
Culmann) - pressure on the wall due to line load - Stability of retaining walls.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS
1. Murthy, V.N.S, "Soil Mechanics and Foundation E.ngineering", UBS Publishers
Distribution Ltd, New Delhi, 1999. '
2. Gopal Ranjan and Rao, A.S.R. "Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics", Wiley Eastern
Ltd., New Delhi (India), 2003.
REFERENCES
1. Das, B.M. "Principles of Foundation Engineering (Fifth edition), Thomson Books /
COLE, 2003
2. Bowles J.E, "Foundation analysis and design", McGraw-Hili, 1994
3. Punmia, B.C., "Soil Mechanics and Foundations", Laxmi publications pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 1995.
4. Venkatramaiah,C."Geotechnical Engineering", New Age International Publishers,

CE 2305 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (SEMESTER V)

UNIT 1
SITE INVESTIGATION AND SOIL EXPLORATION
Site investigations and sub-surface explorations are done to obtain the information about
subsurface conditions at the site of proposed construction. Information about the surface and
subsurface feature is essential for the design of structures and for planning construction
techniques. Site investigations consist of determining the profile of the natural soil deposits at the
site, taking the soil samples and determining the engineering properties of the soil. It also
includes in-situ testing of the soils.
OBJECTIVES OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS
1. To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure

2. To determine the bearing capacity of the soil
3. To determine the probable maximum and differential settlements
4. To establish the ground water table and to determine the properties of water
5. To predict the lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and abutments
6. To select suitable construction techniques
7. To predict and to solve potential foundation problems
8. To ascertain the suitability of the soil as a construction material
9. To investigate the safety of the existing structures and to suggest the remedial measures
PLANNING A SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PROGRAMME
A subsurface exploration programme depends upon the type of the structure to be built
and upon the variability of the strata at the proposed site. The extent of sub surface exploration is
closely related to the relative cost of the investigation and that of the entire project for which is
undertaken.
In general the more detailed investigations are done, the more is known about the
subsurface conditions. As a result a greater economy can be achieved in the construction of the
project because the element of uncertainty is considerably reduced.

The extentof investigatiql1WQuld also depend upon the location of the

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A small
house in an already built up area would not require much exploration on the other hand if the
house is to be built in a newly developed area, detailed investigation is necessary. If a multi-
storied building is to be constructed, extensive sub surface exploration is necessary. These
buildings impose very heavy loads and the zone of influence is also very deep. It would be
therefore more desirable to invest some amount on sub surface exploration than to overdesign the
buildings and make it costlier.
STAGES IN SUB SURFACE EXPLORATION
(1) Reconnaissance
Site reconnaissance is the first step in a subsurface exploration programme. It includes a
visit to the site and to study the maps and other relevant details. The informations about
the following features are obtained during reconnaissance,
• The general topography of the site, the existence of drainage ditches and dumps of
debris and sanitary fills.
• Existence of settlement cracks in the structure already built near the site.
• The evidence of landslides, creep of slopes and shrinkage cracks.
• The stratification of soil as observed from deep cuts near the site.
• The location of high flood marks on the nearby buildings and bridges.
• The depth of ground water table as observed in the wells.
• Existence of springs swamps etc. at the site.
• The drainage pattern existing at the site.
• Type of vegetation existing at the site.
• Existence of underground water mains, power conduit etc at site
The informations obtained during reconnaissance is helpful in evolving a suitable sub
surface investigation programme.
(2) Preliminary Explorations
The aim of this is to determine the depth, thickness, extent and composition of
each soil stratum at the site. The depth of the bed rock and ground water table is also

determined. The preliminary explorations are generally in the form of a few borings or
test pits.
(3) Detailed Explorations
The purpose of the detailed exploration is to determine the engineering properties
of the soils in different strata. It includes an extensive boring programme, sampling and
testing of samples in the laboratory.
DEPTH OF EXPLORAnON
Depth of exploration required, depends on the type of the proposed structure, its total weight, the
size, shape and disposition of the loaded area, the physical properties of the soil that constitute
the different strata e site. Exploration, in general, should be carried out to a depth up to which the
increase in pressure due to structural loading is likely to cause foundation failure. Such a
minimum depth is known as critical depth or significant depth. The net loading intensity at any
level below the foundation is obtained by approximately assuming a spread of load of, two
vertical to one horizontal, from all sides of the foundation. Due allowance should be made for the
overlapping effects of the load from closely spaced footings. It is rally safe to assume the
significant depth up to a level at which the net increase in vertical pressure becomes less than
10% of the initial overburden pressure.
The following guide rules may also be followed to decide the depth of exploration.
For isolated spread footing or raft 1.5 times the width.
Adjacent footings with clear spacing less 1.5 times the length.
than twice the width
For pile foundations 10 to 30 m and more or at least 1.5 times
the width of the structure
Base of retaining walls One and a half times the base width or the
exposed height, whichever is greater.
For black cotton areas, from the consideration of weathering. the
exploration should be carried to a minimum depth of 4 m.
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METHODS OF SOIL EXPLORATION

Mainly there are three methods. They are
1. Direct methods
2. Semi-direct methods
3. Indirect methods
(1) Direct methods

It includes open excavation methods of exploration. They are,
• Pits and Trenches

Pits and trenches are excavated at the site to inspect the strata. The size of the pits should be
sufficient to provide necessary working space.IS:4453-1967 recommends a clear working space of
1.2m x 102m at the bottom of the pit. The depth of the pit depends upon the requirement of the
investigation. Shallow pits up to a depth 3m can be made without providing any lateral support.
For deeper pits, especially below water table, the lateral support should be provided in the form of
sheeting and bracing system. For depths greater than 6m, bore holesa re economical than pits.
Deep pits should be properly ventilated to prevent accumulation of dead air. If water is
encountered in the pit, it should be properly dewatered.
Trenches are long shallow pits. A trench is continuous over a considerable length; it provides
exposure along a line. The trenches are more suitable than pits for exploration on slopes.
• Drifts and Shafts
Drifts are horizontal tunnels made in the hill side to determine the nature and structure of
geological formation. A drift should have minimum clear dimensions of 1.5m width and 2m
height in hard rock.
Shafts are large size vertical holes made in the geological formation. These may be rectangular
or circular in section. The minimum width of rectangular shaft is 204m and for circular, the ~
minimum diameter is 204m.
(2) Semi-direct methods
When the depth of exploration is large, borings are used for the explorations. A vertical hole
is drilled in the ground to get the information about the sub soil strata. Samples are taken from
the bore hole and tested in the laboratory.

Depending upon the type of soil and the purpose of boring, the following methods are used
for drilling the holes. They are,
The different types of boring methods are:
l.Displacement boring.
2.Auger boring.
3.Wash boring.
4.Rotary drilling.
5.Percussion drilling.
6.Continuous sampling.
1. Displacement borings
It is combined method of sampling & boring operation. Closed bottom sampler, slit cup, or
piston type is forced in to the ground up to the desired depth. Then the sampler is detached from
soil below it, by rotating the piston, & finally the piston is released or withdrawn. The sampler is
then again forced further down & sample is taken. After withdrawal of sampler & removal of
sample from sampler, the sampler is kept in closed condition & again used for another depth.
Features:
iJlSimple and economic method if excessive caving does not occur. Therefore not suitable for
loose sand.
IIIIMajor changes of soil character can be detected by means of penetration resistance.
iil These are 25mm to 75mm holes. mIt requires fairly continuous sampling in stiff and dense soil,
either to protect the sampler from damage or to avoid objectionably heavy construction pit.
2. Auger boring
This method is fast and economical, using simple, light, flexible and inexpensive instruments
for large to small holes. It is very suitable for soft to stiff cohesive soils and also can be used to
determine ground water table. Soil removed by this is disturbed but it is better than wash boring,
percussion or rotary drilling. It is not suitable for very hard or cemented soils, very soft soils, as
then the flow into the hole can occur and also for fully saturated cohesionless soil.

