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Heian period
The Heian period ( 平安時代 Heian jidai) is the last division of classical
Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185.[1] The period is named after
the capital city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese
history when Buddhism, Taoism and other Chinese influences were at their
height. The Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese
imperial court and noted for its art, especially poetry and literature.
Although the Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the real
power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan, a powerful aristocratic family Miniature model of Heian-kyō
who had intermarried with the imperial family. Many emperors actually
had mothers from the Fujiwara family.[2] Heian ( 平安 ) means "peace" in
Japanese.

Contents
History
Fujiwara regency
Rise of the military class
Heian culture
Developments in Buddhism
Literature
Beauty
Economics
Events
Modern depictions
Literature
Games
References
Bibliography
External links

History
The Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in 794 CE after the movement of the capital of Japan to
Heian-kyō (present-day Kyōto), by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu [3] Kanmu first tried to move the capital to
Nagaoka-kyō, but a series of disasters befell the city, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital a second time, to
Heian. A rebellion occurred in China in the last years of the 9th century, making the political situation unstable. The
Japanese missions to Tang China were suspended and the influx of Chinese exports halted, a fact which facilitated the
independent growth of Japanese culture called kokufu bunka. Therefore, the Heian Period is considered a high point in
Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is also noted for the rise of the samurai class,
which would eventually take power and start the feudal period of Japan.

Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact, power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect
their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara, and other noble families required guards, police and soldiers. The warrior
class made steady political gains throughout the Heian period.[4] As early as 939 CE, Taira no Masakado threatened
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the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi, and almost
simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west. Still, a true military takeover of the Japanese government
was centuries away, when much of the strength of the government would lie within the private armies of the
shogunate.

The entry of the warrior class into court influence was a result of the Hōgen Rebellion. At this time Taira no Kiyomori
revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency. Their clan, the Taira,
would not be overthrown until after the Genpei War, which marked the start of the Kamakura shogunate. The
Kamakura period began in 1185 when Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the emperors and established the
shogunate in Kamakura.[5]

Fujiwara regency
When Emperor Kanmu moved the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyōto), which
remained the imperial capital for the next 1,000 years, he did so not only to
strengthen imperial authority but also to improve his seat of government
geopolitically. Nara was abandoned after only 70 years in part due to the
ascendancy of Dōkyō and the encroaching secular power of the Buddhist
institutions there.[6] Kyōto had good river access to the sea and could be
reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period
(784–967) continued Nara culture; the Heian capital was patterned on the
Byōdō-in Phoenix Hall, built in the
Chinese Tang capital at Chang'an,[7] as was Nara, but on a larger scale than 11th century during the Heian period
Nara. Kanmu endeavored to improve the Tang-style administrative system of Japan
which was in use.[8] Known as the ritsuryō, this system attempted to
recreate the Tang imperium in Japan, despite the "tremendous differences
in the levels of development between the two countries".[9] Despite the decline of the Taika–Taihō reforms, imperial
government was vigorous during the early Heian period. Kanmu's avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity
of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japan's most forceful emperors.

Although Kanmu had abandoned universal conscription in 792, he still waged major military offensives to subjugate
the Emishi, possible descendants of the displaced Jōmon, living in northern and eastern Japan. After making
temporary gains in 794, in 797, Kanmu appointed a new commander, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, under the title Sei-i
Taishōgun ("Barbarian-subduing generalissimo"). By 801, the shōgun had defeated the Emishi and had extended the
imperial domains to the eastern end of Honshū. Imperial control over the provinces was tenuous at best, however. In
the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land
and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto. Stability came to Japan, but, even though succession was
ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the
Fujiwara which also helped Japan develop more.

Following Kanmu's death in 806 and a succession struggle among his sons,
two new offices were established in an effort to adjust the Taika–Taihō
administrative structure. Through the new Emperor's Private Office, the
emperor could issue administrative edicts more directly and with more self-
assurance than before. The new Metropolitan Police Board replaced the
largely ceremonial imperial guard units. While these two offices
A handscroll painting dated circa
strengthened the emperor's position temporarily, soon they and other
1130, illustrating a scene from the
Chinese-style structures were bypassed in the developing state. In 838 the "Bamboo River" chapter of the Tale
end of the imperial-sanctioned missions to Tang China, which had begun in of Genji
630, marked the effective end of Chinese influence.[10] Tang China was in a
state of decline, and Chinese Buddhists were severely persecuted,
undermining Japanese respect for Chinese institutions. Japan began to turn inward.
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As the Soga clan had taken control of the throne in the sixth century, the Fujiwara by the ninth century had
intermarried with the imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office.
Another Fujiwara became regent, Sesshō for his grandson, then a minor emperor and yet another was appointed
Kampaku. Toward the end of the 9th century, several emperors tried but failed, to check the Fujiwara. For a time,
however, during the reign of Emperor Daigo (897–930), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly.

Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control
of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations,
acquired ever larger shōen and greater wealth during the early tenth century. By the early Heian period, the shōen had
obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and
immunity from government inspection of the shōen they held. Those people who worked the land found it
advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly
beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform.

Within decades of Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the
court. By the year 1000, Fujiwara no Michinaga was able to enthrone and
dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional
institutions, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara
clan's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian
George B. Sansom has called "hereditary dictators".

Despite their usurpation of imperial authority, the Fujiwara presided over a

period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the
aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular
literature. Two types of phonetic Japanese script: katakana, a simplified
script that was developed by using parts of Chinese characters, was
abbreviated to hiragana, a cursive syllabary with a distinct writing method
that was uniquely Japanese. Hiragana gave written expression to the
spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular
literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in
Drawing of Fujiwara no Michinaga,
Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late-tenth-century and early-
by Kikuchi Yōsai
11th-century women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian
court in Kagerō Nikki by "the mother of Fujiwara Michitsuna", The Pillow
Book by Sei Shōnagon and The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu.
Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of
imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored yamato-e, Japanese style paintings
of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the
mid-to-late Heian period, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day.

As culture flourished, so did decentralization. Whereas the first phase of

shōen development in the early Heian period had seen the opening of new
lands and the granting of the use of lands to aristocrats and religious
institutions, the second phase saw the growth of patrimonial "house
governments", as in the old clan system. In fact, the form of the old clan
system had remained largely intact within the great old centralized
government. New institutions were now needed in the face of social, HEIKE Lotus Sutra Prologue
economic, and political changes. The Taihō Code lapsed, its institutions
relegated to ceremonial functions. Family administrations now became
public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of
state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among

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other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family. Land management became the primary occupation of the
aristocracy, not so much because direct control by the imperial family or central government had declined but more
from strong family solidarity and a lack of a sense of Japan as a single nation.

Rise of the military class

Under the early courts, when military conscription had been centrally controlled, military affairs had been taken out of
the hands of the provincial aristocracy. But as the system broke down after 792, local power holders again became the
primary source of military strength. The re-establishment of an efficient military system was made gradually through a
process of trial-and-error. At that time the imperial court did not possess an army but rather relied on an organization
of professional warriors composed mainly of oryoshi, which were appointed to an individual province and tsuibushi,
which were appointed over imperial circuits or for specific tasks. This gave rise to the Japanese military class.
Nonetheless, final authority rested with the imperial court.[11]

Shōen holders had access to manpower and, as they obtained improved military technology (such as new training
methods, more powerful bows, armor, horses, and superior swords) and faced worsening local conditions in the ninth
century, military service became part of shōen life. Not only the shōen but also civil and religious institutions formed
private guard units to protect themselves. Gradually, the provincial upper class was transformed into a new military
elite of samurai.

Bushi interests were diverse, cutting across old power structures to form new associations in the tenth century. Mutual
interests, family connections, and kinship were consolidated in military groups that became part of family
administration. In time, large regional military families formed around members of the court aristocracy who had
become prominent provincial figures. These military families gained prestige from connections to the imperial court
and court-granted military titles and access to manpower. The Fujiwara family, Taira clan, and Minamoto clan were
among the most prominent families supported by the new military class.

A decline in food production, the growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all
led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh
centuries. Members of the Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto families—all of whom had descended from the imperial
family—attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally
upset the peace.

The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjō (1068–1073), the first emperor not born of a
Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Go-Sanjo, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal
rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate estate
records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many shōen were not properly certified, and large landholders, like
the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Go-Sanjo also established the In-no-chō ( 院庁 "Office of the
Cloistered Emperor"), which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-
scenes governance, or insei.

The In-no-chō filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were
mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision
making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto clan. While the
Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the
paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of
supremacy of the In-no-chō and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil
authority dominated the government.

A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power.
Fujiwara no Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1156 against the heir apparent, who was
supported by the Taira and Minamoto (Hōgen Rebellion). In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of
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government supplanted, and the insei system left powerless as bushi took
control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. In
1159, the Taira and Minamoto clashed (Heiji Rebellion), and a twenty-year
period of Taira ascendancy began.

