INDO-ANGLIAN FICTION

AFTER INDEPENDENCE
-A STUDY

eA cJhedid

s u b m it t e d t o t h e
G U J A R A T U N I V E R S IT Y
fo r th e a w a rd o f th e d e g r e i o f

^Doctor o j <SP&i(o60J)$llJ
in

cArtd lisilj

B, J. P A N D Y A

T1171

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

D R . R- A. M A L A G l
Professor and Head
DEPARTM ENT O F E N G L IS H
G U J A R A T U N I V E R S IT Y

AHMEDABAD - 3 8 0 0 0 9
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 CERTIFICATE

This t h e s i s on " In d o - A n g lia n F i c t i o n a f t e r

In d e p e n d e n c e - A s tu d y " w r i t t e n by S h r i B. J® Pandya

i s b a se d on in d e p e n d e n t and o r i g i n a l work done u n d e r

my s u p e r v i s i o n * I have p l e a s u r e i n f o r w a r d in g i t

f o r a s s e s s m e n t by th e r e f e r e e s j p p o i n t e d by G u j a r a t

U n iv e rsity . I

S chool o f Languages
G u jarat U n iv e r s ity
AHMEDABAD
 P R E F A C E

In itially , when I t h o u g h t of a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t ,
I wanted t o make a c r i t i c a l s t u d y o f e i t h e r S o m e rs e t
Maugham o r Graham G re en e , But on s ec ond t h o u g h t s , I
, f e l t t h a t I would be r i c h l y r e w a r d e d , i f I s t u d i e d t h e
n o v e l i n E n g l i s h o f my own c o u n t r y , and t h a t a f a i r l y
thorough s tudy of a p a r t i c u l a r p e r io d o f Indo-Anglian
f i c t i o n s h o u l d s e r v e my p u r p o s e . I t h o u g h t t h a t the
P o s t - I n d e p e n d e n c e e r a would be a c o n v e n i e n t s p a n f o r
my work, b r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , from 1947 t o 1977. I have
a t t e m p t e d t h i s s t u d y w it h a vie w t o t r a c i n g t h e s o c i a l ,
s o c i o - e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s and c u l t u r a l changes
b r o u g h t a b o u t by t h e momentous e v e n t of I n d e p e n d e n c e
as r e f l e c t e d i n , and s h a p i n g , t h e new I n d o - A n g l i a n
novel.

I s t a r t e d my work u n d e r t h e a b l e and i n s p i r i n g
g u i d a n c e o f P r o f e s s o r K. R. C h a n d r a s e k h a r an, t h e t h e n
P r o f e s s o r and Head of t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E n g l i s h ,
G u j a r a t U n i v e r s i t y , Ahmedabad. I am g r e a t l y awar e of
t h e d e b t o f ' g r a t i t u d e I owe t o him and I humbly acknow­
ledge i t .

The work, i n i t s p r e s e n t fo rm , s h o u l d h a v e been

c o m p l e t e d by me a few y e a r s e a r l i e r . The d e l a y was
c a u s e d by a s e r i e s of s u r g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s on my eyes
and c o n s e q u e n t - d i f f i c u l t i e s . I am a l s o g e n u i n e l y
 2

indebted to Dr. FL. A. Malagi, Professor and Head of the

Department of English, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad
who was kind enough to guide me for the completion of
this work. He instilled a new spirit into me and with

timely reminders, mild remonstrances and forceful goad-

ings, he made the submission of the thesis possible,

against all odds.

I am grateful to Prof. V. Y. Kantak and Dr, M. K.

Naik for their invaluable suggestions and kind encourage­

ment. I also gratefully remember Prof. V. J. Trivedi

and Prof. R. A. Dave who took a deep interest in my

work and insisted on my completing the same at my
earliest.

I am also thankful to the authorities of several

libraries for their co-operation and prompt service.
The Chief among themare - the Gujarat University
Library, the Bombay University Library and the G. B.

Patel Arts College (Nadiad) Library,

1 heartily thank my daughter and colleague, Miss

Mandar Pandya, for meticulously correcting the type­
script of this thesis.

B. J. PANDYA
 C O N T E N T S

INTRODUCTION 1

THE FAMILY 31

M A R R IA G E 81

THE CASTE SYSTEM 131

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CLASSES 175

THE PO LITIC A L ATMOSPHERE 219

THE PRINCELY ORDER 273

THE FOREIGNER 321

RELIGION 369

NATIONAL CULTURE 423

CONCLUSION 476

BIBLIOGRAPHY 517

« 9
 1

INDQ-ANGLIAN FICTION AFTER INDEPENDENCE - A STUDY

CHAPTER - I

INTROEUCTION
I'
As i s t h e c i v i l i z a t i o n o f a n a t i o n , so i s h e r l i t e r a ­
tu re . The im age of th e p e o p le o f a n a t i o n , t h r o b b i n g w ith
life and i t s a c tiv itie s and t h i n k i n g o f th e m s e lv e s and t h e
w o rld around them as t h e y s e e and u n d e r s t a n d i t , is tru ly
and c o n v i n c i n g l y p r o j e c t e d i n and th r o u g h th e c r e a t i v e
e f f o r t s o f h e r g r e a t l i t e r a r y geniuses® I f i t is tru e th a t
s t u d e n t s o f a n a t i o n ' s c i v i l i z a t i o n and c u l t u r e c a n n o t a f f ­
o r d to i g n o r e t h e c la im s and c o n t r i b u t i o n o f h e r l i t e r a t u r e ,
i t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t s t u d e n t s o f a n a t i o n ' s l i t e r a t u r e h ave
g o t t o u n d e r s t a n d and e v a l u a t e h e r c i v i l i z a t i o n and c u l t u r e
t o f o r m u la t e a s u i t a b l e b a c k g ro u n d o f t h e i r study®

L i t e r a t u r e and c i v i l i z a t i o n ( a s a l s o c u l t u r e , s o c i e t y
and l i f e ) a r e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t and t e n d to t h r i v e on m utual
dev elo p m en t and advancement® L i t e r a t u r e i s t h e r e f l e c t i o n
o f l i f e and s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l w hich, i n t h e i r t u r n , a l s o
s h a p e and d i r e c t t h e c o u r s e o f l i t e r a t u r e . Of a l l t h e forms
of lite r a tu r e , t h e n o v e l p e rh a p s i s t h e m o st f a i t h f u l ,
c o n v in c in g and e f f e c t i v e v e h i c l e o f a n a t i o n ' s e t h o s . The
n o v e l i s th e m o st p o t e n t , p l i a b l e and p o p u l a r means of
com m unicating a c r e a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e , evoking to u c h in g
s e n t i m e n t s and p ro f o u n d th o u g h ts i n and a b o u t human l i f e .

F ic tio n , as a fo rm , h as emerged much l a t e r th an p o e t r y

and drama on t h e l i t e r a r y h o r i z o n . A ll l i f e comes w ith in
 2

its jurisdiction and thus the entire gamut of human exper­

ience forms the variety of its range* The whole mass of

human sensory experience furnishes the novelist with the

raw-material for his fictional writing, but the has to

subject this vast unwieldy, shapeless, lawless and even

anarchic data drawn from human life to a coherent form of

artistic excellence. It is, however, not the -photographic

representation of experience, but his judgement of human

life and relationships which invests his writing with cons-
A

istency, direction, shape, meaning, motion, tone and rhythm

of art. He is an intellectual aesthete always eager to
drink from the cup of human life to its very dregs. He
does not shirk from the mental adventure of brooding on
problems of human existence so as to trace profound and
mysterious imports and hitherto unexplored possibilities.
A novel is thus the sum-total of the writer's thoughts,
experiences and imaginings and feelings, opinions and
pronouncements, speculations and judgements, artistic

urges, and technical endeavours. It is not merely characters

and incidents.that are of vital importance, but the manner

in which' they have forced their entry into the author's

consciousness and artistic form. Finally, it is not merely
his experience of life and his representation of it but

his vision of life which is overwhelmingly significant.

Fiction - reading is a pleasurable exercise in liter­

ary appreciation and understanding. It affords greater
entertainment and enjoyment than other forms including
 3

even drama and that too more readily, easily and convenie­

ntly, It is imbued with dynamic, vital and effervescent

experience of life. At its best, it can widen and deepen

our understanding of mysterious and enigmatic life and

its intricate and delicate relationships. In addition,

it can analyse, unfold and comment upon life’s riddles and

even pave our way to their solution, as it can also awaken

and gratify aspirations of a fully synthesized and orches­

trated way of life. The form of fiction, by its very

nature and scope, admits a wider range of themes and tech­

niques than any other form. In a very happy way, the novel

has been described as "Pocket Theatre". This implies that

this is the most effective literary form, since it can

bring to any one’s doorstep - poverty - infested, middle-

class or wealth - ridden - the unfolding of subtle and

intricate events of human drama in all its variety. The

very firmament is the roof of fiction, thematically speaking.

In a more special sense, fiction is thoroughly democratic :

written for the people, of the people and by the 'people1.

It is the greatest humanizing exercise and influence in

literature and this is the basic reason of its wide human

appeal and universal popularity. Fiction implies that

every human being can become a true, interested and benef­

ited reader and that every variety of human life can form

its subject - matter.. This is the strength of fiction but

it also sometimes could become its very weakness. The

spread of fiction - reading and its ever - growing popula­

rity could perilously threaten its own existence. The

 4

form has to encounter the dangers of vulgarisation result­

ing from its proliferation.

The novel is a malleable and suitable form for expre­

ssing the national ethos. A novelist can portray the larger

life of the nation more authentically, convincingly and

artistically than a poet or a dramatist. He can project

a true image of his country's religion and culture and can

bring out its political and social predicament minutely and

deeply - as an insider. He can present analyse and criti­

cise the social reality of his country. The Indian novel

in English, therefore, can do greater justice to the Indian-

ness of the Indian than Indo-Anglian drama, poetry or prose,

especially in the socio-political context immediately pre­

ceding or following Independence. The task that lay before

the Indian novelist in English in pre-Independence times

was his quest for the national identity in face of the

foreign oppressions and atrocities and in post - Indepen­

dence times to affirm it in the Commonwealth and the United

Nations Conterences.

After the initial spurt of Indo-Anglian novel - writing,

the writers during the thirties started striving for esta­

blishing the genre as a potent instrument for social and

political amelioration. K. S. Venkatdramani was a pioneer

in moulding the content in a characteristically Indian mode

and presented Gandhian economic and political principles in

his novels, but did not show any awareness of special sty­

listic problems of an Indo-Anglian writer of prose. Then

 5

t h e ‘ golden* p e r i o d o f t h e e ste e m e d " T r i n i t y ” o f th e I n d o -

A n g lia n n o v e l was u s h e r e d in . Mulk R aj Anand f r a n k l y b ro u g h t
o u t th e I n d i a n s o c i a l r e a l i t y and v e n t i l a t e d h i s compassion
f o r t h e s o c i a l under-dog® ft. K. N arayan d e l i n e a t e d th e
I n d i a n m id d le c l a s s l i f e i n a l l i t s s i m p l i c i t y , f a i t h f u l l y
and a r t i s t i c a l l y ® R a ja Rao c o m p e te n tly e x p r e s s e d t h e I n d i a n
e th o s and P s y c h e , t h e I n d i a n m i l i e u and s p i r i t and embodied
i n moving f i c t i o n t h e Gandhian p r e c e p t s o f t r u t h , non­
v i o l e n c e and n o n - c o - o p e r a t i o n o r c i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e in a
r u r a l set-u p ® Bhabani B h a t ta c h a r y a * s s o c i a l r e a l i s m -
c o n f l i c t b etw een t r a d i t i o n and m o d e r n ity , i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n
and Gandhian i n d e a l i s m - re m in d s ms o f Anand.Khushwant
S i n g h 's p o l i t i c a l r e a l i s m i s r a t h e r c ru d e b u t i t s to n e of
g e n u in e n e s s i s always u n m i s t a k a b l e . Kamala Markandaya h as
t r i e d h e r h a n d a t a number o f themes - a t i l l e r ' s life , an
I n d o - B r i t i s h l o v e a f f a i r i n th e t u r b u l e n t , d i s i n t e g r a t i n g
1942 - s e t t i n g , E a s t - West c o n f r o n t a t i o n , an I n d i a n expa­
t r i a t e ' s i s o l a t i o n i n E n g la n d , t h e c o n te m p o ra ry I n d i a n l i f e
as s e e n th ro u g h the' eyes o f an a d o l e s c e n t g i r l . M rs.
J h a b v a la s u r v e y s t h e D e lh i m id d le - c l a s s s o c i e t y w ith an
iro n ic s l a n t . A n ita D esai and Arun J o s h i examine t h e
pro b lem s o f m a n 's i s o l a t i o n and i n d i c a t e t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f
t h e I n d i a n n o v e l from t h e e x t e r n a l s o c i a l s c e n e to th e
i n t e r n a l p s y c h i c w o rld . The n o v e ls o f t h e s e I n d i a n w r i t e r s
i n E n g l is h h a v e , by and l a r g e , f a i t h f u l l y r e f l e c t e d I n d ia n
co n sc io u sn ess.
 6

Language i s t h e medium of a l l l i t e r a t u r e and so the

form o f f i c t i o n , to o , depends upon t h e a u t h o r ’ s use of
words and h i s p e c u l i a r i t y of p a t t e r n i n g them i n t o the b a s i c
u n its of prose w riting. G e n e r a l l y , lang uage does not seem
to assume as i m p o r ta n t a p l a c e i n the weaving of a s t o r y
as i n a poem, but the modern f i c t i o n w r i t e r w ie lds a s u b t l e
t e ch n i q u e to e x p r e s s f l u i d , e v an e s ce n t and e l u s i v e problems
of sub co ns ciou s t h i n k i n g , f e e l i n g , remembering, t h e modern
novel w a r r a n ts almost as c l o s e a l i n g u i s t i c stu d y of f i c t i o n
as t h a t of p o e t r y . Language i s t h e v e h i c l e of images and
symbols'- i n a s t o r y which may deter mine t h e formal and
Jbhythmic q u a l i t y of a novel and may e s t a b l i s h , an al yse and
c r i t i c i s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c h a r a c t e r s i n a n o v e l .