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3. Wash boring:
It is a popular method due to the use of limited equipments. The advantage of this is the use of
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inexpensive and easily portable handling and drilling equipments. Here first an open hole is
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formed on the ground so that the soil sampling or rock drilling operation can be done below the
hole. The hole is advanced by chopping and twisting action of the light bit. Cutting is done by
forced water and water jet under pressure through the rods operated inside the hole. In India the
"Dheki" operation is used, i.e., a pipe of Scm diameter is held vertically and filled with water
using horizontal lever arrangement and by the process of suction and application of pressure, soil
slurry comes out of the tube and pipe goes down. This can be done upto a depth ot 8m -1 Om_
(excluding the depth of hole already formed beforehand) Just by noting the change of colour of
soil coming out with the change of soil character can be identified by any experienced person. It
gives completely disturbed sample and is not suitable for very soft soil, fine to medium g@in~ed
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cohesionless soil and in cemented soil.

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4. Rotary drilling
Rotary drilling method of boring is useful in case of highly resistant strata. It is related to finding
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out the rock strata and also to access the quality of rocks from cracks, fissures and joints. It can
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conveniently be used in sands wid silts also. Here, the bore holes are advanced in depth by rotary
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percussion method which is similar to wash boring technique. A heavy string of the drill rod is
used for choking action. The broken rock or soil fragments are removed by circulating water or
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drilling mud pumped through the drill rods and bit up through the bore hole from which it is
collected in a settling tank for recirculation. If the depth is small and the soil stable, water alone
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can be used. However, drilling fluids are useful as they serve to stabilize the bore hole. Drilling
mud is slurry of bentonite in water. The drilling fluid causes stabilizing effect to the bore hole
partly due to higher specific gravity as compared with water and partly due to formation of mud
cake on the sides of the hole. As the stabilizing effect is imparted by these drilling fluids no
casing is required if drilling fluid is used. This method is suitable for boring holes of diameter

10cm, or more preferably 15 to20cm in most of the rocks. It is uneconomicill, for holes less than
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lOcm diameter. The depth of various strata can be detected by inspection of cuttin~
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ROTARY DRILLING
5. Percussion drilling
In case of hard soils or soft rock, auger boring or wash boring cannot be employed. For such
strata, percussion drilling is usually adopted. He_re advancement ofhole is done 1;:>y alternatively
lifting and dropping a heavy drilling bit which is attachedto the lower end of the drilling bit
which is attached to the cable. Addition of sand increases the cutting action of the drilling bit in
clays. Whereas, when coarse cohesion less soil is encountered, clay might have to be added to
increase the carrying capacity of slurry. After the carrying capacity of the soil is reached, churn
bit is removed and the slurry is removed using bailers and sand pumps. Change in soil character
is identified by the composition of the outgoing slurry. The stroke of bit varies according to the
ground condition. Generally, it is 45-100cm in depth with rate of 35-60 drops/min. It is not
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economical for hole of diameter less than l Ocm. It can be used in most of the soils and rocks and
can drill any material. One main ~isadvantage of this process is that the ~terial at the bottom of

the hole is disturbed by heavy blows of the chisel and hence it is not possible to get good quality arL
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undisturbed samples. It cannot detect thin strata as well. ----..
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PERCUSSION DRILLING
6. Continuous sampling
The sampling operation advances the borehole and the boring is accomplished entirely by taking
samples continuously. The casing is used to prevent the caving in soils. It provides more reliable
and detail information on soil condition than the other methods. Therefore it is used extensively
in detailed and special foundation exploration for important structures. It is slower method and
more expensive than intermittent sampling. When modern rotary drilling rigs or power driven
augers are not available, continuous sampling may be used to advantage for advancing larger
diameter borings in stiff and tough strata of clay and mixed soil. In the Boston district, corps of
Engineers has made faster progress and reduced cost by use of continuous sampling in advancing
3-inch diameter borings through compact gravelly glacial till, which is difficult to penetrate by
any boring method.
10

TYPES OF SOIL SAMPLES:

Two types of soil samples can be obtained during sampling disturbed and undisturbed.
1. Disturbed sample: In disturbed sampling, the natural structures of soils gets partly or fully
modified or destroyed, although with suitable precaution the natural water content may be
preserved. Disturbed sample can be obtained by direct excavations by auger and thick wall
samplers.
The disturbances can be classified in following basic types:
~ Change in the stress condition,
~ Change in the water content and the void ratio,
~ Disturbance of the soil structure,
~ Chemical changes,
~ Mixing and segregation of soil constituents
If all the constituents are present in the sample which represents the same soil type from any
place, then it is called a representive sample. In the remoulded sample the engineering properties
get changed due to remoulding.
2. Undisturbed sample: In undisturbed sample, the natural structure and properties remain
preserved. These samples are used to tests for shear, consolidation and permeability.
For undisturbed sample the stress changes cannot be avoided. The following requirements are
looked for:
~ No change due to disturbance of the soil structure,
~ No change in void ratio and water content,
~ No change in constituents and chemical properties.
Sample Disturbances
This depends on the design of samplers and methods of samplings.
11

Design factors governing the degree of disturbances:

i. Cutting edge: A typical cutting edge of a sampler is shown in the figure
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'Sample
03 Tube
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edge or
drive
shoe
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The important design features of the cutting edge are

a) Area ratio,
D 2-D 2
A, = 2 n • 1 X 100
1
Where D I and D2 are internal and external diameters of the cutting edge respectively.
The area ratio should not exceed 25%. For good quality undisturbed samples, it should not
exceed 10%.
b) Inside clearance: It allows elastic expansion of sample when it enters the tube.
Inside CIearance = D.; - D

i X 100
ili
Where D3= inside diameter of the sample tube.

The inside clearance must lie between I to 10%, for undisturbed sample it should be between 0.5
and 3%.
c) Outside clearance: It should not be much greater than the inside clearance. Normally it lies
between 0 and 2 percent. It helps in reducing the force required to withdraw the tube.
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51 e cearance =D.
" - D.., x 100
D..,
12

Where D4 is the external diameter of the sample tube.

d.) Inside wall friction: The walls of the sampler should be smooth and kept properly oiled.
e) Non-return valve: The non-return valve should permit easy and quick escape of water and air
when the sample is driven.
L
(R) = -xl00%
f) Recovery ratio H
Where, L is the length of the sample within the tube,
H is the depth of penetration of the sampling tube.
It represents the disturbance of the soil sample. For good sampling the recovery ratio should be
96 to 98 %.
SOIL SAMPLERS AND SAMPLERS
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLERS:
1. Split Spoon sampler
It consists of tool-steel driving shoe at the bottom, a steel tube (that is split longitudinally in to
halves) in the middle, and a coupling at the top. The steel tube in the middle has inside and out
side diameters of34.9mm and 50.8mm, respectively.
When the bore hole is advanced to a desired depth, the drilling tools are removed. The split-
spoon sampler is attached to the drilling rod and then lowered to the bottom of the bore hole. The
sampler is driven in to the soil at the bottom of the bore hole by means of hammer blows. The
hammer blows occur at the top of the drilling rod. The hammer weights 623N. For each blow,
the hammer drops a distance of O.762m. The number of blows required for driving the sampler
through three 152.4mm interval is recorded. The sum of the number of blows required for
driving the last two 152.4mm intervals is referred to as the standard penetration number; N. it is
also commonly called the blow count. After driving is completed, the sampler is with drawn and
the shoe and coupling are removed. The soil sample collected inside the split tube is then
removed and transferred to the laboratory in small glass jars. Determination of the standard
penetration number and collection of split-spoon samples are usually done at 1.5m.
13