Taira no Kiyomori emerged as the real power in Japan following the Painting of the Battle of Dan-no-ura
Fujiwara's destruction, and he would remain in command for the next 20 on 25 April 1185, Genpei War

years. He gave his daughter Tokuko in marriage to the young emperor

Takakura, who died at only 19, leaving their infant son Antoku to succeed to
the throne. Kiyomori filled no less than 50 government posts with his relatives, rebuilt the Inland Sea, and encouraged
trade with Song China. He also took aggressive actions to safeguard his power when necessary, including the removal
and exile of 45 court officials and the razing of two troublesome temples, Todai-ji and Kofuku-ji.

The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces, where the Minamoto clan were rebuilding
their strength. In 1183, two years after Kiyomori's death, Yoritomo Minamoto dispatched his brothers Yoshitsune and
Noriyori to attack Kyoto. The Taira were routed and forced to flee, and the Empress Dowager tried to drown herself
and the 7-year old Emperor (he perished, but his mother survived). Takakura's other son succeeded as Emperor Go-
Toba.

With Yoritomo firmly established, the bakufu system that governed Japan for the next seven centuries was in place. He
appointed military governors, or daimyōs, to rule over the provinces, and stewards, or jito to supervise public and
private estates. Yoritomo then turned his attention to the elimination of the powerful Fujiwara family, which sheltered
his rebellious brother Yoshitsune. Three years later, he was appointed shōgun in Kyoto. One year before his death in
1199, Yoritomo expelled the teenaged emperor Go-Toba from the throne. Two of Go-Toba's sons succeeded him, but
they would also be removed by Yoritomo's successors to the shogunate.

Heian culture

Developments in Buddhism
Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan during the Heian period,
primarily through two major esoteric sects, Tendai and Shingon. Tendai
originated in China and is based on the Lotus Sutra, one of the most
important sutras of Mahayana Buddhism; Saichō was key to its
transmission to Japan. Shingon is the Japanese transmission of the Chinese
Chen Yen school. Shingon, brought to Japan by the monk Kūkai,
emphasizes Vajrayana. Both Kūkai and Saichō aimed to connect state and
religion and establish support from the aristocracy,[12] leading to the notion
Danjogaran of Mount Kōya. The
of "aristocratic Buddhism".[13] An important element of Tendai doctrine place is a center of the sacred
was the suggestion that enlightenment was accessible to "every ground of Shingon.
creature".[14] Saichō also sought independent ordination for Tendai
monks.[15] A close relationship developed between the Tendai monastery
complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai
emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation. Kanmu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly
Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries. Kūkai greatly impressed the emperors who
succeeded Kanmu, and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy,
painting, and sculpture. Shingon, through its use of "rich symbols, rituals and mandalas"[16] held a wide-ranging
appeal.

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Literature
Although written Chinese (Kanbun) remained the official language of the
Heian period imperial court, the introduction and widespread use of kana
saw a boom in Japanese literature. Despite the establishment of several
new literary genres such as the novel and narrative monogatari (物語) and
essays, literacy were only common among the court and Buddhist clergy.

Poetry, in particular, was a staple of court life. Nobles and ladies-in-waiting

were expected to be well versed in the art of writing poetry as a mark of
their status. Every occasion could call for the writing of a verse, from the
birth of a child to the coronation of an emperor, or even a pretty scene of
nature. A well-written poem could easily make or break one's reputation,
and often was a key part of social interaction.[17] Almost as important was
the choice of calligraphy, or handwriting, used. The Japanese of this period
believed handwriting could reflect the condition of a person's soul:
therefore, poor or hasty writing could be considered a sign of poor
breeding. Whether the script was Chinese or Japanese, good writing and
artistic skill were paramount to social reputation when it came to poetry.
Sei Shōnagon mentions in her Pillow Book that when a certain courtier Bodhisattva Fugen Enmei, 12th-
tried to ask her advice about how to write a poem to the Empress Sadako, century painting on silk, late Heian
she had to politely rebuke him because his writing was so poor.[18] period

The lyrics of the modern Japanese national anthem, Kimigayo, were

written in the Heian period, as was The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu,
one of the first novels ever written. Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and
rival Sei Shōnagon's revealing observations and musings as an attendant in
the Empress' court were recorded collectively as The Pillow Book in the
990s, which revealed the quotidian capital lifestyle.[19] The Heian period
produced a flowering of poetry including works of Ariwara no Narihira,
Ono no Komachi, Izumi Shikibu, Murasaki Shikibu, Saigyō and Fujiwara no
Teika. The famous Japanese poem known as the Iroha ( い ろ は ), of
uncertain authorship, was also written during the Heian period.