F i c t i o n has assumed an a l l p e r v a s i v e impor tan ce i n .

l ite r a r y study. I t s p o e t i c s i s employed in v a l u a t i o n s of
th e p r e s e n t d a y major f i g u r e s as a l s o i n r e v a l u a t i o n s o f the
c e l e b r i t i e s o f t h e p a s t i n t h e f i e l d of f i c t i o n . From t h e
d ia lo g u e s o f t h e s e r i o u s p r a c t i t i o n e r s and c r i t i c s of th e
form has emerged th e contemporary a e s t h e t i c s f o r the n o v e l .
The complexity of l i f e has r e n d e r e d the s o c a l l e d d i s t i n c t i o n
between p o e t i c and p r o s e l a n g u a g e ^ p o i n t l e s s i n as much as
i t concerns t h e form o f t h e n o v e l . The a r t i s t i c e q u i l i b r i u m
between ' r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l ' and ' p r e s e n t a t i o n a l * dimensions
o f a work of f i c t i o n must be calLtiously m a i n t a i n e d . The
contemporary s o c i a l r e a l i t y I s a s u b t l e and complex t h i n g
 7

and i f i t i s t o be e x p r e s s e d a d e q u a t e l y , t h e l a n g u a g e o f
t h e n o v e l i s t a l s o must be so s h a p e d as t o a t t a i n s t y l i s t i c
competence b a s e d on e x p e r i m e n t s i n d i c t i o n , s y n t a x and
imagery® The la n g u a g e of an I n d i a n w r i t e r i n E n g l i s h i s
the product o f a b i-e th n ic a l co -o rd in atio n . H is la ngu ag e
s h o u l d b e a r t h e w e ig ht o f h i s i n d i g e n o u s e x p e r i e n c e and i t
s h o u l d be a new v a r i a n t o f t h e B r i t i s h E n g l i s h , b u t t h i s
l i n g u i s t i c amalgam s h o u l d n o t b e r a d i c a l l y , f a n t a s t i c a l l y
o r g r o t e s q u e l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e o r i g i n a l s o u r c e and s t i l l
i t must h a v e be en moulded and metamorphosed i n s u c h a way
as must s u i t t h e w r i t e r ’ s n a t i v e mind and m i l i e u . As Raja
Rao pWJts i t , t h i s l a n g u a g e mu st e x p r e s s " t h e a u t h e n t i c
bhythms and s e n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e I n d i a n p s y c h e . "

The I n d i a n n o v e l i n E n g l i s h , t h e r e f o r e , i s a more
d e p e n d a b le means f o r p r o j e c t i n g th e c u l t u r a l image of t h e
n a t i o n i n t h e forum o f w o rl d l i t e r a t u r e t h a n t h e I n d o -
E n g l i s h p o e t r y , drama o r p r o s e . The pro b le m f o r t h e I n d o -
An glia n n o v e l i s t i s to c h a n n e l i s e hopes and a s p i r a t i o n s
s u i t a b l y t h r o u g h a l a n g u a g e , which does n o t happen t o be
h i s m o t h e r - t o n g u e , a l a n g u a g e which he ha s a c q u i r e d a f t e r
a good d e a l o f p a i n s and h a s come to d e v e lo p d e v o t i o n f o r
it. Language i s a mere me ans, b u t i t ha s t o be p u t to u s e
£n*~an a r t i s t i c way by him, s i n c e he i s a c r e a t i v e w r i t e r .
H is a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e l a n g u a g e i s a lm o s t a l i f e - r l o n g
process. The l a n g u a g e r e v e a l s to him i t s true id e n tity ,
b e a u t y and p e c u l i a r i t y i n new and a s t o n i s h i n g n u a n c e s ,
h u e s , s h a d e s o f mean in g, even t o t i e s , moods, hhyt hm s . Fo r
 8

an Indian au th o r in English the medium of h i s expression

does not come handy, readymade, but he has to c u l t i v a t e a
s p e c i a l l i n g u i s t i c awareness so as to fa s h i o n f o r himself
a s u i t a b l e instrum ent of expression which should express ♦

b e s t h is c r e a t i v e urges and p e r s p e c t i v e s i n the immediate

contex t of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e s o c i a l r e a l i t y *

The p e r i o d of ap p re n tice s h ip of In dian w r i t i n g in English

when i t e x c i t e d a t t e n t i o n , n o t because of i t s f i d e l i t y to
documentation of Indian l i f e , but the f a c t t h a t Indians
ventured and could a c t u a l l y write in a f o r e i g n language,
v i z . English, i s long s i n c e o v e r. The wrangles over the
question - whether Indians can w r ite c r e a t i v e l y in English
- waged by Chalapathi Rao, P r o f . Ayyub, J y o t i Duita, S„ H.
Vatsyayan^. "Agyeya", as a t t a c k e r s , on the one hand and P.
Lai and h i s w r i t e r s workshop colleagues as defenders on the
o t h e r , should by now be t r e a t e d as s e t t l e d f o r ever-^in
favour of the Indo-Anglian w r i t e r s i n view of t h e corpus
and q u a l i t y of t h e i r writing®. The a r t i s t i c predicament f o r
the Indian n o v e l i s t in English i s how to convey Indian
s e n s i b i l i t y and experience through the medium of a foreign
language. This presupposes t h a t Indian English w i l l be a
s o r t of d i a l e c t of English as p o in te d out by Raja Rao® I t
should, however, be admitted t h a t i f t h e r e might be some
l o s s from the v i e w p o i n t of form and e x p re ss io n , there
would be some gain, too, froip the viewpoint o f thematic
content and n a s c e n t ' s e n s i b i l i t y and experience® This too l
of ex p ressio n , thus^would come to mean the a u t h o r ’ s prlv.ate-
 9

property l i k e h is relig io n * The degree o f t h i s l i n g u i s t i c

competence o r o t h e r w i s e would n a t u r a l l y v a r y from w r i t e r
to w r i t e r , i f an I n d i a n p r e f e r s to w r i t e i n E n g l i s h , l e t
him do so and c o n f r o n t t h e a t t e n d e n t p e r i l o r p u t i n t h e
requisite e ffo rt. There sho uld , be no ' e m o t i o n a l a l l e r g y *
t o I n d o - A n g l i a n w r i t i n g o r as Narayan h i m s e l f p r o b a b l y
experienced - 'E n g lish - baiting* o r t o be c o n s i d e r e d a
' drohi’ ( ' t r a i t o r ' )
i f one w r i t e s i n E n g l i s h by a w r i t e r
2
in a re g io n a l language. As Bhabani B h a t t a c h a r y a has p o i n t e d
o u t , t h e I n d i a n w r i t e r must b e a ll o w e d t o u s e any la n g u a g e
he l i k e s . A s e r i o u s w r i t e r s h o u l d be c r e d i t e d w i t h some .
i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a t he k n o w s ^ h o jM ^ m o r ^ H if f ic u lt i t i s j t o
w r i t e i n a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e t h a n dn h i s m o t h e r - t o n g u e . He
must be a c c o r d e d a l l l i n g u i s t i c freedom i n a f r e e c o u n t r y
and s h o u l d n o t be h a r a s s e d o r v i c t i m i z e d by l i n g u i s t i c
c h a u v in i s m o r r e g i o n a l p a r o c h i a l i s m ® In f a c t , a w r i t e r
may a l s o f a i l i n d e l i v e r i n g t h e goods , i f he i s unaware of
-p a -' ~ .

h i s l i n g u i s t i c l i m i t a t i o n s or i s not competent or is j u s t
self-com placent. E ternal l i n g u i s t i c v ig ila n c e is the p r ic e
o f g e n u in e a u t h o r s h i p . Mere l i n g u i s t i c co mpetence does n o t
make anyone a g r e a t w r i t e r , j u s t as mere a r c h i t e c t o n i c
v i r t u o s i t y f a i l s t o c o n f e r a u t h o r s h i p on a n y o n e . Regional
w r i t i n g a l s o does n o t always c l i c k . I t m a tte r s not whether
o r how l o n g an I n d i a n w r i t e s i n E n g l i s h , b u t how.

The ' t r i u m v i r a t e * o f I n d o - A n g l i a n f i c t i o n made e x p e r ­

im e nts w i t h E n g l i s h to e v o l v e a l a n g u a g e t h a t s h o u l d b e s t
su it th eir sen sib ility , c r e a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e and a r t i s t i c
 10

purpose. Mulk Raj Anand was t h e f i r s t to t r a n s l a t e P u n ja b i,

Urdu and H in d i sw earw o rd s, a b u s e s , 'p r o v e r b s and idiom s i n t o
E n g lish . He d i s t o r t e d s p e l l i n g s o f some E n g l i s h words on
t h e b a s i s of i n c o r r e c t p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f th e i l l i t e r a t e
P u b ja b i. M o re o v er, t h e d i a l o g u e s o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s were
t r a n s l a t e d v e r b a t i m from th e v e r n a c u l a r i n t o E n g l i s h . This
was o b v io u s ly t o o b v i a t e t h e h u r d l e o f d r a f t i n g t h e c o n v e r­
s a t i o n of n o n -E n g lish -sp e a k in g c h a r a c te rs i n E n g lish .

An a d a p t a t i o n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n o f E n g l is h s p ee c h
t h a t h a s a g e n e r a l I n d i a n t o n e i s a lm o st an in su rm o u n ­
t a b l e l i n g u i s t i c h u r d l e i n th e way o f an I n d o - A n g l ia n
w r i t e r * s c o m p e te n t s t y l i s t i c s . T his i s t h e r e a s o n why
t h e r e i s t h e p a u o i t y o f drama i n E n g lis h i n I n d i a . These
e x p e r im e n ts o f Anand a r e a l l r i g h t so lo n g as t h e y a re
n o t o v e rd o n e , b u t th e y u s u a l l y a r e and th e n t h e y o f t e n
sound j a r r i n g and, sometimes even l u d i c r o u s and g r o t e s q u e ,
and f a i l t o s e c u r e any p u r p o s e . Though Anand*s e x p e rim e n ts
do n o t always h e lp i n i m p a r t i n g t h e sens© o f r e a l i t y t o
h i s d i a l o u g e s , h i s n a r r a t i v e p r o s e i s o f a h ig h o r d e r .

Ri K. N arayan has f a s h i o n e d f o r h i m s e l f an a d e q u a te
means o f e x p r e s s i o n f o r h i s a v e r a g e s e n s i b i l i t y and comic
v isio n of l i f e . H is la n g u a g e i s t h a t o f an e d u c a te d I n d i a n
which can e x p r e s s a s t r a i g h t t h i n g i n a s t r a i g h t way. His
economy o f e x p r e s s i o n i s p r a i s e w o r t h y b u t h i s v o c a b u la r y
 11

is rather lim ited, ’A la n Warner and W il li a m Walsh have a

word of p r a i s e f o r h i s u s e o f E n g l i s h , A c c o rd i n g t o P r o f ,
V. Y. K a n t a k , N a r a y a n ’ s l a n g u a g e " t h i s one - s t r i n g e d
i n s t r u m e n t - l i k e t h a t u k e l e l e - l i k e th in g * i s ad equ at e
3
for his purpose. But t h i s i s n o t always s o i n any s i t u a -
tion. The s t r u c t u r i n g o f h i s l a n g u a g e b e t r a y s c r a c k f s when
Narayan ha s t o e x p r e s s a t e n s e moment o r a complex though!
o r a t e n d e r e m o ti o n .

R a j a R ao ’ s la n g u a g e s p r i n g s from t h e v e r y I n d i a n s o i l .
I t ha s t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e f i r m a m e n t o v e r h e a d . I t has t h e
depth of t h e A r a b ic Ocean, T h e re i s no s e n s e o f r e s t r i c t i o n ,
a v e r a g e n e s s o r a de qu a c y. I t i s t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e mind
and t h e s o u l . I t can s c a l e i m a g i n a t i v e h e i g h t s . I t can
plumb e m o t i o n a l and t r a g i c d e p t h s . I t has t h e u n m i s t a k a b l e
ifannada f l a v o u r i n h i s f i r s t n o v e l and s t o r i e s and t h e
h a u n t i n g and e n n o b l i n g S a n s k r i t l i l t i n h i s s e c o n d n o v e l ,
t h e 'magnum opus* of R a j a Rao and of t h e e n t i r e I n d o - A n g l i a n
literatu re. R a j a Rao a c h i e v e s t h e d e s i r e d a r t i s t i c e f f e c t
w i t h o u t , i n any way, v i t i a t i n g o r w a rp in g t h e l i m p i d ,
l i q u i d , l a n g u r o u s f lo w of S t a n d a r d E n g l i s h # T h i s i s expe­
rim entation p ar excellence. H is la n g u a g e i s n o t t h e l a n g u a g e
o f s t a t e m e n t b u t o f sy m bol . I t i s p u r i f i e d o f any s t i g m a
o r s t i n k o f a l i e n n e s s , b e c a u s e i t i s t h e l a n g u a g e of p e r c e ­
ption. R a j a R a o ' s e x p e r i m e n t s w it h t h e l a n g u a g e have b o rn e
f r u i t - t h e p r o m i s e of which was h e l d o u t i n t h e P r e f a c e to
h is very f i r s t novel. He i s a f i t t i n g answ er to t h e ques­
t i o n - can I n d i a n s w r i t e c r e a t i v e l y i n E n g l i s h ?
 12

Desani i s a n o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t o r who ha s been p r a i s e d

by such l i t e r a r y g i a n t s as T. S . E l i o t , F o r s t e r , Burgess
and o t h e r s , .H is A ll About H H a t t e r r i s a q u a i n t manufac­
t u r e o f s t a l e c l i c h e s , worn o u t i d i o m s , o f f i c i a l e s e , s l a n g ,
heavy a r c h a i s m s , h y p h e n a t e d and l o n g - w i n d i n g compound w o r d s .
I t aims a t p a r o d y i n g an imposed l a n g u a g e f o r e x p r e s s i n g t h e
d i s i n t e g r a t i n g Quixotian p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e h e ro , H a t t e r ,

Bhabani B h a t t a c h a r y a a l s o makes some e x p e r i m e n t s w it h

E n g l i s h which i n d i c a t e h i s s e r i o u s c o n c e r n f o r moulding a
f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e t o e x p r e s s t h e I n d i a n e t h o s and m i l i e u .
I t s m i x t u r e o f a rc h a is m s and modern c o l l o q u i a l i s m s h e l p much
in adapting th e language. He has a l m o s t d e v e l o p e d a l i n g u ­
i s t i c mannerism o f c a s t i n g an i n t e r r o g a t i v e spoken s e n t e n c e
- s t r u c t u r e i n t h e form o f a w r i t t e n s t a t e m e n t . He o f t e n
he a p s s h o r t s e n t e n c e s on t h e t o p o f s h o r t s e n t e n c e s . This
shows t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e n t e n c e s t r u c t u r e s i n B e n g a l i .