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SPLIT SPOON SAMPLER
2. Thin wall Open tube:

Thin walled tube are most commonly used for collection of undisturbed core samples in cohesive
soils, silt and sand above the water table.
Sample collection procedures are similar to split-spoon sampling except that the tube is pushed
into the soil, using the weight of the drill rig, rather than driven. The following are common thin-
wall open tube samplers:
Shelby Tube: Undisturbed samples in cohesive soils, silt, and sand above the water table.
Continuous tube: Same as Shelby tubes, except that the longer barrel is designed to operate
inside the column of a hollow-stem auger
14

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3. Piston type sampler Good quality undisturbed samples are obtained from piston samplers
which use thin-walled sampling tubes with a piston inside. While the tube is being lowered to the
bottom of the drill hole, the piston rods and piston are held at the bottom of the sampler by
means of a drill rod which rises to the top of the bore hole. The presence of the piston prevents
excess soil from squeezing in to the tube and thus, maintains the integrity ofthe sample.
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Preservation of samples
Undisturbed samples which are to be tested after some time should be maintained in such a way
that the natural water content is retained and no evaporation are allowed.
Usually, two coats of 12mm thick paraffin wax and petroleum jelly are applied in molten state on
either end ,of the sample is preserved in a humidity controlled room. In the absence of such
facilities, the sampling tubes should be covered by Hessian bags and sprinkled with water from
time to time. Block samples may be coated with 6mm thick paraffin wax and kept in air-tight
box with saw dust filling the annular space between the box and the sample.
In-situ tests General
The in situ tests in the field have the advantage of testing the soils in their natural, undisturbed
condition. Laboratory tests, on the other hand, make use of small size samples obtained from
boreholes through samplers and therefore the reliability of these depends on the quality of the so
called 'undisturbed' samples. Further, obtaining undisturbed samples from non-cohesive,
granular soils is not easy, if not impossible. Therefore, it is common practice to rely more on
laboratory tests where cohesive soils are concerned. Further, in such soils, the field tests being
short duration tests, fail to yield meaningful consolidation settlement data in any case. Where the
subsoil strata are essentially non-cohesive in character, the bias is most definitely towards field
17

tests. The data from field tests is used in empirical, but time-tested correlations to predict
settlement of foundations.
The field tests commonly used in subsurface investigation are:

.:. Penetration Test
.:. Standard cone Penetration test.
STANDARD PENETRAnON TEST
The standard penetration test is carried out in a borehole, while the DePT and sePT are carried
out without a borehole. All the three tests measure the resistance of the soil strata to penetration
by a penetrometer. Useful empirical correlations between penetration resistance and soil
properties are available for use in foundation design.
This is the most extensively used penetrometer test and employs a split-spoon sampler, which
consists of a driving shoe, a split-bane! of circular cross-section which is longitudinally split into
two parts and a coupling. IS: 2131-1981 gives the standard for carrying out the test.
Procedure:
iliThe borehole is advanced to the required depth and the bottom cleaned.
mThe split-spoon sampler, attached to standard drill rods of required length is lowered into the
borehole and rested at the bottom.
iliThe split-spoon sampler is driven into the soil for a distance of 450mm by blows of a drop
hammer (monkey) of 65 kg falling vertically and freely from a height of 750 mm. The number of
blows required to penetrate every 150 mm is recorded while driving the sampler. The number of
blows required for the last 300 mm of penetration is added together and recorded as the N value
at that particular depth of the borehole. The number of blows required to effect the first 150mm
of penetration, called the seating drive, is disregarded.
mThe split-spoon sampler is then withdrawn and is detached from the drill rods. The split-barrel
is disconnected from the cutting shoe and the coupling. The soil sample collected inside the split
barrel is carefully collected so as to preserve the natural moisture content and transported to the
laboratory for tests. Sometimes, a thin liner is inserted within the split-barrel so that at the end of
the SPT, the liner containing the soil sample is sealed with molten wax at both its ends before it
is taken away to the laboratory.
18

The SPT is carried out at every 0.75 m vertical intervals in a borehole. This can be increased to
1.50 m if the depth of borehole is large. Due to the presence of boulders or rocks, it may not be
possible to drive the sampler to a distance of 450 mm. In such a case, the N value can be
recorded for the first 300 mm penetration.
The boring log shows refusal and the test is halted if
11II50 blows are required for any 150mm penetration
11II100 blows are required for 300m penetration
.10 successive blows produce no advance.
Precautions:
IlIThe drill rods should be of standard specification and should not be in bent condition.
lIIThe split spoon sampler must be in good condition and the cutting shoe must be free from wear
and tear.
lIIThe drop hammer must be of the right weight and the fall should be free, frictionless and
vertical.
IlIThe height of fall must be exactly 750 mm. Any change from this will seriously affect the N
value.
•The bottom of the borehole must be properly cleaned before the test is carried out. If this is not
done, the test gets carried out in the loose, disturbed soil and not in the undisturbed soil.
When a casing is used in borehole, it should be ensured that the casing is driven just short of the
level at which the SPT is to be carried out. Otherwise, the test gets carried out in a soil plug
enclosed at the bottom of the casing .
• When the test is carried out in a sandy soil below the water table, it must be ensured that the
water level in the borehole is always maintained slightly above the ground water level. If the
water level in the borehole is lower than the ground water level, 'quick' condition may develop in
the soil and very low N values may be recorded.
In_s~ite of all these imperfections, SPT is still extensively used becaus: ~e-,u
III The test is simple and relatively economical.
III It is the only test that provides representative soil samples both for visual inspection in the
field and for natural moisture content and classification tests in the laboratory.
19

SPT values obtained in the field for sand have to be corrected before they are used in empirical
correlations and design charts. IS: 2131-1981 recommends that the field value of N be corrected
for two effects, namely, (a) effect of overburden pressure, and (b) effect of dilatancy.
(a) Correction for overburden pressure

Several investigators have found that the penetration resistance or the N value in a granular soil
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is influenced by the overburden pressure. Of two granular soils possessing the same relative
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density but having different confining pressures, the one with a higher confining pressure gives a
higher N value. Since the confining pressure (which is directly proportional to the overburden
pressure) increases with depth, the N values at shallow depths are underestimated and the N
values at larger depths are overestimated. To allow for this, N values recorded from field tests at
different effective overburden pressures are corrected to a standard effective overburden
pressure.
The corrected N values given by
N'=CNN
in which N' corrected value of observed N; CN = correction factor for overburden pressure.
(b) Correction for dilatancy
Di 1atancy correction is to be applied when N' obtained after overburden correction, exceeds 15
in saturated fine sands and silts. IS: 2131-1981 incorporates the Terzaghi and Peck recommended
dilatancy correction (when N'> 15) using the equation
N"=15+0.5 ( N'-15)
where N" = final corrected value to be used in design charts.
If N' .:5.15, Nil = N'
N'> 15 is an indication of a dense sand. In such a soil, the fast rate of application of shear
through the blows of a drop hammer, is likely to induce negative pore water pressure in a
saturated fine sand under undrained condition of loading. Consequently, a transient increase in
shear resistance will occur, leading to a SPT value higher than the actual one.
20