Beauty
During the Heian period, beauty was widely considered an important part
of what made one a "good" person. In cosmetic terms, aristocratic men and
women powdered their faces and blackened their teeth, the latter termed
ohaguro. The male courtly ideal included a faint mustache and thin goatee,
while women's mouths were painted small and red, and their eyebrows
were plucked or shaved and redrawn higher on the forehead (hikimayu). Standing Komoku Ten (Virupakusa)

Women cultivated shiny, black flowing hair and a courtly woman's formal
dress included a complex "twelve-layered robe" called jūnihitoe, though the actual number of layers varied. Costumes
were determined by office and season, with a woman's robes, in particular, following a system of color combinations
representing flowers, plants, and animals specific to a season or month, (see the Japanese Wikipedia entries irome and
kasane-no-irome).[20]

Economics
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While on one hand, the Heian period was an unusually long period of peace, it can also be argued that the period
weakened Japan economically and led to poverty for all but a tiny few of its inhabitants. The control of rice fields
provided a key source of income for families such as the Fujiwara and was a fundamental base for their power.[21] The
aristocratic beneficiaries of Heian culture, the Ryōmin (良民 "Good People") numbered about five thousand in a land
of perhaps five million. One reason the samurai were able to take power was that the ruling nobility proved
incompetent at managing Japan and its provinces. By the year 1000, the government no longer knew how to issue
currency and money was gradually disappearing. Instead of a fully realized system of money circulation, rice was the
primary unit of exchange.[21] The lack of a solid medium of economic exchange is implicitly illustrated in novels of the
time. For instance, messengers were rewarded with useful objects, e.g., an old silk kimono, rather than paid a fee.

The Fujiwara rulers failed to maintain adequate police forces, which left robbers free to prey on travelers. This is
implicitly illustrated in novels by the terror that night travel inspired in the main characters. The shōen system enabled
the accumulation of wealth by an aristocratic elite; the economic surplus can be linked to the cultural developments of
the Heian period and the "pursuit of arts".[22] The major Buddhist temples in Heian-kyō and Nara also made use of the
shōen.[23] The establishment of branches rurally and integration of some Shinto shrines within these temple networks
reflects a greater "organizational dynamism".[23]

Events
784: Emperor Kanmu moves the capital to Nagaoka-kyō (Kyōto)
794: Emperor Kanmu moves the capital to Heian-kyō (Kyōto)
804: The Buddhist monk Saichō (Dengyo Daishi) introduces the Tendai school
806: The monk Kūkai (Kōbō-Daishi) introduces the Shingon (Tantric) school
819: Kūkai founds the monastery of Mount Kōya, in the northeast portion of modern-day Wakayama Prefecture
858: Emperor Seiwa begins the rule of the Fujiwara clan[24]
895: Sugawara no Michizane halted the imperial embassies to China
990: Sei Shōnagon writes the Pillow Book essays
1000–1008: Murasaki Shikibu writes The Tale of Genji novel
1050: Rise of the military class (samurai)
1052: The Byōdō-in temple (near Kyōto) is built by Fujiwara no Yorimichi[25]
1068: Emperor Go-Sanjō overthrows the Fujiwara clan
1087: Emperor Shirakawa abdicates and becomes a Buddhist monk, the first of the "cloistered emperors" (insei)
1156: Taira no Kiyomori defeats the Minamoto clan and seizes power, thereby ending the "insei" era[26]
1180 (June): The capital is moved to Fukuhara-kyō (Kobe)
1180 (November): The capital is moved back to Heian-kyō (Kyōto)
1185: Taira is defeated (Genpei War) and Minamoto no Yoritomo with the support (backing) of the Hōjō clan seizes
power, becoming the first shōgun of Japan, while the emperor (or "mikado") becomes a figurehead

Modern depictions
The iconography of the Heian period is widely known in Japan, and depicted in various media, from traditional
festivals to anime. In the manga and TV series Hikaru no Go, the protagonist Hikaru Shindo is visited by a ghost of a go
genius from the Heian period and its leading clan, Fujiwara no Sai.

Various festivals feature Heian dress – most notably Hinamatsuri (doll festival), where the dolls wear Heian dress, but
also numerous other festivals, such as Aoi Matsuri in Kyoto (May) and Saiō Matsuri in Meiwa, Mie (June), both of
which feature the jūnihitoe 12-layer dress. Traditional horseback archery (yabusame) festivals, which date from the
beginning of the Kamakura period (immediately following the Heian period) feature similar dress.