Khushwant Singh and Chaman Nahal a l m o s t f o l l o w t h e

l e a d o f Anand and t r y t o t r a n s l a t e t h e R u n j a b i r a c y idiom
a lm o s t l i t e r a l l y . They to o u s e §stfear-words and a b u s e s .
T hi s i s what t h e y do to e x p r e s s w e ll th e k i n d o f s o c i a l
s c e n e t h e y wish to p r o t r a y . T h e i r l a n g u a g e assumes c r u d e
c o l o u r s and rough s hap e s as i t b r i n g s o u t t h e awful a c t u a ­
l i t y o f t h e communal h o l o c a u s t , Sasthi B rata, D ilip H iro,
T® M u r a r i , J a m i l a and R e g i n a l d do n o t f i g h t sh y i n u s i n g
c r u d e words f o r s u g g e s t i n g s e x u a l p r e m a r i t a l , extra-s-marital
c o p u l a t i o n , a d u l t e r y , d e b a u c h e r y and p r o s t i t u t i o n . This
 13

i n d i c a t e s th e co n tem p o rary s e x u a l l e v i t y ram p an t i n some

s e c t i o n s o f s o c i e t y i n m ost c o u n t r i e s .

Kamala M arkandaya, B. R a ja n and S a n th a Rama Rau have

o t h e r p ro b le m s o f e x p r e s s i o n . T h e ir* l i n g u i s t i c l a p s e s
stem n o t from t h e i r i n a d e q u a t e knowledge o f E n g l i s h b u t
from t h e i r r a r e m a s te ry o f E n g l i s h t o be seldom e n c o u n te re d
even i n t h e e l i t e c i r c l e s i n England o r t h e S t a t e s . They
a r e the, e x p a t r i a t e s who h av e s e t t l e d down i n t h e f o r e i g n
c o u n t r i e s and a r e th u s f l u n g f a r from t h e I n d i a n s o c i a l
scene. T h e ir s e n s i t i v i t i e s a r e a lm o s t A n g l i c i s e d o r Ameri­
c an ise d . T h e i r la n g u a g e i s som etim es e i t h e r to o p r o f o u n d —=»
o r to o e l e v a t e d f o r t h e I n d i a n s o c i a l r e a l i t y th e y i n t e n d
to b rin g o u t. They t r y t o a v e r t t h e im b a la n c e betw een form
and c o n t e n t by s e l e c t i n g t h e w e s te r n o r h i g h l y w e s te r n iz e d
m i l i e u , w hich can b e a r t h e w e ig h t o f t h e i r pompous, s o p h i ­
s t i c a t e d and p e d a n t i c l a n g u a g e . M arkandaya’ s The C o f f e r
Dams and The Nowheiffian and B. R a j a n ’ s The Dark Dancer and
S a n th a Rama R au’ s The Ambassadors amply I l l u s t r a t e th e
p o in t. R a j a Rao top i s an e x p a t r i a t e , b u t he c o n s c i e n t h u s l y
k eep s on r e t u r n i n g to I n d i a a lm o s t ev ery y e a r and th u s r e t a ­
i n s h i s l i v i n g to u c h w i t h h i s p e o p le and c o u n t r y . T h e re i s
no u n r e a l i s t i c o r b i z a r r e to u c h about h i s w r i t i n g . H is
s e n s i b i l i t y i s I n d i a n , th o u g h t h e same h a s become r e f i n e d
J>0
c o s m q l ita n and P a n - I n d i a n .

A n i t a , D e s a i and Arun J o s h i h o l d o u t a b r i l l i a n t p ro m ise

fo r th e f u t u r e . T h e i r la n g u a g e i s a f l e x i b l e t o o l o f e x p r e ­
s s i o n to b r i n g o u t th e a g o n iz e d c r y o f a wounded h e a r t .
 14

The la n g u a g e o f I n d o - A n g l ia n f i c t i o n i s a p l a s t i c and
p l i a n t i n s t r u m e n t f o r b r i n g i n g o u t t h e c o n te m p o ra ry I n d ia n
s c e n e and s i t u a t i o n and f o r p o r t r a y i n g t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n
o f c h a r a c t e r s and f o r d e l v i n g deep i n t o t h e in n e r m o s t
r e c e s s e s o f human mind*

III

The o r i g i n o f I n d o - A n g lia n f i c t i o n can be t r a c e d to

t h e E n g l i s h - e d u c a t e d , I n d i a n ’ s lo v e of i m i t a t i o n and d e s i r e
o f p l e a s i n g and p l a c a t i n g t h e B r i t i s h e r by w r i t i n g i n h i s
la n g u a g e and i n a m anner a p p r o v a b le by h im . T h is was i n
f a c t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e A n g lo -I n d ia n e s s a y s i n t h e
re a lm o f w r i t i n g rom ances, more i n t h e m anner o f p a s tim e
th a n s e r i o u s w r i t i n g * The I n d i a n w r i t e r , a lm o s t an a r d e n t
f o l l o w e r and th e a d m ir e r o f h i s B r i t i s h p r o t o t y p e , wove h i s
ro m a n tic and h i s t o r i c a l y a rn s a f t e r t h e m an n er o f \ t 4 l t e r
i f c o t t , C h a r le s D ic k e n s , B ulw er L y tto n and A rn o ld B e n n e tt
and o t h e r s . These n o v e ls w ere no t s e r i o u s i n t h e i r execu­
tio n . The n o v e l i s t s w ro te c o r r e c t l y and c o r r e c t i v e l y , b u t
w ith o u t any c o m p u ls iv e and i n e v i t a b l e u r g e . T h e ir e f f o r ts
were a lm o s t n o n - l i t e r a r y e x e r c i s e s i n w r i t i n g E n g lis h by
I n d i a n s t u d e n t s who were l o o k i n g up to t h e B r i t i s h m a s t e r ' s
a p p ro v a l and a p p r o b a t i o n . R am krishna A yyar, Ghosfej, M i t r a ,
Umrao, B a h a d u r, and .o th e r s w ro te ' h i s t o r i c a l * f i c t i o n which
was r e a l l y romance and o n ly t a n g e n t i a l l y h i s t o r y . Anyway,
th e y were t h e ones who b l a z e d t h e t r a i l and e s t a b l i s h e d t h e
tr a d i t i o n of In d ia n w ritin g in E n g lish .
 15

Then came t h e n e x t s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f I n d i a n

f i c t i o n i n E n g l i s h w h ic h r e f l e c t s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g awaken­

i n g 'o f I n d i a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s owing t o t h e n a t i o n a l movement

f o r freedom. During th e t h i r t i e s , th e p o t e n t i n f l u e n c e of
t h e I n d i a n N a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s s p e a r h e a d e d by Mahatma Gandhi
b r o u g h t a b o u t a r a d i c a l c h a n g e i n I n d i a n t h o u g h t and c o n s c ­
io u sn ess. The w r i t e r s f e l t d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e con tem­

porary s o c io - p o litic a l r e a l i t y and t h e I n d i a n n o v e l emerged

as a f i t l i t e r a r y form o f n a t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n . The i n d o -
V
A nglian n o v e l i s t c o u ld n o t remain im perious to t h i s t i d a l

i m p a c t of I n d i a n P i e n a i s s a n c e and Mulk R a j Anand and R a j a

Rao f o l l o w e d t h e l e a d o f s u c h n o v e l i s t s as P r e m c h a n d i n

H i n d i and R a b i n d r a n a t h T a g o r e and S h a r a t c h a n d r a C h a t t e r j e e
in B engali in t h e i r tre a tm e n t of s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l is s u e s .

R . K. N a r a y a n i s also a p ro d u ct of th is p e rio d but ;he

a p p e a r s t o b e h i s own l e a d e r , s u c h a l e a d e r as h a r d l y h a s

any f o l l o w e r . He seems t o r e f l e c t t h e i m p a c t o f t h i s t u r b ­

u l e n t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l w eath er of th e t h i r t i e s n e a r l y two -
decades la te r® E arlier^ o n ^V en k ataram an ijstak es h i s claim s

as a b o l d p r e c u r s o r o f t h i s n a t i o n a l i s t t r e n d o f I n d o -
Anglian f i c t i o n . In f a c t , he i s a b r id g e between th e
i n i t i a l p e r i o d - which r o m a n t i c i z e d p a s t h i s t o r y and t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t a l p e r i o d - wh ic h r o m a n t i c i z e d t h e p r e s e n t .
F o r Anand, Rao and even N a r a y a n , t h e r e a l r e a d y e x i s t e d an

e a g e r In d ia n audience - E n g lish educated b u t a l i v e to In d ia n

s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y , v a l u e s and i d e a l s .
 16

Then came t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n o f P o s t - I n d e p e n d e n c e I n d o -
A n g li a n w r i t e r s o f f i c t i o n * With t h e a d v e n t o f freedom,
t h e s e w r i t e r s ha d ' G o d ' s p l e n t y * i n the c h o i c e o f t h e i r
themes. New h o r i z o n s ha d opened o u t and t h e r e was no p e r i l
o f i n c u r r i n g t h e r u l e r ’ s w r a t h , i f t h e y f u l l y exposed t h e
a t r o c i t i e s o f the B r i t i s h R a j . Q uit e a few n o v e l i s t s have
emerged on t h e c u r r e n t . l i t e r a r y s c e n e to b r i n g o u t t h e imp­
a c t o f I n d i a n s o c i a l , - p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y - p a s t and p r e s e n t .
In ad d itio n to the 's o v e r e i g n 1 t r i o of Indo-Anglian f i c t i o n ,
v i z . Anand, N arayan and R a j a Rao, Bhabani B h a t t a c h a r y a ,
Kamala Mark and ay a, Khushwant S i n g h , B, R aj an, Manohar
M al gonk a r, R u th P r a w e r J h a b v a l a , N a y a n t a r a S a h g a l , make
t h e i r p r e s e n c e f e l t i n no u n c e r t a i n man ner, * T h e i r n o v e l s
d i s p l a y a v a r i e t y o f themes and an a d m i r a b l e g r a s p of t h e
novelcraft. They show how t h e I n d i a n n o v e l i n E n g l i s h has
become an jim pre s siv e and a r t i s t i c means f o r e x p r e s s i n g t h e
n a t i o n a l e t h o s and c u l t u r e .

S i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n t i e s h a s emerged a
new s e t of ^§mart and s o p h i s t i c a t e d n o v e l i s t s on t h e I n d o -
A n glia n s c e n e . A n i t a D e sa i and Arun J o s h i a r e p r o m i n e n t
amongst th e m . They seem t o h a v e been p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f l u ­
en ced by t h e l i t e r a r y g e n iu s o f modern n o v e l i s t s , su ch as
P r o u s t , Henry James, V i r g i n i a W oolf, Jj am es J o y c e , Camus,
K a fk a , S a r t r e and o t h e r s . M an's i s o l a t i o n i n t h i s crowded
and c o n g e s t e d w orld has g r i p p e d t h e i r s e n s i b i l i t i e s and
t h e y e n d e a v o u r t o e x p r e s s t h e a g o n i s e d c r i e s gf t h e i r
c h a r a c t e r s t h r o u g h b a b b l i n g i n i n t e r i o r monologues and
 17

p a i n t i n g - b l e a k , b r u i s e d and b e r e f t m i n d s c a p e s . Chaman
Mahal, howe ver shows a f i r m e r g r i p o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l
problems i n t h e i r manner o f Hemingway which h e m i g h t have
im bi be d i n t h e c o u r s e o f m a s t e r i n g t h e s e c r e t s of Hemingway’ s
s t y l e , t h e v e t e r a n Hemingway s c h o l $ a r t h a t he i s . Along
w i t h t h e s e new and upcoming t a l e n t e d n o v e l i s t s , t h e n o v e l ­
i s t s o f e a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n s a r e a l s o d e p i c t i n g t h e contem­
p o r a r y human p r e d i c a m e n t - i s o l a t i o n and d e sp o n d e n c y .

The I n d i a n f i c t i o n i n E n g l i s h has n o t o n l y a c h i e v e d
a meas ure o f m a t u r i t y and e x c e l l e n c e , b u t i t h o l d s o u t a
b r i g h t promise f o r th e f u t u r e . Whatever m ig h t be t h e
a t t i t u d e o f the I n d i a n g ove rn m e nt, t o t h e r o l e o f E n g l i s h
i n e d u c a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n - and u l t i m a t e l y t h i s m i g h t
a l s o a d v e r s e l y i n f l u e n c e th e p o s i t i o n of E n g l i s h i n t h e
f i e l d o f commerce and t h e d a i l y r o u t i n e - l i f e o f t h e
a v e r a g e e d u c a t e d I n d i a n , i t seems i m p o s s i b l e a t p r e s e n t
t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e can be b a n i s h e d from the f r o n t i e r s o f
o u r cou n t r y and m in d. Uma P a r m e s h w a r a n ' s a p p r e h e n s i o n
t h a t I n d o - E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e would h a r d l y s u r v i v e beyond
2000 A. D. seems t o be p e s s i m i s t i c and u n w a r r a n t e d by t h e
presentday In d ian s i t u a t i o n . Anyway i f n o t I n d i a n s i n
I n d i a , th e n , In d ia n s abroad - th o se e x p a t r i a t e s , v o lu n ta ry
e x i l e s , t h e R a j a Raos, Kamala M arkan da yas , D i l i p H i r o s ,
S a s t h i B r a t a s , Rama Raus, N i r a d Chaudh*aris and Dom Moraeses
w i l l c o n t i n u e t o w r i t e i n E n g l i s h and w i l l n o t l e t I n d o -
Ang lia n w r i t i n g pa s s i n t o o b l i v i o n .
 18

IV

A serious study of any contemporary literature

presupposes a knowledge of its origin and growth. It

is interesting to trace how a literature thrives by facing

problems peculiar to it and finding out solutions to them.