2 Static cone penetration test At field SCPT is widely used of recording variation in the in-
situ penetration resistance of soil in cases where in-situ density is disturbed by boring method &
SPT is unreliable below water table.
The test is very useful for soft clays, soft silts, medium sands & fine sands.
Procedure
.By this test basically by pushing the standard cone at the rate of 10 to 20 mm/sec in to the soil
and noting the friction, the strength is determined.
IIlIAfter installing the equipment as per IS-4968, part III the sounding rod is pushed in to the soil
and the driving is operated at the steady rate of 10 mm/sec approximately so as to advance the
cone only by extemalloading to the depth which a cone assembly available.
1IIF0r finding combine cone friction resistance, the shearing strength of the soil qs , and tip
resistance qc is noted in gauge & added to get the total strength.
Limitations
This test is unsuitable for gravelly soil & soil for having SPT N value greater than 50. Also in
dense sand anchorage becomes to cumbersome & expensive & fpr such cases Dynamic SPT can
be used. This test is also unsuitable for field operation since erroneous value obtained due to
presence of brick bats, loose stones etc.
Correction in SCPT test

eN = (m + nfflt) x10kNI m 2
Here
m = mass 0 cone = 1.1 Kg.
m1 = mass of each sounding roads = 1.5 Kg

n = No. of rods used.
SCPT correlation
f =.:k. x l 00%
Friction ratio r q( .!r= Friction ratio q'=measured site/slip friction qc= tip
resistance/point resistance
21

~ t~p~~'O~
s =~
Then, Sensitivity of soil is measured t fr ( 1r in %)
were,
h ... 0 f
St= Sensitivity SOl'1
s = qc -Po
wFor cohesive soil (undrained shear strength) U N],: Po = overburden pressure = Yz
N,,= cone factor = 15 to 20 (depends on the plasticity index of soil) Sarvac & opovic
qc = 612.6+ 587.SI c Here Ic = consistency index of soil
q
c is measure d im KPa
The plate load test is a semi-direct method to measure the allowable pressure of soil to induce a
given amount of settlement. Plates, round or square, varying in sizes, from 30 to 60 em and
thickness of about 2.5 em are employed for the test.
The load on the plate is applied by making use of a hydraulic jayk. The reaction of the jack load
-~ -
is taken by a cross beam or a steel truss anchored suitably at both the ends. The settlement of the
plate is measured by a set of three dial gauges of sensitivity 0.02mm placed at 1200 apart. The
dial gauges are fixed to independent supports which do not get disturbed during the test. Fig
shows the arrangement for the plate load test.
Procedure:
The method of performing the test is essentially as follows:
wExcavate a pit of size not less than 5 times the size of the plate. The bottom of the pit coincides
with level of the foundation
wlf water table is above the level of foundation, pump out the water carefully and it should be
kept just at the level of the foundation.
wA suitable size of the plate is selected for the test. Normally a plate of size 30cm is used in
sandy sQijs and bigger size in clay soils. The ground should be leveled and the plate is seated
over the ground.
2
-
fIlA seating load of about 70gm I cm is first placed and released after sometime. A higher load is
next placed on the plate and settlements are recorded by means of the dial gauges.
22

Observations on every load increment shall be taken until the rate of settlement is less than
O.25mm per hour. Load increments shall be approximately one-fifth of the estimated safe bearing
capacity of the soil. The average of the settlements recorded by 2 or 3 dial gauges taken as the
settlements of the plate for each of the load increment.
.The test should continue until a total settlement of 2.5cm or the settlement at which the soil
fails, whichever is earlier, is obtained. After the load is increased, the elastic rebound of the soil
should be recorded.
Interpretation from test results:
From the test results,a load-settlement curve should be plotted as shown in the fig. The
allowable pressure of the prototype foundation for an assumed settlement may be found and by
making use of the following equations as suggested by Terzaghi and Peck.
For granular soils,
B(bp + 0.3)]2
Sf = S,[ b)l(B + 0.3)
For clay soils,

B
S = S'-b
t )l
Where, Sf= permissible settlement of the foundation in mm,
S, = settlement of the plate in mm,

B = size of plate in metres,
. 0 f nlate
b, = size i metres.
p ate In
The permissible settlement Sf for a prototype foundation should be known. Normally a
settlement of2.5cm is recommended. In the equation the values of Sf and b, are known. The
S S
unknowns are , and B. The value of , for any assumed value of B may be found out from the
equation. Using the plate load settlement curve the value of the bearing pressure corresponding
to the computed value of S'is found out. This bearing pressure is the safe bearing pressure for a
given permissible settlement Sf
23

,g",~
c,.JJ 1,~ t;/' J~~"<d
Limitations :I t 'c-3
Tr- -~0J
-, \
QiJ
Since a plate load test is of short duration, consolidation settlements cannot be predicted. The test
Lt gives the value of immediate settlements only. If the underlying soil is sandy in
nature immediate settlement can be taken as total settlement. If the soil is of clayey type, the
immediate settlement is only a part of the total settlement. Load tests, therefor(do ((66t have
much significance in clayey soils to determine allowable pressure on the basis of settlement
criterion.~)
Plate load test resultsl- should be used with caution and the present practice is not to rely too much
on this test.@' the 4 i s not homogenous to a great depth, plate load tests give very misleading
results.) ·v )
~te load tests is not at al~~ecommended in soils which are not homogenous at least to a depth
equal to 1.5 to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation.j)
Plate load tests should not be relied on to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of sandy soils
as the scale effects give misleading results. However, when the tests are carried on clay soils, the
ultimate bearing capacity as determined by the test may be taken as equal to that of the
foundation since the bearing capacity of clay is essentially independent of the footing size.
The plate load test is possibly the only way of determining the allowable bearing pressures in
gravelly soil deposits. For tests on such soil deposits the size of the plate should be bigger to
eliminate the effect of grain size.
24

ieli
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UNIT III
FOOTINGS AND RAFTS
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
>- Foundations may be broadly classified under two heads: shallow foundations and deep
foundations.
>- According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width.
In the case of deep foundations, the depth Is equal to or greater than the width.
>- Apart from deep strip, rectangular or square foundations other common forms of deep
foundations are: pier foundation, pile foundation and well foundation.
>- The shallow foundations are of the following types: spread footing (or simply, footing),
strap footing, combined footing and mat or raft footing. Fig shows the common types of shallow
foundations.
SPREAD FOOTING
>- A spread footing or simply footing is a type of shallow foundation used to transmit the load
of an isolated column, or that of a wall to the subsoil.
>- This is most common type of foundation.
>- The base of the column or wall is enlarged or spread to provide individual support for the
load. shows some typical spread footings.
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
>- Both from observations as well as the analytical studies from theory of elasticity, it is known
that the pressure distribution beneath footing, symmetrically loaded is not uniform.
The upward pressure due to soil on the underside of the footing is the pressure distribution.
The pro distribution depends upon
1. Elastic properties of the footing material and soil
2. Thickness of the footing
>- The pressure intensities depend upon the rigidity of footing, the soil type, and the condition
of soil. Fig(~ta.~d (b) shows the probable pressure distribution beneath a rigid footing on a loose

cohesion less soil and on cohesive soil .Fig (c) shows the usually assumed uniform pressure
distribution.
>- When a rigid footing rests on cohesion less soil, the soil grains at the outer edge have no
lateral restraint whereas in centre the soil is relatively confined, resulting in a pressure
distribution shown in ~rj~'~t('~)~
» For the footings on cohesive soil, the edge stresses may be very large. However, the pressure
distribution may be considered to be linear, as shown in for the purpose of the design of
reinforced concrete footing.
» Once the pressure distribution is known, the bending moment and shear force in the footing
can be calculated, and the thickness of the structural member of the footing along with the
reinforcement etc., can be calculated using the usual principles of reinforced concrete.
Contact pro 011 saturated clay:

