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Article history: Energy consumption in KSA (kingdom of Saudi Arabia) is growing rapidly due to economic development
Received 3 March 2015 with raised levels of population, urbanization and living standards. Fossil fuels are currently solely used
Received in revised form to meet the energy requirements. The KSA government have planned to double its energy generating
21 May 2015
capacity (upto 120 GW (gigawatts)) by 2032. About half of the electricity capacity of this targeted energy
Accepted 9 July 2015
will come from renewable resources such as nuclear, wind, solar, WTE (waste-to-energy) etc. Natural
Available online xxx
zeolites are found abundantly in KSA at Jabal Shamah occurrence near Jeddah city, whose characteristics
have never been investigated in energy related applications. This research aims to study the physical and
Keywords:
Natural zeolites
chemical characteristics of natural zeolite in KSA and to review its potential utilization in selected WTE
WTE (waste-to-energy) technologies and solar energy. The standard zeolite group of aluminaesilicate minerals were found with
Solar energy the presence of other elements such as Na, Mg and K etc. A highly crystalline structure and thermal
AD (anaerobic digestion) stability of natural zeolites together with unique ion exchange, adsorption properties, high surface area
Pyrolysis and porosity make them suitable in energy applications such as WTE and solar energy as an additive or
catalyst. A simple solidegas absorption system for storing solar energy in natural zeolites will be a cheap
alternative method for KSA. In AD (anaerobic digestion), the dual characteristics of natural zeolite like
Mordenite will increase the CH4 production of OFMSW (organic fraction of municipal solid waste).
Further investigations are recommended to study the technical, economical, and environmental feasi-
bility of natural zeolite utilization in WTE technologies in KSA.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.07.030
0360-5442/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Nizami AS, et al., The potential of Saudi Arabian natural zeolites in energy recovery technologies, Energy
(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.07.030
2 A.S. Nizami et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e10
Please cite this article in press as: Nizami AS, et al., The potential of Saudi Arabian natural zeolites in energy recovery technologies, Energy
(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.07.030
A.S. Nizami et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e10 3
Table 1
Application of natural zeolite in various fields [13e15].
at the distance of 100 km south to south eastern Jeddah, while Jabal percentage of the elements in the examined area of the zeolite
Shamah is located 1 km NW of Harrat tuffil. Various samples were samples and coloured elemental mapping. SEM samples were
collected from ~1.2 km2 area at the Jabal and Harrat Shama prepared by making a homogeneous suspension of zeolite powder
occurrence based on spot sampling method. Among different samples in acetone using ultrasonic bath. Few drops of this sus-
collected samples, five samples were selected (NZ-1 to NZ-5) to pension was then dropped onto the SEM sample stubs and later
represent zeolite-bearing rhyolite samples from different volcanic transferred to a zone SEM cleaner in order to remove any con-
ash flows. taminants by using UV radiation at pressure 1 Pa for 10 min. After
cleaning of samples, the sample holders were then transferred to
2.3. Analytical methods the SEM instrument where the imaging of samples, EDS, and
elemental mapping were taken and saved on the attached PC for
The selected natural zeolites samples (NZ-1, NZ-2, NZ-3, NZ-4, further analysis.