Its harvesting is not all too sudden. It is a gradual and

continuous process of cultivation. This is true of all

literature but particularly true of fiction which is perhaps

most influenced by social awareness and involvement. Inde­

pendence forms a very interesting line of demarcation in

respect of Indo-Anglian fiction. Pre-Independence Indo-

Anglian fiction has an historical as well as formative

significance and there is a marked differnece between the

Pre-Independence fictional out put and the post-Independnce

contribution to fiction from the viewpoint of form and
content.

The present study attempts to answer the ouestion

\ whether the attainment of Independence - certainly one of

the most momentous events in the history of India - has

' brought about any significant and radical changes in the

outlook of the Indian novelists writing in English - and

in their selection and treatment of themes and their over-

' all attitudes.

Pre-Indepence fiction deals with the sociological,

political, religious, philosophic and cultural aspects of

Indian life, but the thematic treatment is indicative of

 19

a pioneering e f f o r t .

N a g a r a j a n ' s Athawar House i s a s y s t e m a t i c f a m i l y s t u d y

d e p i c t i n g t h e s l o w b u t s t e a d y d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f a cumbrous
fam ily. I t shows t h a t f i s s i p a r o u s t e n d e n c i e s i n a j o i n t
f a m i l y a r e i n e v i t a b l e , b u t a l l members of t h e f a m i l y have
t o s t i c k t o g e t h e r and t h e r u l e o f t h e h e a d o f t h e f a m i l y
must p r e v a i l * Moribund G o p i n a t h ’ s c o n s e n t t o t h e p ro p o s e d
i n t e r - s t a t e m a r r i a g e of Sona and Venk atar am an i s y m b o li s e s
t h e p a s s i n g o u t o f an o l d s o c i a l o r d e r , making way f o r a
new and l i b e r a l one® R. K. N a ra y a n , i n h i s P r e - 1 9 4 7 n o v e l s ,
d e p i c t s t h e f a m i l y i n i t s m o n o - t i e r framework* The f a m i l y ,
i n Swami and F r i e n d s , l i k e t h e one i n R a j a R ao’ s " J a v n i " -
i m p l i e s a happy w o r l d . C ha n d r a n , i n The B a c h e l o r of A r t s ,
a f t e r h i s v i c i s s i t u d e s i n t h e f i e l d s of s t u d y and l o v e ,
f a l l s i n t o t h e f a m i l y groove* The Dark Room shows how a
f a m i l y c o u l d a l m o s t be w recked by a l i a i s o n , b u t t h e f a m i l y
somehow s u rv iv e s * I n The E n g l i s h T e a c h e r , K r i s h n a n ’ s
d e v o t i o n t o S u s h i l a , even a f t e r h e r d e a t h , i n d i c a t e s t h e
n o v e l i s t ’ s f a i t h in th e t r a d i t i o n a l family i d e a l s . R aj a
Rao shows, i n K a n t h a p u r a , how t h e f a m i l y c l a i m s c o u l d be
s e t a s i d e owing t o a g r a v e c o n c e r n f o r t h e d e e p e r problems
o f l i f e , s u c h a s ' s t r u g g l e f o r o n e ’ s c o u n t r y ’ s free dom.
Mulk Raj Anand’ s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e f a m i l y i s , more o r l e s s ,
r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e e c o n o m i c - p o l i t i c a l i m p a c t on t h e f a m i l y .
I t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t he d e p i c t s t h e d e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e
f a m i l y owing to t h e new s o c i a l o r d e r b r o u g h t a b o u t by
in dustrialization.
 20

Most Indo-Anglian novelists before Independence express

the conventional views on the problem of marriage® R, C.
Dutt’s The Lake of Palms, Madhaviah’s Thillai Govindan and

Dorai's Suoritha. present the problem of the plight of the

widows in the Hindu society. Anandj Narayan and A. V, Rao

show how the problem of dowry wrecks many a girlfe life in

their short stories "A Village Wedding”, ”The Green Belt”

and "Renunciation” respectively. Jogendra Singh, Nagarajan,

Kumara Guru and Shankar Ram express conventional ideas

gbout the position of a daughter in a Hindu family and the

feminine ideal. Subramanyam5s Indira Devi is a silly

tirade against inter-racial marriages. S. M. Mitra, however,

looks sympathetically at the problem of inter-racial marriages

Umrao Bahadur (in Hard Times) and D. F. Karaka (in We Never

Die) depict the problem of inter-community marriages. K. A.

Abbas (in Tomorrow is Ours) shows the miseries which entail
an inter-caste marriage owing to age-old religious dogma-- .1
and feudalism*Manjeri Isvaran, Malini Tarkhud, Abbas and
Narayan have drawn memorable pictures of happy married

life, when a marriage symbolises the union of two persona­

lities, two egos, two lives, two souls into a single
harmonious togetherness.

The two points about the treatment of the theme that

recur are (i) the degeneration of-and the consequent deva­

luation of-the Brahmin, especially the priest (ii) the

attitude of the high castes to the Untouchable. Sir

Jogendra Singh and Anand criticise the priestly class

 21

v e r y h a r s h l y i n Kamni and U n t o u c h a b l e r e s p e c t i v e l y and

show t h e p r i e s t s as s e l f i s h , mean, h y p o e x i t i c a l , g r e e d y .
A Madhaviah, i n ThilJ-ai—G o v in d a n . p o i n t s o u t how some
Brahmins a r e f a n a t i c a l a b o u t t h e i r Brahminisfci and s a i v i s m .
Kumara Guru, i n L i f e ’ s Shadows , l o o k s a t Brahmins th ro u g h
a Brahmin’ s e y e s , b u t h i s i s a f a i r l y im partial-^ p ic tu re .
Dhan Gopal M u k e r j i shows, i n My B r o t h e r ’ s F a c e , t h a t
b e f o r e war, b e i n g a Brahmin was a p a s s p o r t t o any p l a c e b u t
between t h e war and Ga ndh i, t h e Brahmin’ s p r e s t i g e has been
kn o c k ed . S i r J o g e n d r a S i n g h s h o w s ^ i n Kamla^ h o w t h e r i c h
and t h e p o w e r f u l f l o u t t h e r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s o f t h e i r
castes. A» Madhaviah i n d i c a t e s how u r b a n i z a t i o n has i n d i r ­
e c t l y c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e l o o s e n i n g of c a s t e b o n d s . Umrao
Bahadur, K a r a k a , N a g a r a j a n and Abbas p o r t r a y i n t e r - c o m m u n i t y
o r i n t e r - c a s t e m a r r i a g e s and t h e c o n s e q u e n t s o c i a l r e p e r ­
cussions. Thes e n o v e l i s t s a r e n o t i n f a v o u r o f c a s t e
t y r a n n i e s b u t t h e i r r e a c t i o n s a r e n o t so a g g r e s s i v e as
one f i n d s them t o be i n l a t e r f i c t i o n .

Mulk R a j Anand*s sympathy f o r t h e l o w l y and down­

t r o d d e n f i n d s i t s ge nu in e and f o r c e f u l e x p r e s s i o n i n h i s
Pre-Independence no v els. He d e a l s w i t h t h e l i f e o f u n t o u ­
chables, c o o lie s , te a - p la n ta tio n lab o u rers, v i lla g e r s ,
s o l d i e r s and f a c t o r y workers® tffHis views on t h e s e have-
n o t s a r e s h a p e d u n d e r and i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e Gandhian
s o c i o p o l i t i c a l philosophy. R. K. Narayan i s t h e same,
sym pathetic o b s e rv e r o f middle c l a s s l i f e . R a j a B^ao
w r i t e s as a t r u e Gandhian and h i s K a n t h a p u r a i s a re m a rk a ble
 22

p i c t u r e of t h e f i g h t f o r freedom waged, s h o u l d e r to
shoulder, by a l l the t h r e e c l a s s e s and a l l the q u a r t e r s -
top from t h e Brahmin quater down to the p a r i a h q u a r t e r .
His humanitarian sympathy for the lowly f i n d s j i t s express­
ion in h i s s h o r t s t o r i e s . Manjeri I s v a r a n , Narayan,
Jogendra Singh and Abbas p r e s e n t the problems o f the poor
with sympathetic understanding* D. G. Mukerji, in My
B r o t h e r s F a c e , and K. S. Venkataramani, in Murug an the
T i l l e r p r e s e n t the i d e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e s of t h e In d ian
peasant. Manjeri Isvaran* s ‘ Gap'-in the Wall* shows the
mutual d i s t r u s t of the two p o | a r c l a s s e s - t h e poor and the
affluent. Jogendra Singh in Kamia, a p p r e c i a t e s the simple,
honest and hard working p e asant as c o n t r a s t e d with the i d l e
Royalty. A. Madhaviah in T h i l l a i Govindan c r i t i c i s e s
Brahmins and h i g h e r c l a s s l a n d l o r d s as th e e x p l o i t e r s of
the t o i l i n g low-class t i l l e r s .

i n the Pre-Garidhi phase, The Pr in ce of Destiny and

Hindupore very guardedly - and y e t boldly enough - expre­
ssed the In d ia n dis co n t en t and longing f o r freedom.
Though these novels a r e , t e c h n i c a l l y speaking, naive,
they have a tone of v a l i d i t y of conten t i n a l l t h e i r
amorphous t u rn s of t h e - s t o r y . Venkataramam* s Kanahn the
v
P a t r i o t i s the f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t novel on the p o l i t i c a l
theme, i t has a sense o f immediacy born o f t h e author’ s
s i n c e r i t y and courage. Jogendra Singh, in Kamrai, mildly
and c u r s o r i l y c r i t i c i s e s the B r i t i s h r u l e , b u t h is
 23

p r e d e l e c t i o n s f o r t h e B r i t i s h and h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s
are not concealed. S . M. M i t r a , i n H i n d u p o r e . l o o k s a t
t h e I n d i a n p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n t h r o u g h I n d i a n eyes o n l y .
He s t r e s s e s t h e r e s e m b l a n c e betw een t h e I r i s h and the
I n d i a n p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h and als©
t h e i r m u tu a l I n d o - I r i s h a f f e c t i o n and r e g a r d . D. G.
M u k e r j i , i n My B r o t h e r s r a c e shows t h e most p o t e n t n a t i o n
^ a l i n f l u e n c e t h a t Mahatma Gandhi had become o v e r n i g h t
f o l l o w i n g t h e m ons tro us A m r i t s a r m a s s a c r e . Umrao Bahadur,
i n Har d T i m e s , comments on t h e r o l e o f p r o - l e a g u e Muslims
and n a t i o n a l i s t Muslims and t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o I n d i a n
politics and Hindus and on t h e B r i t i s h e x p l o i t a t i o n o f
th is anti-H indu sentim ents. N a g r a j a n draws, __ i n Athawar
Housey. a v i v i d p i c t u r e o f G a n d h i j i ’ s Dandi Mar ch. Raja
R ao‘ s Kanthctpura i s t h e f i r s t g r e a t I n d o - A n g l i e n n ove l i n
which t h e r e i s a p e r f e c t f u s i o n o f t h e m a t i c a u t h e n t i c i r y
and t e c h n i c a l awareness® R a j a Rao i s co m m itt e d t o Gandhism-
a t l e a s t , s o h e was, i n p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e t i m e s - a n d h i s
c h o i c e o f t h e theme and o f t h e grandma n a r r a t o r a cc o rd
w e l l w i t h h i s Gandhian i d e a l s . K a n th ap u r a i s n o t o nly
an a c h i e v e m e n t b u t a l s o a s t a n d a r d by which t o measure any
achievement.

B e f o r e I n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e r e were many n a t i v e r u l e r s
u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h s o v e r e i g n t y who c o n t r o l l e d t h e d e s t i n i e s
o f people in t h e i r s t a t e s . Q u i t e a few o f them l i v e d l i k e
hun gry m o n s t e r s c l a w i n g i n t o i n n o c e n t , h e l p l e s s f e m i n i n e
f l e s h and r e v e l l e d i n d i f r e r e n t v a r i e t i e s o f s e x u a l o r g i e s 8
 24

The co u rt atmosphere would s t i n k of debduchery. Sir

Jogendra Sin g h 's Masrin d e sc r ib e s th e sen sual and degener­
a t e l i f e . o f Nawabs and Zamindars. Singh's Kamia i s the
s t o r y of a h i l l - g i r l abducted by the agents o f a ru l i n g
prince. His Kamni also d e p i c t s the t r a v a i l s of Kamni,
a poor b a r b e r ' s b e a u t i f u l daughter, v'hom th e p r i n c e -
herjemployer-tried to seduce. RamNarain's The Tigres s of
Harem draws a p i c t u r e o f th e romantic and s en s u a l l i f e in
a p r i n c e ' s harem, Umxao Bahadur's The Unveiled Court
describe s how the Maharaja could n o t be stopped from having
any woman he f a n c i e d . The Memoirs of a Maharaja's M istr ess
by an anonymous author also follows the l e a d of these
n o v e ls,
i t i s more medieval, crude and b r u t a l and deserves
----- —
to remain anonymous. A. V, Rao's s h o r t s t o r y ' V i r t u e has
i t s own reward' also sugges ts how the p r i n c e s were addict ed
to d r inking and debauchery. All princes were n o t wicked.
Spme of them were good a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , k i n d - h e a r t e d and
a l i v e to n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s . The P r in ce , i n Shankar Ram's
s h o r t s t o r y , "The R a j a h 's L a s t Hunt" gives up hunting f o r
ever and takes a vow of n o n - v io l e n c e . The Prince of
Destiny and Hindupore i l l u s t r a t e how some p r i n c e s were l i b ­
e r a l in t h e i r outlook and would love t o see t h e i r country
f r ee from the foreign, s h a c k l e s . Indo-Anglian f i c t i o n
before Independence f a i l s to p r e s e n t any r e a l i s t i c or
convincing p i c t u r e of the P r i n c e l y Order.