Flexiblle footing Rigid footing
(i) Settlement is in the (i) settlement is uniform
shape of bowl. Maximum deflection (ii) Contact pr.. distribution
is at centre. is minimum at the centre
(ii) Contact pr is uniform & max. at the edges.
Contact pro on saturated sand:
(i) Settlement: Edges under (i) Settlement is uniform

go large settlement than at (ii) Contact pr increase
the centre. from zero at the edges to
(ii) Contact pr is uniform a maximum at the ~
~:

COMBINED FOOTING
>- A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as a combined footing.
,.-';
>- The combined footing may be rectangular in shape if both the columns carry equal loads, or
,
may be trapezoidal if they carry unequal loads.
>- Generally, combined footing
, are constructed of reinforced concrete.
>- It is assumed that the footing is rigid and rests on a homogeneous soil, so as to give rise to a
linear stress distribution on the bottom of the footing.
>- If the resultant of the soil pressure coincides with the resultant of the loads (and centre of
gravity of the footing), the soil pressure is assumed to be uniformly distributed.
RECTANGULAR COMBINED FOOTING
>- The design of rigid rectangular combined footing consists in determining the location of
centre of gravity of the column loads and using length and width dimensions such that centroid
of the footing and the centre of gravity of column loads coincide
>- .The resulting pressure distribution will be rectangular, as shown in E~~[[lTh~ with the
pressure.intensity
TRAPEZOIDAL COMBINED FOOTING
>- When the two column loads are unequal, with the outer column carrying heavier load, and
when there is space limitation beyond the outer column, a trapezoidal combined footing is
provided.
>- The resulting pressure distribution is linear (and not rectangular) as shown in ~g;;t!?jl
>- In order to determine, widths a and L the following relations are used
STRAP FOOTING
>- A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as a combined footing.

;;.. If the independent spread footing of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called a
strap footing.
>- A strap footing may be used where the distance between the columns is so great that the
combined trapezoidal rooting becomes quite narrow, with high bending moments, or where
'> A strap tooting consists of spread footings of two columns, connected by a strap beam.
'> The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil, and thus does not transfer any pressure
to the soil.
>- The strap, assumed to be infinitely stiff, serves to transfer the column loads onto the soil
with equal and uniform soil pressure under both footings.
MAT OR RAFT FOOTING
'> A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and
supports all the walls and columns.
>- When the allowable soil pressure is low, or the building loads are heavy the use of spread
footings would cover more than one half of the area and it may prove more economical to use
mat or raft foundation.
>- They are also used where the soil mass contains compressible lenses or the soil 1S
sufficiently erratic so that the differential settlement would be difficult to control.

'> The mat or raft tends to bridge over the erratic deposits and eliminates-the differential
settlement.
>- Raft foundation is also used to reduce settlement above highly compressible soils, by
making the weight of structure and raft approximately equal to the weight of the soil excavated.
'> Ordinarily, rafts are designed as reinforced concrete flat slabs.
Floating Foundation:
'> Weight of building is less than or equal to the weight of soil removed from the site of the
building is known as floating foundation.
'> It is evident that the total vertical pressure in the soil below the depth 'D' of floating
foundation is same as before excavation.

>- So the settlement of the building is zero.

DEPTH OF FOOTING:
>- Footing must be laid at a suitable depth below the ground surface.
>- The vertical distance between the ground surface and the base of footing is known as the
depth of footing (Df)
(i) Depth of top soil: The footing should be located below the top soil consisting of organic
matters.
(ii) Frost Depth: The footing should be below the depth of frost penetration.
If footing is located at insufficient depth, it would be subjected to the frost damage due to
formation of ice lenses and consequent frost heave.
>- During summer, thawing occurs from the top downwards and melted water is entrapped.
>- As the soil water freezes and melts, the footing is lifted during cold weather and it settles
during warm weather.
>- The shear strength of the soil is decreased during warm weather due to an increase in
water.
~ To prevent frost damage, the footing should be placed below the frost depth, I m or more
in cold climates.
(iii) Zone of Soil Volume Change:
> Clays (Black cotton soil) having high plasticity undergo excessive volume changes.
>- This soil shrinks upon drying and swells upon wetting.
>- The volume change is greatest near the ground surface and decrease with increasing
depth.
>- The footing should be placed below the strata subjected to large volume changes.
(iv) Adjacent footings and property lines:
>- The adjacent structure may be damaged by construction of a new footing due to
vibrations, undermining or lowering of the water table.
>- The new footing may also impose additional load on the existing footings which may
cause settlement.
>- The new footing should be placed at the same depth as old ones, and the sides of
excavation adjacent to the existing structure should be suitably supported.

(v) Sloping Ground:
(vi) Water' table:

}> The footing should be placed above the ground water table as far as possible.
~ The presence of G.W.T causes reduces in bearing capacity of soil and difficulties during
construction.
(vii) Scour Depth: The footings located in streams, on water fronts or other locations where
there is possibility of scouring, should be placed below the potential scour depth.
(viii) Under ground Defects:
:>- The depth of footing is also affected by the underground defects, such as faults, caves and
mines.
~ If there are man-made discontinuities, such as sewer lines, water mains, underground
cables, these should be shifted or the footing relocated.
(ix) Root holes: If there are root holes or cavities caused by burrowing animals or worms, the
footing should be placed below it.
(x) Minimum Depth: As per IS 1904 - 1978. Minimum depth should be 50 em.
FOUNDATION LOADING:
(i) Dead Loads: The dead load includes wt, of beams, floors, walls, columns and fixed
service equipments.
(i) Live Loads: Movable loads not permanently attached to the structure. Loads due to
people, goods, furniture, equipment, machinery etc. These are specified by building
codes.
(iii) Wind Loads: act on all exposed surfaces of structure. These depends upon the velocity of
wind and the type of structure. These also specified by building codes.
(iv) Snow Loads: Occurs due to accumulation of snow on roofs and exterior flat surface in
cold climates. The unit wt of snow = 1 kJ."I/ m 3.
(v) Earth Pressure: This produces lateral force against the structure below the ground surface
or fil! surface. This pr is treated as dead load.
(vi) Water Pressure: This also produces lateral force against the structure below the water
level.

);> This also causes an upward force on the bottom of the structure due to uplift pr. It may
be counteracted by the dead wt. of the structure.
(vii) Earthquake Loads: This may act vertically, laterally or torsionally on a structure in any
direction.
);> This load is assumed as a fraction of the dead load, depending upon the seismicity of the
zone.
COMPUTATION OF DESIGN LOADS:
According to IS 1904 - 1978,
(i) Dead Load + live load
(ii) Dead load + live load + Wind load or seismic load
>- If wind (or) Seismic load < 25 % of dead and live load, this may be neglected and the
foundation should be designed for combination of (i)
);> If wind (or) Seismic load> 25 % of dead and Iiveload, the foundation should be
designed for combination of (ii).
>- The foundation pr should not exceed the safe bearing capacity by more than 25 % in the
second case.
);> For foundation resting on coarse grained soils, the settlement should be computed using
the loads given in combination (ii), as settlement occurs in a very short period.
);> For fine grained soils, the settlement should be computed corresponding to permanent
loads.
>- Usually one half of the design live load is taken as permanent.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN OF FOOTINGS:

Before the actual design
(i) It is essential toestimate the dead load, live load and other loads.
(ii) The B.M at the base of column (wall) should be ascertained if it is subjected to an
eccentric load or moment, .
(iii) For members carrying axial load combined with B.M, a rectangular footing is more
suitable than a square footing.
Procedure:
(i) The safe Bearing capacity is determined.