Literature

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The two-volume historical novel saga White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Fox Sorceress (2009),[27] and White as Bone,
Red as Blood: The Storm God (2011)[28] depict in detail the pivotal years 1160–1185 in Japan, as seen through the eyes
of protagonist Seiko Fujiwara. Both books were written by Cerridwen Fallingstar.

Games
The game Total War: Shogun 2 has the Rise of the Samurai expansion pack as a downloadable campaign. It allows the
player to make their own version of the Genpei War which happened during the Heian period. The player is able to
choose one of the most powerful families of Japan at the time, the Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara; each family fielding
two branches for a total of six playable clans. The expansion pack features a different set of land units, ships, and
buildings and is also playable in the multiplayer modes.

Cosmology of Kyoto is a Japanese video game set in 10th – 11th-century Japan. It is a point-and-click adventure game
depicting Heian-kyō, including the religious beliefs, folklore, and ghost tales of the time. It was praised by film critic
Roger Ebert.

References
1. "Heian period" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/259482/Heian-period). Encyclopædia Britannica.
Retrieved 2007-04-24.
2. F. W. Seal, Heian Period Court and Clan (http://www.samurai-archives.com/HeianPeriod.html)
3. Shively and McCullough 1999.
4. F. W. Seal, Heian Period Court and Clan (http://www.samurai-archives.com/HeianPeriod.html)
5. Captivating History (8 March 2019). Ancient Japan. US: Captivating History. ISBN 978-1799090069.
6. Hurst 2007 p. 32
7. Takei, Jiro; Keane, Marc P. SAKUTEIKI (https://books.google.com/books?id=7Eunlt5YbXcC). Boston: Tuttle
Publishing. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-8048-3294-6.
8. Hurst 2007 p. 34
9. Hurst 2007 p. 35
10. Meyer, Milton W., Japan: A Concise History, page 44.
11. Karl Friday, "Teeth and Claws, Provincial Warriors and the Heian Court" Monumenta Nipponica (Summer 1988):
155–170.
12. Kitagawa 1966 p. 59
13. Weinstein 1999
14. Kitagawa 1966 p. 60
15. Kitagawa p. 61.
16. Kitagawa 1966 p. 65.
17. The World of the Shining Prince, Ivan Morris, 180, 182
18. Ibid, 183–184
19. Morris (1964) p. xiv.
20. Toby., Slade, (2009). Japanese fashion : a cultural history (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/719377495) (English
ed.). Oxford: Berg. p. 31. ISBN 9780857851451. OCLC 719377495 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/719377495).
21. Morris 1964 p.73.
22. Morris 1964 p.79.
23. Collins 1997 p.851.
24. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1962). Sovereign and Subject, pp. 203–204; also known as Fujiwara jidai
25. Britannica Kokusai Dai-Hyakkajiten article "Fujiwara no Yorimichi".
26. Ponsonby-Fane, p. 204.
27. Fallingstar, Cerridwen. White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Fox Sorceress (https://www.amazon.com/dp/05780271
19). Cauldron Publications, 2009.
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28. Fallingstar, Cerridwen. White as Bone, Red as Blood: The Storm God (https://www.amazon.com/dp/0578073552).
Cauldron Publications, 2011.

Bibliography
Collins, R., "An Asian Route to Capitalism: Religious Economy and the Origins of Self-Transforming Growth in
Japan", in American Sociological Review, Vol. 62, No. 6 (1997)
Hurst III, G. C, "The Heian Period" in W. M. Tsutsui, (ed.), A Companion to Japanese History (Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing, 2007)
Kitagawa, J., Religion in Japanese History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966)
Morris, I., The World of the Shining Prince; Court Life in Ancient Japan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964)
Shively, D. H. and McCullough W. H., "Introduction" in D. H. Shively and W. H. McCullough, (eds.),The Cambridge
History of Modern Japan; Volume 2, Heian Japan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
Weinstein, S., "Aristocratic Buddhism" in D. H. Shively and W. H. McCullough, (eds.),The Cambridge History of
Modern Japan; Volume 2, Heian Japan, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)

External links
Heian art at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art (http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/hd/heia/hd_heia.htm)
Heian art and calligraphy at the Tokyo National Museum (http://www.tnm.jp/modules/r_collection/index.php?control
ler=list&t=search&search%5Bperiod%5D=112070&search%5Bdesignation%5D=&x=25&y=11)
Heian art at the British Museum (https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194728/http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.u
k/explore/highlights/article_index/j/japan_heian_period_ad_794-11.aspx)

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