The In d i a n encounter with th e f o r e i g n e r , before 1947,

 25

l a r g e l y m e an t t h a t v dth t h e B r i t i s h e r on a c c o u n t of t h e
B ritish R ule. The I n d o - A n g l i a n n o v e l draws an a f f e c t i o n a t e
p i c t u r e of t h e I r i s h m a n , b e c a u s e o f h i s s h a r i n g , more o r
l e s s , t h e same p o l i t i c a l p r e d i c a m e n t w it h t h e I n d i a n .
Lord T a ra and H a rv e y , i n S . M. M i t r a ’ s H in d u p o r e show how
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and sympathy a r e bo rn of i d e n t i c a l p o l i t i c a l
s i t u a t i o n a nd e x p e r i e n c e . The Englishman as an i n d i v i d u a l
was an u n p r e d i c t a b l e f a c t o r owing to h i s h a u t e u r , r a c i a l
v a n i t y and b l i n d p r e j u d i c e s , To I r o n s i d e , i n H i n d u p o r e .
and t o C r o f t - C o o k e and R e g g i e H u n t , i n Anand’ s Two l e a v e s
and a Bud, I n d i a n s were sub-human b e i n g s . Some Englishmen
i n J o g e n d r a S i n g h ’ s Kamni, l o o k e d a sk a n c e a t Miss Greenwood’ s
m ix in g w it h I n d i a n s f r e e l y . Thi s s e n s e o f s e g r e g a t i o n i s
re v e a l& d i n an a g g r a v a t e d fo r m , i n H i n d u p o r e . i n t h e
c a d d i s h b e h a v i o u r o f one J o n a t h a n Toddy who f a l l s / o u t with
Ram S i n g h , t h i n k i n g him to be an o r d i n a r y ’ n i g g e r ’ , This
reminds us o f what l a t e r Mahatma Gandhi h a d t o p u t up with
i n South A f r i c a i n a s i m i l a r , i n s u l t i n g ,e n c o u n t e r . C hris­
t i a n M i s s i o n a r y a c t i v i t i e s I n I n d i a assumed a r e l i g i o -
p o litic a i significance. Through th e H tjt c hi ns on-B ak ha
e n c o u n t e r , i n U n t o u c h a b l e , Anand s i g n i f i e s t h e ab sence o f
u n d e r s t a n d i n g between t h e B r i t i s h e r and t h e I n d i a n . Sir
R e g i n a l d M i i t e , Mr. L i t t l e and Jimmy Thomas, i n Anand’ s
Coolie, r e p r e s e n t the fo rce s of e x p l o i t a t i o n . Croff-cooke
and Reggie H u n t , i n Two l e a v e s and a Bud t y p i f y t h e B r i t i s h
h ig h b ro w is m . The r e l a t i o n s h i p assumes a much l e s s acrimo­
n i o u s form i n h i s A cross t h e B la c k Waters where t h e common
I n d i a n S o l d i e r and th e B r i t i s h o f f i c e r p u t up a j o i n t
 26

f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e common enemy on a r e m o t e , s t r a n g e ,
alien so il* Anand b o l d l y shows t h e m u tu a l m a l a d j u s t m e n t
i n t h e I n d o - B r i t i s h r e l a t i o n s h i p ; b u t c a n n o t m a i n t a i n th e
o b je c tiv e stance* As t h e n o v e l i s t h i m s e l f a d m i t t e d , he
was i n c l i n e d t o f a v o u r h i s I n d i a n c h a r a c t e r s and c a r i c a ­
t u r e most o f h i s B r i t i s h c h a r a c t e r s . 11

R e l i g i o n - i s ' s u c h a p a ra m ount i n f l u e n c e i n I n d i a
t h a t i t has s p i r i t u a l i s e d a l l s p h e r e s o f l i f e . The p r e -
In d e p e n d e n c e e r a was f u l l o f b a t t l e - c r i e s a g a i n s t s u p e r s t ­
i t i o n , i g n o r a n c e , o r t h o d o x y , f a n a t i c i s m , r e l i g i o u s h y p o c r­
i s y as a l s o a g a i n s t s o c i a l b a c k w a r d n e s s , economic d e f i c i e n c y ,
c u l t u r a l d e g r a d a t i o n and p o l i t i c a l s e r v i l i t y . Jogendra
Singh e x p re s -s e s , i n Kami a and Kamni how t h e t r u e f a i t h
knows no w a v e r i n g . M i t r a * s H in d u p o re a l s o a s s e r t s t h i s
religious f a ith . G o u r i , i n N a l i n i T a r k h u d ’ s The J a q i r d a r
o f P a l n a . s a y s t h a t ^ a e w i l l n e v e r g i v e up h e r f a i t h and
t r u s t i n God. N a g r a j a n , i n Athawar H o u s e , i n d i c a t e s t h a t
t h e r i g u t e o u s and G o d - f e a r i n g would n e v e r b e f o r s a k e n by
God. Kumara Guru, i n *A s o n ’ s shadow’ , i n d i c a t e s t h a t a
H i n d u ’ s b e l i e f t h a t t h i s w o rl d i s a mere i l l u s i o n e n a b l e s
him to h a v e a p h i l o s o p h i c and s t o i c a t t i t u d e to l i f e .
M u k e r j i , Madhaviah and Ta rkh ud c r i t i c i s e t h e o r t h o d o x
H in d u ’ s b e l i e f i n t h e super ema cy of t h e Hindu r a c e and
superstitious fa ith . S h a n k e r Ram, M i t r a , Tarkhud e x p l a i n
t h e working o f t h e Law o f Karma which j u s t i f i e s t h e ways
o f God to men and r e c o n c i l e s us to m i s e r i e s i n human l i f e .
J o g e n d r a S i n g h and Anand a r e e q u a l l y c r i t i c a l o f t h e
 27

Brahmin p r i e s t and t h e B r i t i s h M i s s i o n a r y . A na nd's e a r l i e r

n o v e l s sp e a k o f h i s d i s t r u s t o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d and
r i t u a l i s t i c r e l i g i o n and humanism i s h i s new r e l i g i o n *
Raja Rao a l s o does n o t b e l i e v e i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l forms
o f r e l i g i o n i n s p i t e o f f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s and i n v o c a t i o n s
t o Goddess Kenchamma-and h i s new r e l i g i o n i s t h e Gandhian
campaign f o r f r e e d o m .

I t would be i n t e r e s t i n g t o f i n d o u t how n a t i o n a l
c u l t u r e w i t h s t o o d t h e r a v a g e s o f t h e a l i e n r u l e i n th e
p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e e r a , b e c a u s e -a c u l t u r e i s t e s t e d when
th e country i s u nder the fo r e ig n h e e l s . D. G. M u k e r j i ,
i n My B r o t h e r * s F a c e , i l l u s t r a t e s h o s p i t a l i t y and p r o t e c t i o n
o f t h o s e who s e e k s h e l t e r a s , t h e e n d e a r i n g t r a i t s of I n d i a n .
C u l t u r e , N a l i n i Ta rk h u d , i n ' The J a g i r d a r of P a l n a , shows
how I n d i a n c u l t u r e h o l d s a woman's c h a s t i t y as more v a l u ­
a b l e th a n a n y t h i n g . J o g e n d r a S i n g h , i n Kamni. s u g g e s t s
t h a t I n d i a n C u l t u r e h ono urs woman, b u t woman as d a u g h t e r
i s r e g a r d e d as s a c r e d as g o d d e s s . An u n f a i l i n g s t r e s s on
b ra h m a ch a ry a i s an c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e ®
V e n k a ta r a m a n i, Umrao B aha dur and R a j a Rao r e v e a l s how some
young p e r s o n s , i n t h e Gandhian e r a , e x p r e s s e d t h e i n t e n s i t y
o f t h e i r l o v e f o r t h e m o t h e r l a n d by t a k i n g a vow of brahm-
c h a r y a s: t i l l t h e c o u n t r y ' s fr ee dom was won. Manjeri
i n d i c a t e V ^ t h a t o n ly t h o s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e I n d i a n
p e a s a n t s , who a r e ' u n s u l l i e d by f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e ' can
safeguard t h e i r n a tio n a l c u ltu r e . Isv a ran p re s e n ts the
a p p r e c i a t i v e e s t i m a t e o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e by t h e Englishman.
 28

In M I t r a ’ s Hlnctupore, Mr. Long i s made to admit t h a t the

Ea st r u l e s jth e West r e l i g i o u s l y a n d c u l t u r a l l y . This sounds
too w i s h f u l to be c on vinci ng and b e t r a y s t h e n o v e l i s t ' s
c o n s c io u s n e s s of the burden on him t o prove I n d i a n C ulture
to be b e t t e r than any. D. G. M uker ji, i n My B r o t h e r ' s
F a c e , s u g g e s t s that''- the W es tern ers can f i n d i n I n d i a
some balm o f h e a l i n g f o r t h e i r minds fe d up w ith s h e e r
materialism . He a l s o seems to be a v i c t i m o f s e l f - c o n s c i ­
ousness re g a r d in g th e s u p e r i o r i t y of I n d i a n c u l t u r e . He,
however, a p t l y b r i n g s out t h e Tagore i d e a l of the c u l t u r a l
s y n t h e s i s of E a s t and West.

The f a m i l y , t h e problem of m a r r ia g e and t h e c a s t e

system a r e d e a l t with i n a t r a d i t i o n a l b u t adequate manner
and th e slow b u t s tea dy changes a f f e c t i n g t h e s e I n d ia n
s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s are f a i t h f u l l y i n d i c a t e d i n t h e l o o s e ­
ni ng c a s t e - b o n d s , th e t r e n d towards d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of
cumbrous j o i n t f a m i l i e s , o c c a s i o n a l I n t e r - c a s t e , i n t e r ­
community and i n t e r r a c i a l m a r r i a g e s . The Indo-An glian
n o v e l i s t ex ten ds h i s f u l l sympathy to th e s o c i a l l y under­
p r i v i l e g e d and i s v i g i l a n t about s o c i a l d i s p a r i t y and
injustice® The novel r e f l e c t s t h e p o l i t i c a l atmosphere
o f t h e n a t i o n q u i t e f a i t h f u l l y and s a t i s f y i n g l y , keeping
in view the predicam ent of w r i t i n g guardedly a g a i n s t the
p ro b a b le c har ge o f s e d i t i o n . The a eb a u c h ero u s , tyrannous
and c r i m i n a l l y l u x u r i o u s ways o f the l i v i n g o f the p r i n c e
a r e ' e x p o s e d , b u t t h e emergent p i c t u r e le a v e s out the g lory
 29

and greatness of the P rin c e l y Ord e r as also the psycho­

analytical p o r t r a i t u r e of the prince as an individual.

The depiction of the I nd o - B r i t i s h encounter, on the whole,

seems to be fairly representative. T he traditional reli­

gious and cultural climate of the country is aptly presen­

ted, but there is, however, no serious or s u s tained effort

to v i n dicate the invincible supremacy and p eculiarity of

Indian r e l igion and culture. On the whole, pre^Independe­

n c e fiction in English seems to have prepared a good basis

for the p o s t - I n d e p e n d e nce creative harvest.

P r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e I n d o -Anglian fiction reflects the

pioneering and elementary stage of the development of

i
f
j Indian f i c tion in English from the viewpoint of thematic

^ treatment and technical experimentation, bu t it ensures a

sure step in the direction of establishing the western

forms of the novel and the short story in the special

context of I n d i a n life in all its diversity.

The P o s t - I n d e p e n d ence novel is a f u l l e r expression of

the transformed'.’ ways of life, i t is free from any psych­

ological constraints which were consciously or unconsciously

e x p e r i e n c e d by the earlier novelists. In b o t h the spheres

of form and content the l a t e r novel is certainly more

confident and muture, thus coming into its own.

• « •
 30

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1 R a j a K ao , K a n t h a p u r a , New Y o r k , 1963,
Foreword, p . 7.

2 Th-e I l l u s t r a t e d Weekly o f I n d i a , May 2 6 ,

196 3.

3 P r o f . V. Y. K a n t a k , "The L a n g u a g e o f I n d i a n
F i c t i o n i n E n g l i s h " , C r i t i c a l E s s a y s on
In d ia n W riting in E n g l i s h , Karnatak U n i v e r s i t y ,
D h arw ar , 1968, p . 14 9.

4 MuIk R a j Anand, Two L e a v e s and a Bud ,

I n t r o d u c t i o n , Kutub - P o p u l a r , Bombay,
1966, p . 6 .

® © • ® © « •
 31

CHAPTER 8,11

THE FAMILY

Certain radical changes in the structure of society

and its principal institutions become imperative in the

new climate of independence in a country after its pro­

longed servitude® -In India also, the electric impact of

Western culture, coupled with the newly achieved freedom

of behaviour, was bound to produce great agitation, suffer

ing and agony in the life of the people® The period of

transition is always fraught with pre-natal pangs, but

unfortunately, in India, the period of transition - the

period of indecision, uncertainty and insecurity - has

stretched long and wide like a monster's jaws® The task

of achieving equanimity of mind and building up of new
values has not yet been completed® The new criss-cross
gusts and blasts of wind are raging in conflicting direc­

tions and in this chaotic situation human life becomes' a

struggle and a quest®

■*/ The post-Independence age in Indian has been charac­

terized by many problems® Inflation of education. Indus­

trialisation and Urbanisation, extension of unemployment,

poverty and frustration, impact of Western ways of life,

growth of democratic, -humanitarian, individualistic ideals,

mounting economic strain and stress, socio—psychological

 32

tensions and consequent propagation of separatist* ego­

centric tendencies, parochial* Epicurean and mistaken
and-misplaced Existentialist pretensions and poses,
intolerant and cranky considerations of 'self-before-
society • invited by the general lawlessness in the atmos­
phere culminating in the spell of Beatles, Beathiks, Pop
music, strip shows and nudist societies, Hollywood films
and lurid novels - all these have* directly or indirectly
contributed towards the decline of the traditional family
ideal in our country. Hew can an author remain impervious
to the claims of a rapidly changing social order ? In do-
Anglians* within the compass of their theories and views,
beliefs and biases, have registered their reactions in
their separate ways - traditional* modem, compromising.
The general consensus seems to be to acknowledge the
A

slowly but steadily receding sway of the cumbrous family

unit. The front-liners among those who have dealt with
this aspect of Indian life are - R, K. Narayan* Raja Rao*
Kamala Markandaya, Prawer Jhabvala, Mascarenhas* Attia
Hosain and Shakuntala Shrinagesh,
/
1

The joint family is an important social institution

of India:':, It gives socio-economic stability and security

to all its members, if it is headed by a man of catholi­

city and sanity. It is' a relic of the collective form of
social living. The props of the joint family lend support,
!