(ii) The footing is proportioned based on the safe bearing capacity value.
(iii) The maximum settlement of the footing should be determined. Differential settlement hi w
the various footing is made.
(iv) Angular distortion is determined b/w various parts of the structure.
(v) The maximum settlement, the differential settlement and the angular distortion obtained are
compared with the given allowable values.
(vi) If the values are not within the allowable limits, the sate bearing capacity is revised and the
procedure is repeated.
(vii) The stability of the footing is checked against sliding and overturning.
FACTOR OF SAFETY:
(i) F.S against sliding
F.S < 1.5 when dead load, live load, earth pr and wind pr (or seismic) are considered.
F.S < 1.75, when dead load, live load and earth pr are consid.ered.
(ii) F.S against overturning is 1.50 and 2.00.
PROPORTIONAL FOOTING FOR EQUAL SETTLEMENT:

» To reduce the differential settlement due to variation of live load of footing on the fine
grained soils, it is desirable to proportion all the footings in such a way that they have
equal pr under the service loads.
» The footing should settle by an equal amount, differential settlement is reduced,
PROCJ8:DURE:
(i) The dead load from each column, including its self weight is determined. (self weight of
the footing as lO % of column load)
(i) The max. live load to which each footing is subjected is determined.
(i) The ratio ofthe max. live load to dead load for each footing is computed.
(i) The one has the largest live load to dead load ratio is taken as governing footing.
The area (Ag) of the governing footing is determined from the relation
Ag = Dead load + Live load
Allowable bearing capacity
(v) The service load for all the footings are determined.

(v) Find the maximum bending moment

M = Po B (B-b)2 x 106 N-mm
(vi) Calculate the effective depth as d =....j M / QB
Assumption in conventional design:

(i) The footing or mat is infinitely rigid.
(ii) The soil pressure is distributed in a straight line or a plain surface such that the
centroid of the soil pressure coincides with the line of action of the settlement force
of all loads on the foundation.
RECTANGULAR COMBINED FOOTING
The design of rigid rectangular combined footing consists in determining the location of centre
of gravity of the column loath
» using length and width dimensions such that centroid of the footing and the centre of gravity
of column loads coincide.
» The resulting pressure distribution will be rectangular, as shown in with the
pressure intensity q = (Pl+PZ/ 2) (per unit area).
» The column loads may be considered to be concentrated loads, and the resulting shear force
and bending moment diagrams can be plotted.
» The maximum bending moment should be adopted as the design value for the reinforced
concrete footing, which should also be checked for maximum shear and bond etc.
TRAPEZOIDAL COMBINED FOOTING
» When the two column loads are unequal, with the outer column carrying heavier load, and
when there is space limitation beyond the outer column, a trapezoidal combined footing is
provided.
» The resulting pressure distribution is linear (and not rectangular) as shown in

In order to determine widths a and b the following relations are used
STRAP OR CANTILEVER FOOTIN G
MAT OR RAFT FOOTING
);> If the C'G. of loads coincides with the centroid of the raft, the upward load is regarded as a
uniform pressure equal to the downward load divided by the area of the raft.
}> The weight of raft is not considered in the structural design because it is assumed to be
carried directly by the subsoil.
);> Since this method does not take into account moments and shear caused by differential
settlements, it is customary to reinforce the raft more heavily than required according to analysis.
);> The raft is subdivided into a series of continuous beams (strips) centered on the appropriate
column rows. With the raft now a series of beams, the shear and moment diagrams may be
established, and the mat can be designed.
}> A conservative design generally results from this, since the effect of adjacent strip is
neglected.
}> The perpendicular direction is similarly analysed.
}> The raft may also be design as inverted flat slab, using heavy beams from column to column
}> The danger of shear failure on sands is very remote and the settlement criterion governs the
design.
}> A raft may undergo large settlments without causing harmful differential settlement.
}> For this reason, almost double settlement of the permitted for footings is acceptable for raft.
}> If a maximum settlement of 50 rom (2 in.) is permitted for a raft, the differential settlement
is not likely to exceed 20 mm (0.75 in).
}> Based on this consideration, the net pressure can be calculated from following equation for
rafts having width greater than 6 m.
}> The penetration resistance N values should be taken at 75 em intervals for depths equal to
width of the raft, below the base of the raft.

Max. Pr = q max, min =. Q [ 1 +6e / B J

LXB
If e > B 16, q max = 4Q

-----
3L(B-2e)
Max. pr should be less than the bearing capacity.
PROPORTIONING OF COMBINED FOOTING:

1. RECTANGULAR COMBINED FOOTING:
(i) Determine the total column load Q= Q I + 'Q!2
Where Q I & Q2 are the exterior and interior columns respectively.
(ii) Find the base area of the footing A = Q 1 q s
(iii) Locate the line of action of the resultant of'the.eolummioads from one of the column say
column 1.
QxX=Qz X X2
X {Qz X x, J1 Q
(iv) Determine the total length ofthe footing
=L=2(x- +b j (2)
Where b 1 = Width of the exterior column
(v) Find the width of the footing B = A I L
(vi) As the actual length and width that are provided.may be-slightly more due to rounding off,
the actual pressure
qo=QI A o
(vii) Draw the S.F.D and B.M.D along the length oftheffootingoeonsidering the pr q 0
(Fro convenience, column loads are taken as concentricdeads at the centres)
(viii) Determine the B.M at the face of the columns and max. Br.M at the point of zero shear.
(ix) Find the thickness of footing for the max. H.M
(x) Check for diagonal shear and punching shear, asintthe caseef isolated footing
(xi) Check the bond at the point of contraflxure
(xii) Determine the longitudinal reinforcement for themax.B'M.

DESIGN OF TRAPEZOIDAL FOOTING:

(i) Determine the total column loads
~coQ=QJ-;-Q2
(ii) Find the base area of the footing A = Q 1 q n a

(iii) Locate the line of action of resultant of the column loads
QXX=Q2 X X 2
X {Q2 X X2 JIQ
(iv) Determine the distance x' of the resultant from the outer face of the exterior column.
x "> X+b j 12
A trapezoidal footing is required if
L /3 < x' < L 12
Where L = length of tile trapezoidal footing
L =, 2 (x" -i- b, 12) Where b I = width of column
If x' =~ L/2, a rectangular footing is provided.
X' < L 13, a combined footing cannot be provided. In such a case, a strap footing is suitable.
A= !at- b I xL;
l2 J
x' = L a +2 b
3 a+b
l
(v) Determine the width B! and B 2 from the following relations.
b=2A rlL
Solving the above eqns.
x' - II ;
Lj
a= 2 A
L
)
- B2
After finding a & b the design can be done as in the case of a rectangular combined footing.
STRAP FOOTING:
A strap footing is required in the following two cases.
(i) When x' < L 13. Where x' is the distance of the resultant of column loads from the
exterior face of the exterior column, and L is the length ofthe footing.
0) When the distance between the two columns is so large that a combined footing becomes
excessively long and narrow.
ASSUjVIPTIONS:
1. The soil pr is uniform beneath each individual footing
2. The strap is perfectly rigid.