NZ-5) taken from different site locations were prepared by crush-
ing and sieving before sending to the IPSE (Institute of Particle
Science & Engineering), University of Leeds, UK for detailed 3. Results and discussion
chemical, thermal and physical analysis. The crystal structure and
purity of natural zeolite samples was studied by Bruker D8 XRD (X- 3.1. Characterization of natural zeolite
ray diffraction). The D8 was operated with Cu radiation at 30 kV
and 45 mA. Each zeolite sample was scanned from 2q angel 3.1.1. Chemical and structural analysis of natural zeolite
range of 5 e70 with step size 0.0495 at 35 s per step. FT-IR The XRD analysis was performed to determine the crystal
(Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) spectra of the zeolite structure and chemical compositions of the five natural zeolite
samples were obtained using FT-IR Perkin Elmer's, UK. A minimum samples. The XRD patterns have been indexed using the reference
of 32 scans were performed at average signal of IR with a data files from ICDD-PDF database. The XRD diffraction peaks of
resolution 4 cm1 in the ranges of 500e4000 cm1. BET (Bru- different samples matched with the different types of zeolites
nauereEmmeteTeller) surface area, pore size and volume mea- (Table 2). The XRD patterns (Fig. 1 & Table 2) do confirm that all
surements of natural zeolite samples were performed according to samples belong to zeolite group of aluminaesilicate minerals with
the multipoint nitrogen adsorption-desorption method at 77.3 K presence of other elements such as Na, Mg, Fe and K etc. However,
using Micromeritics TriStar 3000 (UK) surface analyser. The zeolite the variation in the main peak positions and intensities indicate
samples were degassed at 120 C for 24 h under a vacuum of that the overall structures, chemical compositions, and the amount
10 mmHg in order to remove any moisture and gases from the of impurities of all samples are slightly different. An attempt was
samples prior to analysis. The BET (BrunauereEmmeteTeller) made to analyse the percentage composition of different com-
method was used to calculate the average surface area. The thermal pounds that match with the XRD peaks of NZ-1 sample using
stability of natural zeolites was analysed by TGA (thermal gravi- Highscore Plus software. However, there were some peak over-
metric analysis) (Mettler Toledo, UK) equipped with an intercooler lapping and more than one possible matching combinations of
system in order to help cooling of the system. 10 ± 5 mg of sample different peaks and thus it is more of a qualitative than quantititive
was weighted in a 100 ml aluminium oxide crucible and placed in anaylsis. A detailed and accurate quantification of chemical com-
TGA sample chamber. The experiment was initiated by heating up positions and identification and characterisation of natural zeolite
the sample from 50 to 920 C at 10 C/min under nitrogen purge gas structures can be achieved by Rietveld Refinment of XRD data. It is
at 50 ml/min (constant flow rate). Mettler STARe software was used also observed that the nature of the peaks and minimum back-
for programming the system and data processing. The particle size, ground of XRD patterns indicate that these natural zeolites are of
morphology and elemental composition of natural zeolite samples high crystalline nature with little amorphous contents (Fig. 1). This
was studied by Hitachi SEM (scanning electron microscopy). The high crystallinity feature plays an important role in the zeolite
EDS (energy dispersive spectrometer) was used to determine the applications as a catalyst in WTE technologies [13e15].
Please cite this article in press as: Nizami AS, et al., The potential of Saudi Arabian natural zeolites in energy recovery technologies, Energy
(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.07.030
4 A.S. Nizami et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e10
Table 2
XRD diffrcation results showing the various species of natural zeolites.
Counts
NZ-1
500000
0
NZ-2
800000
400000
0
NZ-3
600000
400000
200000
0
NZ-4
800000
400000
0
800000 NZ-5
600000
400000
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
PosiƟon [°2Theta] (Copper (Cu))
Counts
Z1F
Cristobalite, low, syn 5.8 %
Anorthoclase, disordered 65.2 %
Sillimanite 19.9 %
600000 Aluminum Oxide 9.2 %
400000
200000
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
PosiƟon [°2Theta] (Copper (Cu))
Accepted PaƩerns
Fig. 1. XRD patterns of the natural zeolites samples NZ-1, NZ-2, NZ-3, NZ-4 and NZ-5 (top) and peak matching and percentage composition mixture using Highscore Plus Software
(bottom).
Please cite this article in press as: Nizami AS, et al., The potential of Saudi Arabian natural zeolites in energy recovery technologies, Energy
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Please cite this article in press as: Nizami AS, et al., The potential of Saudi Arabian natural zeolites in energy recovery technologies, Energy
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Box 1
Future work.
Overall the surface area, pore size and volumes of natural zeolite
found in KSA are comparable to other reported natural and syn-
thetic zeolites in different parts of the world. For example, ODA-
hydrophobized Slovakian clinoptilolite-rich tuff, Silanized Slova-
kian clinoptilolite-rich tuff and Fe-alginate-clinoptilolite rich tuff
pellet (1:2) were reported to have BET surface areas of 10.8, 0.48
and 21.2 m2/g respectively. Similarly, synthetic clinoptilolite (Uni-
versity of Wolverhampton, GB) and Carbonized Slovakian
clinoptilolite-rich tuff were reported to have pore size and volume
of 14 and 8.39 Å and 0.015 and 0.0026 cm3/g respectively [13].