33

strength and solidarity to its members. There is no ‘I *

but *We*. It tenaciously retains its character. A living

is never difficult in it, though life may be. Like a

bunyan tree, it offers its soothing shade to all, even to

the agonised orphans who otherwise would have wandered

away from human love® It is essentially patriarchal in

its origin and character. The conventional concept of

the joint family is that the head of the family is asser­

tive, authoritative, high-handed and keeps all the members

in their right place and together. Westernised people d*

not approve of this pattern of family life, because it

seems to deprive them of privacy and individuality.

Indo-Anglian writers thus examine the advantages and

disadvantages of this ancient Indian social institution*

Their attitude is nostalgic or critical. The spirit of

post-Independence times discourages the joint family

system and has awakened in all the desire to be self-

dependent to lead their lives in their own way. This

social order is vanishing fast owing to the individuali­
stic claims of modern society.
- i

The joint family sometimes affords protection to

idlers, wastrels and arty and careless people who do not

have to worry about the maintenance of themselves and

their own family. In R. K« Narayan*s Mr. Sampath,

Srinivas's elder brother asks him to do something for

making his wife and son happy. Of course, the elder

brother continues to look after the entire family without

 34

1
making any distinction* The joint family is now a

burden to the bread-earner and dampens the desire of the

hangers-on and habitual idlers to earn their bread*

Anita Desai suggests how the arty, intellectual, independent-

minded educated young members feel that their development
is jeopardized by the excessive claims of the joint family

system* Even adolescents are ready to come up with a

complaint against it any moment, Nikhil, in Voices in

the City, tells Amla : 'It is a bad system, this joint

family, it makes it very hard for me to study and pass

2
exams. ' Certain members used to living in a joint

family find it difficult to look after their own family®

They find domestic duties irksome and nostalgically
remember how they were free from these worries in the

joint family* Srinivas, in Narayan 's Mr® Sampath, finds

himself 'violating some prlncipale mr the other of domestic
3
duty' when he is in charge of his wife and son. Mrs.
Jhabvaia reveals how the elders watch, guard, guide,
help and control the young and their wisdom and experience
are highly useful to them* Viddy, in The Mature of Passion,

realizes the benefits of the joint family when Om assures

him that the problem of the bill did not matter and it is
4
not only his but their problem* The heads of the joint
families have imbibed the new spirit of the post-Indepen­
dence era, as Nagarajan points out through; Koni's
 35

analysis of Gangadhar Suri's family-attitude* Suri

thinks it far better to allow the younger generation to

have its own way and retain its affections than to exer­
cise authority and alienate than. This is quite against
5
orthodox notions of the Hindu joint family. Despite our
desire or claim for modernity, some persons in India are

not willing to let the joint family system die. Kusum,

in Jhabvala‘s Get Ready for Battle, tells Gulzarilal that

it is not easy to do away with the joint family system.

"Our girls are used to living in the joint family and to

have many people about them and an older woman to direct

them® This is how things, are done in our country...

Orphans in large families are mothered by great aunts.

Raja Rao brings out in his rare perceptive manner this

significant aspect of life in the joint family patterns"..*
7
for an orphan in a real household iS. never an orphan".

According to Attia Hosain, this pattern of family life

never finds the approval of the Westernized® To them, it

appears to be handicapped by 'entanglements, unreasoning-

restrictions, unreasonable demands and^Lack of privacy'l
Westernized Hamid, in Sunlight on a Broken Column, does
8
not like to live in his family. One of the drav/backs of
the joint family system is absence of privacy in it, which

makes sex-e-fulfilment an impossibility® The honeymoon is

unknown - except to the Westernized and wealthy few - so.
 36

despite frequent sex-acts, there is hardly any phy­

sical acquaintance® The sex-act, like the call of nature,

is brief and brutal - this causes many perversions®

Khushwant Singh, in I shall not hear the nightingale,

makes a penetrating analysis of sex-life in the Indian

family s "Unfulfilled sexual impulses result in an obse­

ssion with sex and in many perversions which result

from frustration s sadism, masochism and most common

9
of all, exhibitionism®"

Traditional families have a special code of behavi­

our® They aim at social reputation and scrupulously

eschew anything derogatory to their names. Their members
respect family traditions and their elders and festivi­

ties and are averse to change. The renegades flout these

time-honoured ways of life and yet do not wish to forgo

the ancestral legacy, in spite of his preference for

traditional family life, R. K* Narayan presents both sides

of the case® Ancient traditional families have to keep up
their reputation for social respectability. There should

be no trace even of cheapening or vulgarisation® As R® K®

Narayan points out, even the names of their members

should be supporting the general notion of their sensibi­

lity and sobriety® Raju, in The Guide, comments on the
incompatibility of the name of Rosie as one coming of a

traditional dancer family. A classical dancer must call

10
herself 'something that is poetic and appealing*. Old-
timers in conservative families are very fond of festive
 37

ceremonies and rituals affording opportunity to their

craving for the grand and spectaculars Social esteem

sometimes ranks higher then even family affection*

Krishnan, in B® Rajan's The Dark Dancer, feels that his

parents-* pleasure of seeing him a day earlier does not

offset the loss of ceremony and that he matters less

11
than 'the festivities he liras supposed to occasion*.
People born and brought up in traditional families should
adore their family traditions and their elders and should
never forget the family prgstige and greatness® Aunt
Abida, in Sunlight on a Broken Column, asks Laila to show
respect even to Uncle Mohsin, who is crude and rude, in
12
the name of their ancient, noble family. R® K® Narayan
subtly shows how youngmen, who pride themselves on being
very liberal-minded, forget readily that if they flout

family traditions, they should not avail themselves of

the family legacy® Raju *s maternal uncle, in The Guide,

sarcastically refers to the inconsistency of scapegraces

like Raju 'who had no respect for family traditions and

13
yet tried to enjoy their ancestors' hard earned wealth*.

Most Indians are generally averse and impervious to social

change which implies agitation and tension and philosophi­

cally put up even with inconveniences, discomforts and

inadequacies® R. K® Narayan, in The Vendor of Sweets,

shows how in the 'regime' of Jagan's father no change is
 38

possible in the house® “Everything in this home had the

sanctity of usage, which was the reason why no improvement '

’
Id
was possible.” " Family tradition and a general fatalistic

attitude of resignation contribute towards reluctance for

change. Status quo is precisely the social situation for

many an Indian.

The bonds of blood are strong and permanent and

assert themselves on gay or grievous occasions. Even

unpleasant relations become bearable in critical situa­

tions. R. K. Narayan, Shrinagesh, Mulk Raj Anand and

Anand Lall examine these relationships from different

angles. Shrinagesh, in The Little Black Box, points out

that life means a number of bonds - 'these little gossa­

mer threads which bind men to each other'. Unless these

are Snapped, life is endless. There is no mortality. One

such bond, Sarala says, is her love for her niece Nimi®

She can-not die before severing herself from it® 15 Only

sometimes, estrangement is permanent in respect of family-

relationships, otherwise, as Shrinagesh shows, even

undesirable, unbearable relatives are a great solace in

crisis® Familiarity is established even between relatives

meeting after years of distances and estrangement® That

is why Sarala does not feel it strange to be with Nimi,

1 fs
who is 'better for her than twenty strangers*. R® K*
\
Narayan reveals how people forget or eschew their paro-
 39

chial family-feuds on funereal and festive occasions,, The

one demands compassion and the philosophic calm in the

presence of death and the.bereaved naturally turn to their

flesh and blood rather than to outsiders® The other

inspires one to be swelling and swaggering- or catholic

and expansive with a desire to show off pride of joy or

share it® Margayya, in The Financial Expert/ feels that

they must not let down ties of blood® He and his wife

call on his brother early in the morning with a request

and invitation to bless Balu voyaging out on his Schola-

17
Stic venture® On critical occasions# members of the

family have to get together to tide over an unbearable

event® Margayya's brother takes up the situation in

hand and asks the strangers to leave, when Balu is said

to be dead® He says, This is the t i m e ’when the

18
family has to be together". This indicates that the

ties of blood are inseparable. Certain family relation­

ships grow or revive under the shadow of a crisis® As

sootei as it is lifted up, the cleft becomes clearly visible

again® Balu's home-coming shatters the hopes of the two

families living together in manageable co-operation®

They have to fall spart® Now there is no crisis, so the

helpers of the family have to go. The novelist expresses

it thus - "It was a relationship essentially thriving on

a crisis". The villain of death sometimes affords

comic relief in the form of a family reunion in the drama

 40

of life, unfortunately# a funeral is a rendezvous for

several family-branches. Margavya’s brother# true to his

family loyalty# is playing the busybody when Balu is

reported dead. Even under such stress of crushing grief#

in subconscious layers of persons' consciences is lurking

a joy of at least having regained the love of a close

relation long-estranged - R. K. Narayan has beautifully

20
caught this subtle psychological reaction. . Young

persons# carried away by love# easy life or difference

in ideologies# sometimes separate from their families#

but the pull of the family compels them to return to the

nest# sooner or later. In Mulk Raj Anand's The Road#

Lachman honestly confesses the crime of burning the
Chamars ' huts and despite Thakur Singh's implicit theeats
to cut off his engagement with Rukmini# he declares
21
boldly. "I am going where my family is". Some septua­
genarians# with hollows in their cheeks and souls# would
practise only a theatrical kind of love for their relati­

ves. In the drama of Self# family love# to them# is only

a side-show# a farcial interlude. Anand Lall makes a

casual study of a section of feudal society in decline.
Ram Nath# in The House at Adampur# wallows in the mire

of lecherous thoughts of dividing his time between Gita

and Ranu# instead of bothering about these relatives#; 'a
bunch of over-fed# greedy people'. He made an 'historical'

decision not to 'give another moment to the affairs of

the family*.

Indo-Anglian novelists show that the unity and

 41

^ sanctity of the family ought to be preserved at all

costs. There is nothing more gratifying than the family

unity to the elders. If there is mutual affection,

nothing could compare with it. It would bring a solution

to any problem. In The Nature of Passion, Jhabvala

depicts Lalaji's happiness at seeing Om and Viddy working

together with genuine brotherly affection and love® It

is the success of the head of the family, if other

members live up to expectations and bring joy and glory
23
to the family. It is good that members of a family, as
individuals, should understand each other. But the unity
of the family is to be nourished and nurtured holily.

Attia Hbss.in shows this in Sunlight on a Broken Column,

when Kamal makes this point clear to Saleem i ‘I don’t
want the family to split up® There is too much of it in
24
the air now~a-days® I want us to remain united** It is
true that the sanctity of the family is to be protected

against the assaults of immorality. We should cleanse

our own minds and lives and also those of others around
us to extend the region of godliness® In Jhabvala’s The

Householder, prem, a family man, complains to the principal

against the indiscipline of some boys in the class and

emphatically expresses his views on College disci-pline

25
and family honour and his duties as a householder.
Mrs, Jhabvala illustrates, in Get Ready for Battle, that
family secrets cannot be bandied about among outsiders.
 42

Kusum# with her characteristic astuteness# prevails upon

Sarala Devi to let Tara go# because she does not think the

presence of any outsider necessary when family matters are

being discussed.^® What an irony that Kusum conveniently

forgets that she is herself precisely an outsider in

Sarala's family i Malgonkar exposes how some aristocratic

men unashamedly keep mistresses and do not feel any
scruples about it* They make a new pattern of life ‘with
its separate compartments for sex and family life'® Abhay#
in The princes# despite his comparatively liberal outlook

as a Prince# does not hesitate to have Zarina' as his

27
mistress. This mainly reflects the spirit in pre-
Independence times® In these post-Independence times#

people have grown quite aware of their social status

and rights® It is no longer easy for men to lord over

women and to defile the sanctity of the family. Kudos

to Gandhiji who has invested Indian womanhood with new

glory and independence®

The honour of the family must be preserved at all

costs® All sorts of jobs cannot be accepted by respectable

people. Even the poor would not allow their family name
to be sullied. it is more precious than any wordly
property® No sacrifice is too great for maintaining
family honour® It is beyond compromise and# to some#
it is dearer than their children even® This is how the
 43

Indo-Anglian novelist expresses the sense of family honour

that most Indians f eel * He satirises the excessive,

hypocritical and theatrical attitude to this®,^

Family honour is beyond compromise and even famished-

but proud-families refuse to be prostrated under the

crushing load of debts and wants# Meera's grandfather,

in Bhattacharya*s A Goddess Named Gold, goes out of his

village in search of shelter but refuses the Seth's help®

Grandmother also is with him® He says : "Homeless

O Q

wretches, we still have our honour"® Attia Hosain

also indicates that soiling the family's honour is a card­

inal sin® Abida, in Sunlight on a Broken Column, rebukes

Laila that she has put herself above her duty to her
family. Abida loves Laila, but she loves family honour

more® She accuses Laila ruthlessly. "You have let your

family's name be bandied about by scandal-mongers. You
have soiled its honour on their vulgar tongues.""" Loss

of family honour is a serious thing# Parents do not

forgive even their dear children for letting them down s
the moment is filled with illogical and corrosive hatred.