...
3. The strap is weightless.
4. The interior footing is centrally loaded
DESIGN OF STRAP FOOTING:
(i) Assume a reasonable value of the eccentricity (e) blw the load QI and the reaction RI on
the exterior column.
(ii) Determine the length of the footing of the exterior column.
Ll=2(e+O.5bI)
(iii) Compute the reaction Rl, by taking moments about the line of action of R2.
RI = QI . x2 I s.
Where X2 =distance b/w loads QI & Q2 and
S = distance blw reactions Rl & R2.
R2 = (Q1+Q2) - RI
(iv) Compute area A I and A2.
Al =Rl Iqna; A2=R2/qna
(v) Find the width of footings Bl = All Ll ;
B2 = -.J A2
(vi) Design the individual footing as in the case of spread footings.
(vii) Determine the depth of the strap for diagonal shear and B.M.
CO EFFICIENT OF SUB GRADE REACTION: (SUB GRADE MODULUS)
= pressure I settlement at a given point. Unit is Nfmm 3 •

It is defined as the pressure required producing unit settlement.
k = qls
Where
q = pressure against footing
s= settlement at a particular point.
~ It is not a constant for a given soil
~ It depends upon a number of factors such as length, width, depth and slope of foundation.
RAFT FOUNDATION:
(a) Raft on cohesionless soil:
~ In sand, bearing capacity of foundation depends upon the width.

~ As the width of a rail is very large, bearing capacity is very high and therefore the shear
failure does not occur.
Settlement depends upon the depth of the soi I strata.
> If a firm stratum exists at a shallow depth below the raft, the settlements are small.
> If sand deposit extends to a great depth, the settlement would be large.
The allowable soil pr can be found by using the following equation.
1. Safe bearing capacity,
q ns = 0.22 N2 .B.Wy + 0.67 (l00 + N2) D fW q
2. Safe settlement pr for a settlement of 25 rnm
q np = 17.5 ( 1\ - 3) W Y
Where
B = smaller dimension of raft (m)
Df = Depth of foundation
W y,Wq =water table correction factor
The pr q ns & q sp in kN j m2
The smaller of the above two values is the allowable soil pr. qna
(b) Rafts on Clays:

(i) The net ultimate bearing capacity is generally determined using Skempton's eqn
q nu ~ 5(1 + 0.2 D f/B{I+D.2 (B / Lj '"
Where Cu undrained cohesion.

(ii) The safe bearing capacity = q n s = q nu j F
Where F= factor of safety. Min. = 2.5
(iii) The net increase in pr q 11 = Q j A - YDf

The factor of safety against bearing capacity failure
F = q nu ! q n
Where Q = Superimposed load
Df = Depth of footing

The settlement of a mat foundation can be reduced by decreasing the net increase in pr . ie. is
increasing D f.
For no increase of net pr
yDf= Q IA
Df =QI Ay
>- A foundation that satisfies the above eqn is known as floating foundation or fully
compensated foundation.
>- For such a foundation the settlement is zero.
>- The factor of safety against bearing capacity becomes infinite.
TYPES OF RAFT (MAT) FOUNDATION:

1. Flat slab type
2. Fiat slab thickened under columns
3. Two - way beam and slab type
4. Flat slab with pedestals
5. Cellular type
6. Basement walls as rigid frames
7. Rafts 011 piles.
1. FLAT SLAB TYPE:

>- A mat of uniform tks. is provided.
>- This type is suitable when the column loads are light and the spacing of columns is small
and uniform.
2. FLAT SLAB THICKENED UNDER COLUMNS.
>- This type is suitable When the column loads are heavy.
>- A portion of slab under the column is thickened to provide enough thickness for negative
moment and diagonal shear.
3. BEAM AND SLAB CONSTRUCTION:
>- In this type, the beam run in two perpendicular directions and a slab is provided b/w the
beams.
>- This is suitable when the bending stresses are high because of large column spacing and
unequal column loads.

4. BOX STRUCTURES:
» In this type of mat foundation, a box structure is provided in which the basement walls
act as stiffeners for the mat.
» Boxes may be made of cellular construction or rigid frames consisting of slabs and
basement walls.
» This type of mat foundation can resist very high bending stresses.
5. MATS PLACED ON PILES:
» The mat is supported on piles.
» This type is used where the soil is highly compressible and the water table is high
» This type of construction reduces the settlement and also controls buoyancy.
l'1ETHODS OF DESIGN OF MAT FOUNDATION:
1. Rigid Beam method
2. Simplified Elastic Method
3. Elastic Method (or) Soil line method
4. Non -linear Elastic Method.
l.RIGID BEAM METHOD (COJ-'lVENTIONAL METHOD)

» In this method of design, the slab is considered to be infinitely rigid as compared with the
soil.
» The flexural deflections of the mat in this case do not influence the contact pr distribution
acting on the mat.
» The centroid of the soil pr coincides with the line of action of the resultant of all the loads
acting on the mat.
2. SIMPLIFIED ELASTIC METHOD: (WINKJLER'S MODEL)
» This method is based on the assumption that the soil behaves like an infinite number of
individual independent elastic springs.
» The springs are assumed to take tension as well as compression.
» The method takes into account the elasticity of the footing.
» But as the soil does not behave exactly according to the assumption made, the method is
an approximate one and is a simplification of the actual soil behaviour.
» The elastic constant of the spring is related to the coefficient of subgrade reaction.

3. ELASTIC METHOD:
>- In this method of design, the soil is considered as a homogeneous, lincrly elastic.
>- The method uses the solution provided by the theory of elasticity.
>- As actual soils do not behave as linerly elastic soilds, this method also gives approximate
solutions.
>- The method is complicated and rarely used.
4. NON - LINEAR ELASTIC METHOD:
>- The soil is considered to be a non - linerly elastic solid.
>- The method represents the behaviour of actual soil more closely than the elastic method
and is more accurate.
>- Numerical techniques, such as finite element method, are required for the design.
>- The method has not developed to a stage that this can he used in a design office.
CONVENTIONAL METHOD OF DESIGN OF RAFT FOUNDATION:

PROCEDURE:
lDetermine the line of action of all loads acting on the raft The self wt. of the raft is not
considered, as it is taken directly by the soil.
2. Determine the pressure distribution:
(a) If the resultant passes through the centre of the raft, the pr is given by q = Q/ A
(b) If the resultant has an eccentricity of ex & ey in x & y directions.
q = Q ± (Q. ex) x ± (Q. ey) y
A Iyy Ixx
The max. contact pro should be less than the allowable pro
3. Divide the slab into strips (bands) in x and y directions. Each strip is assumed to act as
independent beam subjected to the contact pr and the column loads.
4. Draw the S.F.D and RM.D for each strip.
5. Determine the modified column loads as follows.
Let us consider the strip carrying column loads Q I, Q2 and Q3.
Let B I - the width ofthe strip
B -length ofthe strip
q av - average soil pr
Q av - average load on the strip

Q av = 1/2 (Down load + upward load)
l
= 1 (Q l+ Q2+ Q3+ q av . B 1. B)
The modified soil pr. . : = q av r~av.