The surface area and porosity of natural zeolites can be further
enhanced by nano-milling of raw materials to achieve homoge-
neous particle morphology and sizes in a range of sub-micron to
nano-meter (Box 1). Moreover, acid treatment can significantly
increase the surface area of natural zeolites as reported in many
studies [28e30]. This enhanced surface area and porosity of natural
zeolites can improve its functioning in most of the WTE applica-
tions, hence optimizing the overall processes.
Please cite this article in press as: Nizami AS, et al., The potential of Saudi Arabian natural zeolites in energy recovery technologies, Energy
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A.S. Nizami et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e10 7
Fig. 5. EDXS of natural zeolites samples showing elemental compositions and quantities (wt%) of each sample.
based wastes [36]. In pyrolysis, catalytic reforming is used to In pyrolysis, natural zeolite affects the quantity and quality of
improve and enhance the liquid fuel using different catalysts [37]. produced liquid fuel. Use of catalyst decreases the liquid pro-
The homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts such as natural duction of fuel and increase the gas production [39]. However
and synthetic zeolite, silica alumina, and fluid catalytic cracking liquid yield from natural zeolite is high in comparison to syn-
catalysts have been used for studying the catalytic cracking of thetic Y-Zeolite due to low BET surface area. The produced liquid
waste plastics [38]. fuel using natural zeolite has same density as using synthetic
catalyst and even without any catalyst. However viscosity of
produced liquid fuel using natural zeolite is higher than using
Table 3 synthetic catalyst such as Y-zeolite. In a study by Syamsiro et al.
Si/Al ratios for the different natural zeolite samples. [40], the natural zeolite as a catalyst decreases the production of
Samples NZ-1 NZ-2 NZ-3 NZ-4 NZ-5
heavy oil fraction (>C20) and increases the light oil fraction
(C5eC12) by cracking long hydrocarbon chains into smaller
Si/Al 4.6 9.2 6.3 1.8 3.1
chains. In another study by Sriningsih et al. [41], natural zeolite
Please cite this article in press as: Nizami AS, et al., The potential of Saudi Arabian natural zeolites in energy recovery technologies, Energy
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8 A.S. Nizami et al. / Energy xxx (2015) 1e10
Fig. 6. SEM elemental mapping for a typical natural zeolite sample showing the location and quantities of individual elements (NZ-1).
was pretreated by activating with HCl (hydrochloric acid). Acid 3.2.3. Use of natural zeolites in transesterification
leaching increased the pore size and acidity of natural zeolite, Zeolite can also be used as a catalyst in transesterification
thus increased its catalyst efficiency. Natural zeolite composite process for converting animal fats or used/waste oil into biodiesel.
was formed through wet impregnation with Ni, NieMo, Co and In a study by Endalew et al. [46], a zeolite-based catalyst was
CoeMo. The results showed that composite of CoeMo with NZ prepared by pelletization method using zeolite powder, kaolinite
(CoeMo/Z) produces more liquid yield with high concentration of and PVA (poly vinyl alcohol). The catalyst was used to enhance the
gasoline at low temperature (350 C) as compared to other conversion of FFA (free fatty acid) from used-oil into FAME (fatty
catalyst. While characteristics of produced liquid fuel showed the acid methyl ester) known as biodiesel. Filtration, centrifugation
hydrocarbon compounds such as paraffins, olefins and naph- and mixing with n-hexane were performed to remove zeolites
thenes from C6eC19.
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impurities. The transesterification process was carried out in ▪ In transesterification, the surface modification in natural zeo-
round-bottom flask equipped with a reflux condenser, tempera- lites by increasing its mesopores can enhance catalytic
ture controller and mechanical stirrer. The result showed 46% performance.
conversion of FFA into FAME at temperature of 70 C, 5.1 molar
ratio of methanol/used-oil and 6 h reaction time. Temperature Acknowledgement
more than 70 C leads to methanol vaporization, which negatively
affected the process. Moreover, the reaction time exceeding than We are very grateful to the Ministry of Higher Education,
6 h resulted in the accumulation of impurities on the active site of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) for providing funds to complete this
catalyst [47]. The use of natural zeolite as a catalyst in the trans- work.
esterification is limited due to narrow pore size of zeolite. More-
over, it limits the diffusion of triglyceride adsorption. As FFA has
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