They curse, dis-inherit or disown them® Margayya, in

The Financial Expert, is greatly disappointed to know

that Balu could not pass his S.S.L.C. Examination and

incurred public disgrace. He says he can-not tolerate a

son who brings such disgraces on the family® Later, his

continued absence also does not soften Margayya, who
 44

'30
continues to rave s "He is not my son." To people of

an older generation there is no greater unhappiness than

loss of family name and prestige. Even economic loss can

be put up with, but, in no case', should family reputation

be allowed to be soiled. Ravi's aged father, in Mr.

Sampath by R® K. Narayan, is not worried about the loss

of his son's service as about how he has lost his service

"Whatever happens to us we want to preserve a good name

in the society." 31 He does not want Ravi to serve in a

film studio and asks Srinivas not to put notions into

Ravi's head about his natural gift in art. The family
honour, he says, is vastly more important than any shady
32
job like the one in the studio. This excessive and
exaggerated'concern for family name belongs to the pre-
Independence times® The moment of a girls* parting, after

her wedding, from her father's family is a tender and

touching scene in Indian family life. Parents would

exhort the young girl to preserve their family honour by

treading the difficult path of virtue. Rashmi's father's

exhortation to her, in Veena Paintal 's Serenity in Storm,

33
illustrates the point. The sense of hospitality cannot
be extinguished by financial difficulties or inconvenient
guests. Ladies of the family also forget all rancour and

sense of insult at having to serve guests highly inferior

to them in status. Lakshmi, in Rajan's Too Long in the

West, does not like the candidates for Nalini's hand but
 45

t r e a t e d them generously by p re p a rin g an e la b o r a te meal. 3 4 Even

poor r u r a l f a m ilie s would not brook t h e i r members* i l l e g a l
a c t i v i t i e s . - i t would be a b l o t on t h e i r fam ily honour. Young
persons migftt r e v o l t a g a in s t th e standards - p a tie n c e and end­
urance - o f such peasant f a m ilie s and y e t they accen t th ese
very standards when s e t by t h e i r lovers* f a m i l i e s . Markandaya
*F
b rin g s out iishis i r o n i c s i t u a t i o n , in A H a n dful,R ice, when R avi,
a g a in s t h is fam ily s ta n d a rd s , accepts those because o f h is
love f o r N a l i n i . ^
The s tr e n g th of th e whole f a m ily 's c h a r a c t e r i s sometimes
t e s t e d , when th e r e i s a c o n f l i c t between love f o r a c lo se
r e l a t i v e , th re a te n e d with c a p i t a l punishment and sense o f duty
and m o ra lity . Each member would then re v e al h is c h a r a c te r in
th e expression of re a c tio n to th e crime committed by th e
re la tiv e . Sher Singh, in I s h a l l n o t h e a r th e n i g h t i n g a l e ,
was a r r e s t e d as a t e r r o r i s t . Buta Singh was w orried about h is '
c a r e e r and name. S abhrai, a l i t t l e confused over le g a l im p lie s -
-i

t i o n s , sought refuge in r e l i g i o n . Beena wanted S her to come

back whatever th e c o s t . 3 6 Buta Singh’ s a t t i t u d e is. s e l f i s h ,
Sabhrai*s e t h i c a l and Beena*s t r u l y s i s t e r l y . This demarcation
o f th e emotional le v e l of a fam ily i s s k i l f u l l y d e lin e a te d .
The edge of self-condem nation on account of one’ s degradation,
i s sharpened, e s p e c ia lly when one belongs t o a mfamily of
v a l i a n t ■f i g h t e r s f o r n a tio n a l freedom.. K a j o l i , in
Bhattacharya*s So Many Hungers, deplored h e r p r e s e n t s o c ia l
degradation and n o s t a l g i c a l l y remembered h e r f a t h e r , b r o th e r
and husband whose s p i r i t was no t broken d e s p it e s u f fe rin g s in
Jail-h o u se. Woman's p a r t i c i p a t i o n and a s p i r a t i o n to
 46

p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e war o f n a t i o n a l in d e p e n d e n c e i n d i c a t e s
t h e m a g n e tic im p a c t o f G andhian th o u g h t on t h e a v e r a g e ...
i-ndian f a m i l y . M algonkar shows t h a t som etim es members o f
a fa m ily who h a v e no s e l f - r e s p e c t pounce upon a l o n g -
n e g l e c t e d member o f t h e f a m i l y , i f h e h a s h a d some l a u d a b l e
a c h ie v e m e n t. Gopal C h a n d id a r, i n A Bend i n t h e G a n g es, i s
p e s t e r e d by h i s r e l a t i v e s w ith sudden a t t e n t i o n , b e c a u s e h e
h a s won th e M i l i t a r y C ro s s , a M a jo r’ s ran k and D i r e c t o r s h i p
38
o f a B ritis h firm . I r o n i c a l l y enough, some p e r s o n s
remember t h e i r f a m ily h o n o u r p r e c i s e l y when th e y a r e a b o u t
to lo s e i t . When J a g a n , i n R . K, N a ray a n ’ s The V endor o f
S w s e t s , f i n d s t h a t M ali and G ra c e , though u n m a r r ie d , has
been l i v i n g as man and w i f e , he rem arks t h a t su ch a t h i n g
was n o t h e a r d of. i n t h e i r f a m i l y . He f e e l s t h a t he can no
l o n g e r l i v e i n h i s h o u se - ' u n s u l l i e d f o r g e n e r a t i o n s ’ -
„ ' og
b u t now i n c o r r i g i b l y b la c k e n e d by th e young p e r s o n s . As
t h e tim e o f s u c h fa m ily b r e a k - u p s , s o c i a l p r e s t i g e works
as a c h e c k . P a r e n t s do n o t d r i v e away t h e i r c h i l d r e n
th e m selv e s. They o n ly f i n d o u t b ack d o o rs and l i v e i n
is o la tio n . . '
^ " F a m ily h a p p in e ss i s l i k e a ta lis m a n a g a in s t a l l m a lic e,
r a n c o u r and i n j u s t i c e o f t h e w o r ld . I t i s a panacea f o r a l l
th e i l l s o f . l i f e . I t i s t h e to u c h s t o n e o f l i f e . The t e x t u r e
o f fa m ily l o v e i s t e n d e r , s u b t l e and e x c l u s i v e . I f a sin g le
y a r n o r f i l a m e n t seems to , be s n a p p in g a p a r t , t h e whole p a t t e r n
is sh a tte re d . I n d o - A n g lia n n o v e l i s t s have drawn charm ing
p i c t u r e s o f s i m p l e , f a m ily h a p p i n e s s . They h a v e a l s o shown
how t h e new s p i r i t awakened b y t h e p o s t - I n d e p e n d e n c e changes i n
 47

country now enable man to battle against superstitions

and even traditional beliefs of religion. This is

indicative of new values in life advanced by scientific

approach. Their attitude is not always idealistic. They

expose the drastic impact of jealousy, apathy, poverty,

and immorality on the harmony of family life.

Contented and happy family life could easily be a

great emotional aid in weathering the storms in life.

Kamala Markandaya draws, in A Silence of Desire, a very

beautiful picture of a happy middle-class family, before

the mental eye of its head, wending his weary way home­
ward in the evening. "There was the thought of a well-

cooked meal, his wife's welcome, the children, his home

to spur him on" - such tranquilly happy thoughts’ fill
40
Dandekar's mind. The ugly shadow of jealousy or
suspicion would darken this bright prospect of a family
gathering in the evening. If a single member drifts-

even psychologically and, gradually also actually, -

qpart, the whole rhythm is broken. First, Sarojini and
then Dandekar and ultimately their children drift away
/ 1
from and not to the family® * Family happiness is the
touchstone of life. This appears to be particularly
true to those who have not had any family life worth
the name or those who have once had and now lost it.

Others' happy family life or their own sweet past

memories of family bliss cause in than a nostalgic
regret, for this divine conferment upon humanity.
 48

Brijmohan, an elderly confirmed bachelor, in Jhabvala's

Get Ready for Battle, appreciates Kusum's past happy

family life and says that family happiness is a wonderful

thing. Kusum endorses his views and remarks that the

warmth of family love is a divine blessing. 4 2 Khushwant

Singh shows that innocent, tender and spon-taneously

humorous jokes acquire proverbial currency in families

and help to ease tense situations. In, I shall not here
■ \
the nightingale by Khushwant Singh, Sabhrai’s observant,

indulgent, tender wifely eyes catch the perch of a stingy

piece of vegetable on Buta Singh’s walrus moustache. The

joke is circulated in whispers by Sabhrai to Shunno and

also to Beena who obligingly tells the offended, tickled

victim ; "Mama says there is a bulbul on the bough.

Such iridescent jokes betoken the bliss of tender family

life. Kamala Markandaya shows how the usual family
comforts and love behind it are taken for granted by men,

but once they lose these, they realise the magnitude of

that loss® These small gifts of life are not to be
ignored. Dandekar, in A Silence of Desire, realises this
to his chagrin. "He had hardly realised before the extent
to which he derived his well-being from the regular even­
ing meal, surrounded by his family, at the end of the

day’s work," He has lost all this, because Sarojini is

turning more and more to the Swamy. He goes on having
frequent assignations - also, therefore, economic hard-
 49

ships - with whores# Ramabai visiting milk bars in loose#

4 4 .
mixed company and Lakshmi remaining without her meals.*"

Markandays# in possession# suggests how true family love

is roomy and can warmly accommodate even the returning

prodigal. Val's mother tells Anasuya that she is impa­

tient to see her son before she dies and assures her of
a family welcome to Val, She is sure her brothers' wives
45
would even find out a bride for him. Markandaya
underlines the fact that the happiness of a family largely
depends upon the housewife. She should apply her full
mind and heart to her task of building a family of sterl­

ing worth. If she is present only as an eggshell# the

family begins to degenerate® Dandekar understands this

reg^retfully and complains to his officer about the Swamy's

hold on Sarojini. but I want to exist, to exist

for her. I want my world back, my children happy, my

floors swept*' - and more than that because - "My wife is

part of me now." No price is too high for recapturing

one's lost happiness. At times# one may bargain one's

soul for it. Dandekar tells the Swamy's dwarf that he

fights for the treasured possessions. "But I fought also
for other things - my wife# myself# my children....."

The Swamy's departure means restoration of the long-lost

happiness. Dandekar is very eager to give to his children
the cheerful tidings of their mother's spiritual home-
47
coming. poverty in a large family amounts to perpetual
penance in life® They are allowed to exist# as it were#

on sufferance. Parents feel acclimatized in an atmosphere

of pain# but their pain is multiplied to see the flowers

 50

of their flesh, mostly unnourished, always undernourished

and sometimes even fading away* Markandaya shows that

the slender resources are stretched to the maximum extent

of elasticity to give as much as possible to the first

born. In Nectar in a Sieve, Rukamani, therefore, thinks :

"In our sort of family, it is as well to be the first

born.

^ T o an average Indian, his duty to his family is of

paramount importance. If he can satisfactorily discharge
it, he feels a man fulfilled, but if he fails in it, he

feels a wretched man. Suffering and self-sacrificing for

the nation is not everybody's destiny. There are many
wants, handicaps, hurdles and frustrations in life, A

breadwinner is committed to his family. He cannot afford

to serve his country in his own way. His spirit is rest­
less but also helpless like a caged bird. In so Many
Hungers, Prakash, who has to maintain his mother and
widowed sister with her children, cannot court impri­

sonment in the fight for freedom. Translating his patrio­

tic sentiment into action means family-starvation. He

has to fight with himself. This is also a sort of self-

49
sacrifice, Jhabvala points out how, to 'men of family,
the curse of anemploynent or inadequate employment is
unbearable. They desperately struggle to improve their

status, Family respensibilities sometimes arouse their

manhood. They accept the challenge and go out in quest
 51

of adventurous opportunities. This awareness of family

conscience is a remarkable contribution to ennoblement

of life. Bal, in A Backward Place, tells Sudhir about

his plan to go away in search of attractive avenues of

earning. "And no one will ever dare to say to me again,"

and his eyes blaze dangerously - "that I can't support

my own family® No one shall ever insult me like that

again®" < //' Shakuntala Shrinagesh stresses how duties

and rights go together, but sometimes heads or elders of

families advance their rights as such without discharging

their duties, or still worse, despite their being respon­

sible for the family break-ups. Raj *s behaviour, as
Sarala, in The Little Black Box, points out, supports

this point. 51 Markandaya indicates that the family is

wrecked if the head or the housewife is indifferent to
its weal. Children pick up their clue and begin to
wander outside® The price of family character is constant

vigilance. Dandekar, in A Silence of Desire, helplessly

witnesses the family happiness spilling away. Ramabai

sees no harm in going to the Milk Bar in unknown company,

since Sarojini, neglecting her duties, is also going to

meet someone unknown. 52 Jhabvala shows that idealists
are a trouble to others in the family and also to them­

selves. Though they have to survive in the concrete world,

these sublimated lotos-eaters prefer to live in the utopian
land of ideas. They cannot maintain useful contacts and
 52

do not cash in on past sacrifices* Idealist Ram Nath*

in Esmond in India* is in a bad plight when he has to

seek a bride for his son, because he has lost touch with

his family* friends and others® Har Dayal is a living

53
contrast to him®

Indo-Anglian novelists show how ancestral property

is generally considered sacred in India® The property

should nohow go out of one's family is the firm belief
of an average Indian® It is now difficult for the feudal
families to preserve their property on account of the
new spirit of changing times# If elders foster love of

money in their children* they come to regard them as

mere sources of getting money. The economic condition

of the family cannot be ignored - all members must put

their shoulders to the wheel®

R. K. Narayan shows that family property* a sacred

trust* cannot be frittered away according to individual

whims® In Mr® Sapmpath* Srinivas *s brother writes to

him : "You will understand that ancestral property is

after all a sacred trust* and not loose money meant for

the fanciful expenditure of the individual ; it really

54
belongs to our children and their children." Attia
Hosain also suggests that to men of an older generation

family property is the external sacred symbol of these

values 5to which the family owned dutiful sacrificial
obedience'. Baba Jan, in Sunlight on a Broken Column*

is sorry to see his son Hamid joining the Civil Service

instead of looking after the family estate. 55

 53

Fortified by the conventional belief that money should

not generally get out of family/ as Shrinagesh describes/

even some undeserving/ evil relatives feel assured

that money should and would automatically come to them

sometime or the other, Raj/ in The Little Block Box/

asks Sarala if money remains in the family* He Suggests
that their father would not have liked it to go to

outsiders - Sarala, however, displays the new awakening,

freed of convention and taboos and tells Raj that She
may be leaving it to the hospital and thus 'putting the
5&
money to a better use'* This is the proof of the new

spirit of the age, Anand Lall shows how families of

feudal lords find that the dry leaves of their selfish

interests are likely to fall dead due to the wild winds

of the newborn freedom of the country® By proffering

bribes of larger shares to the tenants and ryots, they
hope to prolong their hold, Dewan Ram Nath, in The