Q av
B1. B
The column load modification factor (F)
F = Q av / (Q 1+ Q 2+ Q 3)
All the column loads are multiplied by F for the strip.
6. The B.M.D and S.F.D are drawn for the modified column loads and the modified average soil
pr.
7. Design the individual strip for the B.M and S.P found in step 6. The raft is designed as an
inverted floor supported at columns.
Proportioning of Isolated Footing:
(i) Calculate the total weight of column loads by assuming self weight of the footing as 10 %
of column load.
(ii) Find the area of the footing A=W+W'
qs
Where W' = Self wt. of the column footing
W = Load applied
qs = Safe bearing capacity of the soil
c
B
.. ..
~
L ~
,1
I
(iii) Calculate the size of the footing
(a) For square footing, side =...j A

(b) For circular footing, diameter =...j A In 14
(iv) Calculate the net upward pressure

Po = W / Actual area

(vi) The design bearing capacity (qd) of all the footing, except the governmg footing IS
determined.
qd = Service load for governing footing
Ag
(vii) The area of other footing is determined as
A = Service load for that footing
qd
I. Design of Strip Footing:
(a) Plain Cement Concrete Footing: ( footing on good soil & load is less)
(i) The footing is designed so that contact pr on the soil does not exceed the allowable soil
pro
The width (B) of footing is determined
B=Q/qna
Where
Q = Load per ill run, (externallaod + Selfwt of footing)
qna = allowable soil pr
(ii) If actual width is different from the theoretical width, the actual pr is
q a = Q / actual width
The thickness at the edge of the footing = 15 em
On cohesive soil, the min tks = 30 em (to resist swelling pr)
(b) Reinforced Concrete Footing: (Footing carrying heavy loads on weak soil)
(i) The width (B) of footing is determined
B=Q/qna
(ii) For monolithic walls, the max. Bending moment
M = q 0 (B - b)2 / 8
B = Width of footing
b = Width of wall
q0 = actual soil pro
(iii) For checking diagonal shear
F = q 0 (B -b) / 2 - d
II. Design of Spread Footing: (distribute column loads, bearing pr is less than or equal to
allowable soil pr)

(i) Area of footing C~ A c= Q/ qna

Q ,= Column load, kN
q n a = allowable soil pr.
(ii) If actual area is more, then the actual pr is
q 0 = Q/ Actual area.
(a) Plain Concrete Footing: The procedure is same as strip footing.
(a) Reinforced Concrete Footing:
(i) The max. RM = q 0 B (B - b) 2 / 8
(ii) The diagonal shear = F= q o~ (B -b) / 2 d J
(iii) Over all depth based on Punching Shear
d0 = q0 ~2 - (b +d)2 )
4 (b+d) c SP
Where q o = actual pr
B = width of footing
b == width of square column
(J Sp = Safe punching shear
(iv) M". forcefor bond ~ Fb ~q ~ (B - b) 12 J

DESIGN OF ECCENTRICALLY LOADED SPREAD FOOTING:
>- A column is said to be eccentric when it is subjected to a load not at centre or when it is
subjected to a bending moment in addition to the centric load.
>- If the CG of the footing is made to coincide with the C.G of the loaded column, the pr
distribution is trapezoidal, with the max. pr on one side and the min pr on the other side.
>- However if the CG of the footing is placed eccentric with the CG of the column, pr.
distribution is uniform
The eccentricity (e) of the footing = e = M/Q
Where M-RM
Q - Axial load
Area of the footing = A = Q / q na

> The minimum average value of N for the holes should be used in Eq. 25.33. If N is less than
5, sand should be compacted by artificial means to raise N above 10, or else piles or piers should
be used.
> N should be corrected for fine sand below water table.
I.S. CODE OF PRACTICE FOR DESIGN OF RAFT FOUNDAnONS

> IS: 2950-1965 gives the code of practice for design and construction of ran foundations.
The maximum differential settlement should not exceed 40 mm in foundation on clayey soils and
25 mm in foundations on sandy soils. The maximum settlement should generally be limited to
the following values:
.:. Raft foundation on clay 65 to 100 mm .

•:. Raft foundation on sand 40 to 65 mm.
> The behavior of a raft foundation being complicated, a number of simplifying assumptions
have to be made in the design.
>- There are two approaches for design--eonventional method and the elastic method or the
soil line method
Elastic Method (Soil line method)

> A number of methods have been proposed based primarily on two approaches of simplified
and truly elastic foundations .
•:. Simplified elastic foundation. The soil in this method is replaced by an infinite number of
/
isolated springs.
•:. Truly elastic foundation. The soil is assumed to be continuous elastic medium obeying
Hooke's law.
> But these methods are to be used in case the foundation is comparatively flexible and the
loads tend to concentrate over small areas.
> The method assumes in addition to other factors that the modulus of sub grade reaction,
determined from tests, is known.
> The modulus of subgrade reaction (&) as applicable to the case of load through a plate of
size 30cm x 30 em or beam 30 ern wide on soil area given in Table 25.1 for cohesionless soil and
Table 25.2 for cohesive soils.

>- The above values of & are corresponding to a square plate of size 30 em x 30 em.
>- For finding the values of K corresponding to different sizes and shapes, the following
relationships should be used
>- The effect of shape is negligible in the case of footing on cohesion less material.
>- The method utilizes the principal of superposition.
>- The column loads and bearing pressure distribution are divided into three systems of forces
such that each system balances within itself so that the sum of forces is zero and the sum of
moments of these forces about any point is zero.
>- Pint system. The first system of forces consists of
>- uniformly distributed bearing pressure w acting upwards along the entire area of the raft due
to the total load, and
>- the column support reactions acting vertically downwards obtained by treating the raft as an
inverted floor carrying the uniformly distributed load w with the reactions at the point of loading.
Second system
The second system of forces consists of the difference between the actual column loads and the
eOIUlT'.Jl support reactions worked out in the first system above.
Third system.
>- The earth pressure varies from point to point of a raft, and hence the resultant pressure at
any point is considered to be w + mw, where w is constant and m varies throughout the raft.
>- This additional varying pressure mw forms the third system of forces and therefore consists
of varying distributed load acting downwards in some parts of the raft and upwards in others.
>- The total value of this third system when added to w gives the resultant soil reaction
pressure at the point.
>- The upward and downward pressure, of which the third system is composed of should be
distributed throughout the raft in such a way as to form a balanced system.
>- The exact bearing pressure distribution may be cubic parabola, but sufficiently accurate
results will be obtained by assuming a linear variation.

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CE2305 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING L T P C3 0 0 3

UNIT I SITE INVESTIGATION AND SELECTION OF FOUNDATION 9

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CE 2305 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (SEMESTER V)

OBJECTIVES OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS

1. To select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure

PLANNING A SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION PROGRAMME

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The extentof investigatiql1WQuld also depend upon the location of the

STAGES IN SUB SURFACE EXPLORATION

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t·· 1Ii ! 1, /) t'

METHODS OF SOIL EXPLORATION

(1) Direct methods

• Pits and Trenches

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.postboleaug:et helical auger

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/ / f/./"" '~'~ "

----~'" )'V'inerjet iat

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TYPES OF SOIL SAMPLES:

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Design factors governing the degree of disturbances:

The important design features of the cutting edge are

Inside CIearance = D.; - D

Where D3= inside diameter of the sample tube.

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Where D4 is the external diameter of the sample tube.

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SPLIT SPOON SAMPLER

2. Thin wall Open tube:

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~. ALLEN ~E: T ~CAEINS

2" SlifL6Y $1E:~1­

Shelby tubing sampler

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The field tests commonly used in subsurface investigation are:

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(a) Correction for overburden pressure

dilatancy correction (when N'> 15) using the equation

where N" = final corrected value to be used in design charts.

If N' .:5.15, Nil = N'

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Correction in SCPT test

m1 = mass of each sounding roads = 1.5 Kg

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qc = 612.6+ 587.SI c Here Ic = consistency index of soil

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For clay soils,

Where, Sf= permissible settlement of the foundation in mm,

S, = settlement of the plate in mm,

The permissible settlement Sf for a prototype foundation should be known. Normally a

given permissible settlement Sf

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2" SlifL6Y $1E:~1