House at Adampur, purposely tells the largish family

assembly that if they refuse to understand the spirit

of the times they will blow up their estates and be

left standing on the ashes, 5 7

/
Sometimes wealthy parents themselves plant in
their children's minds insane love of wealth and pamper
them by spending excessively on them to win'love.
Ironically enough, children als* come to regard them as
 54

mere money-machines* In R. K. Narayan's The Vendor of

Sweets, Jagan, bereft of family love, bitterly compares
the demands of money $ the beggar's and his son's* His
sad comment is : "At least this fellow spoke better than
Mali in similar circumstances, who didn't want him if
he did not claim to be a wealthy father."58 Shrinagesh
points out how money has been the root cause of the
dissolution of many a family. Sarala's sisters Sharada,
Malini and their brother Raj : their relationship is -
*a symbol of the canker, that has eaten into all our
hearts'. They all condemn Sarala, because she has the
key of the little, black box, the symbol of money,
legacy. "That is the thing that has taken possession
of us, the horror, the nightmare, the evil. Our family
has got money h in its brain." 59 The young educated
persons feel that the monster of humdrum life of the
businessmen would devour them. They want to tear
themselves away from it, but the lure of gold is irresi­
stible and ultimately they have to give in to the pull
of family life. Viddy, in- Jhabvala 's The Nature of
Passion, is afraid that if he joins his father's
business, he will be another Om Prakash, a money-earning,
enjoying nonentity. Economic independence is the only
escape - as shown by Chandra Prakash.^ The problem
faced by a large family today is very complex. Parents
 55

have to allow their young children to go outside for

jobs. Family happiness depends upon the co-operation,

self-sacrifice and spirit'of service of all its members.

Nandini, in the novel of that name by Nirody, is a slip

of a girl and yet she rises to the occasion and substan­

tiates the faith of her f ather.

The role of woman in family life is of vital signi­

ficance. Women writers of fiction, who have come to the

fore-front after Independence, perceptively analyse the

position and problems of woman in today's India. They

indicate how woman now is also a bread-winner in certain
families. Besides being a monetary prop, she is also a
spiritual guide and mentor and is esteemed as the leader
in some families.

The post-Independence phase in Indian social life

has been marked by catholicity and liberalism. New

social reforms and values are being established. Raja

Rao shows how the proverbial concept of the step-mother

as cruel is also undergoing change® She, exuding divine

affection, is not now deprived of the filial love of her

step-children. Women can even be elevated as heads of

families, patriarchal in their origin. Rama, in The
Serpent and the Rope, warmly responds to the family
welcome, acknowledged resemblance between him and the

Little Mother and affectionately and cheerfully transfers

 56

62
his headship of the family to the Little Mother.

s f An average Indian family has so far always been

v

averse to the idea of its women going out to earn*

Traditionally speaking, it would reflect adversely on

the competence of man and imperil the prestige of the

family* In recent years, there has been a radical

transformation of social values consequent upon political

and legal changes after Independence* Growing unemploy­

ments economic tension, female independence, education,
competence and confidence, male progressiveness and

catholicity are some of the factors which have allowed

woman to go out to earn. Of course, still there is some

hesitancy and tentativeness about such decisions* In

Jhabvala's A Backward Place, Bal at first resents Judy's
going out for service, but soon starts lavishing panegy­

rics on the independent role of woman in today's India -

63
man's companion and equal® The post-war generation
has been nourished on the sense of freedom* Etaanci-

pation of woman and assertion of her privileges and

womanly status are the gifts of the post-Independence

era in India. Life in cities is marked by revolt against

tyranny and campaign for human freedom. This spirit

has not spread much in far-flung villages. Occasionally,

even a labourer's wife would answer her supercilious

husband back and threaten him that she would not brook
 57

any dictation from him* Bstreline# in Sorrowing Lies My

Land by Mascarenhas# tells her husband fearlessly, "The

children are more mine than yours# remember# and I shall

do with them as I think best. Of course# Estrelina

is a virago# but such a spirit is pre-eminently the

product of the New Age of Freedom* ^

It is dangerous to be too sensitive. When sensitive

and imaginative women are surrounded by heavy-headed and

high-handed philistinism# their tragedy is inevitable.

Monisha# in Anita Desai's Voices in the City# cannot get

adjusted in her husband's family and constantly feels

herself to be an outsider. Her intellectual insularity

65
drxves her to withdrawal and disengagement* Attia
Hosain also shows that an unsuitable marriage in an
unsuitable family would mean unbearable unhappiness.
Sensitive and idealistic Abida, surrounded by desiccated

and colourless women in her husband's home, in sunlight

on a Broken Column# presents a heart-rending picture of

self-effacement and silent suffering on the alter of

family honour. Monisha and Abida# essentially differ­

ent in their temperaments but placed in similar predica­

ments# greet the same ominous fa 4^- untimely death#

suicide and suicide of a sort*

The simple and innocent are the blessed.'' To them#

religion is the panacea for all the ills of life, woman

 58

is the prop of the family in India® Her religiousness

is the sheet-anchor in a spiritual crisis. The faith

of her kindly light leads her people in the midst of the

encircling.gloom. She inculcates in her children

respect for uprightness and plays the role of the family

high-priest. If any of her flock strays away from the

path of righteousness, she prays to God for forgiveness

and enhances the measure of her stoical suffering. In

Khushwant Singh's I fehall not hear the Nightingale, when

' ~ ~ " v \
Sher Singh's life is hanging on the thread of tne Imperial

Law's 'whim, Sabhrai surrenders herself completely to the

67
Granth and the Guru, Etna, in Mascarenhas's Sorrowing

Lies My Land, would constantly pray to God mn behalf of

her children - to forgive their sins and to make them

68
good. She feels deeply agitated to find that her son

Antonio had kissed Clara. Her God-fearing nature would

69
not let her neglect her children's moral lapses,

Indian family life is crumbling because of tw»

extreme and diametrically contradictory forces working

in today's society. .Orthodoxy demands that large joint

families should continue to function as social units

and that either patriarchs or matriarchs should wield

their whips mercilessly to control the disintegrating

elements. Modernity, under Western impact, demands

that family interests be sacrificed on the altar of

individual happiness. The family had never been flouted

/
 59

so shamelessly as now owing to considerations of love

and marriage with a person chosen by oneself but disapp­
roved by the elders. Consequently# time-honoured family
tenets are challenged by both generation-s. .In the teeth

of the opposition of his mother and maternal uncle#

Raju, in R„ K, Narayan's The Guide# puts a protecting

arm around Rosie and assures her that she is going to be
70
there; others who do not like -it# are welcome to leave.
Well# this would not have been possible in pre-Indepen­

dence Indian society. If members of the family are

opposed to one’s love affair# one is likely to feel
hostile to and estranged from them. They became ‘the

others*. In Attia Hosain's Sunlight on a Broken Column#

Laila's love for Ameer is disapproved by Hamid and
Saira# who consequently become ‘the others*# from
71
Laila's view-point.

The older generation attached great importance to

rich and influential families while considering the
prospective life-partners for their children. The

younger generation cannot understand this craze for

money# power# influence and fame in such an intensely
personal matter like marriage and# therefore# revolts

against the tyrannical wishes of the elders* Well-to-do

persons brought up in the bygone world insist on adequate

family background while fixing up the marriages of their
 60

children. Ironically enough, they are just indifferent

to the personal merits or otherwise of the proposed
brides or bridegrooms of their progeny. Mrs. Jhabvala,
in go Whom She Will, makes this clear from the talk
between Pandit Rai Bahadur Saxena and Amrita. 72 A good
family is the paramount consideration for a parental
match-maker in Indian society. Radha thinks of families
of ministers and business magnates, whereas Amrita is
content with Hari, who, she thinks, loves her sincerely. 73
Considerations- Whether the family is good, whether the
prospective in-laws are toterably accommodative - weigh
pertinently on the minds of a would-be couple, especially
the girl. Baba, in Sant ha Rama Ran 's Remember the House,
is rather cold in response to Hari *s hinting at his
proposal for marriage because she does not know his
family well. Mother-in-law as a kill-joy has become
proverbial, Hari assure* Baba that she would find an
unexacting mother-in-law in his gentle mother. 74 The
presence of a modern, city-loving girl in a traditional,
’proud family in a backward village is like a bull in a
china shop. It x»/ould conflict with the Status quo. In
Music for Mohini, Bhattacharya shows how Mohini, a mere
girl, finds herself an alien in the Big House at Behula,
75
tradition-ridden and taboo-infested. Rupture in the
relations between father and would-be father-in-law is
always an occurrence fatal to the young betrothed.
 61

Loyalties are divided and whoever is defeated, the

betrothed is doomed. Mala, in Anand's The Road, is

worried about the possibility of the breaking off of

the exchange betrothal alliances of the children of

Dhooli Singh and Thakur Singh owing to their opposite
76
stands regarding the Road. llalgonkar brings out that
all the riches of the world would not enable even a
prince to wipe out the family dishonour resultant from
the runaway marriage of a close relative. If the glory

of a family is great, its humiliation too is great. In

The princes, Abhay, though sympathetic to his mother,

cannot pardon her for running away with Abdulla and

77/
thus leaving a permanent blot on their family name.^/

Cousins can marry in Muslim families. Probably

the convention originated in the desire to keep maids

and money in the family, When cousins are brought up

with a view to getting them married, it is all right,

but when they have been regarding each other specially

as brother-sister, such a matrimonial alliance would be

a sort of incest, because money would be the prime

impulse behind it. Saira, in Attia Ho sain1s Sunlight

on a Broken Column, wishes Xemal to marry Laila whose

property then cannot go outside the family ! To Kemal
it is incest, because he has always thought of Laila
78
as a sister only.
 62

/ Divorce in India has a very low social origin* It

is considered to be a degradation, though legal or even

moral. Low castes obtain divorce easily and so divorce

has been vulgarised. Respectable families, therefore,

react adversely to proposals of divorce. Of course, this

attitude is now considered old-fashioned, reactionary.
Brijmohan, in Jhabvala’s Get Ready for Battle, says that
a woman from their family cannot be easily divorced.
Kusum, in her hypnotic way, silences him by retorting
79 /
that he xs old-fashioned in his approach to the problem. J/

The Gandhian influence and the impact of independence,

enhanced by the East-West encounter, sharpened the clash

between the older and younger generations, that is between

tradition and modernity. Indo-Anglian novelists have

depicted these sociological forces of authority and

revolt. Ancient families have a duty to society at

large, for humble people look at their social betters
for leadership. Their actions which have the strongest

stamp of social sanction, do not remain their private

concern. They £c?i>m the vanguard in the procession of

social culture. Jayadev, in Music for Mohlni, nourished

on new concepts of social life, appeals to his adament

80
mother to eschew superstitions. Family love,, a
compelling and exclusive sentiment, sometimes misleads
people to frenzied bouts of money-grabbing to secure

better opportunities of life for their dear children

 63

who do not see eye to eye with them in this regard.

Their clash of ideals might head to family disruption.
Samarendra, in Bhattacharya*s So Many Hungers, is
caught in this plight. His son Kunal and Rahoul do not

care to use his money and also do not accept the careers

chalked out by him. 81 The new age charged by Gandhiji's

dynamic philosophy used to pose problems to heads of

families - especially/ in pre-independence times.

Living in a family now means adjustments on the part of

newcomers/ especially the incoming/ educated/ towny wife

for whom her mother-in-law - puritanical, orthodox and

proud of their family - always raises problems. Mohini,

in Bhattacharya*s Music for Mohini, finds the adjustment

more difficult than she had imagined. 32 Malgonkar

points out that Indians are proverbial worshippers of

tradition, convention, heritage (not only material) and

dynasty and some, owing to excessive fondness for the

dynasty, make virtue even out of vice, prince Hiroji's

83
proud assertions about Bedars illustrate the point.

Anita Desai observes that the post-Independence

generation in India is angry and hungry. The young

feel dejected, desperate and somehow baulked of their

aspirations. They tend to become cynical and embittered.

Nirode, in Voices in the City, does not like anyone

(even his friends like Sonny) to refer to his family.

He wants to leave it alone and desires that his relatives

 64

also should leave him alone.

84 Frustration breeds
withdrawal of man from society. He is led to care for
his friends, relatives and family less and less. The
burden of habitual frustration and deepseated melancholy
of youngmen estranged from their families is not light­

ened by any family consideration of honour, help, money.

Nirode voices his total estrangement in the presence of

Amla in response to her suggestion to get money for his

bookshop from their mother.

Aamir All describes how the friction between

mother-in-law and daughter-in-law, struggling for

authority, would imperil the smooth running of a house­

hold. It is symbolical of tradition and revolt, rivalry

between two generations. Vishnu, in Conflict, tells his

brother Shanker about his decision to leave the house
86
because of the quarrels between Babuli and their mother.
Aamir Ali shows that when living together under the same
roof becomes impossible, separation is advisable.
Artificial togetherness is much worse than honest,

prudent separation. Madan and Vishnu, in Conflict, a

wise men who divide the family to avoid unbridgeable
B7
gulf6 between the women of the family.

Insularity is the Mephistophelean gift to the

present age. There is always some difference between

two generations, but the difference between the gene­

ration of the Gandhian eaa and that of post-Gandhian
 65

era is extremely wide. The relationship is not marked

by love and. understanding# but is# more or less# of the

nature of indifferent and nonchalant tolerance of the
necessary and unavoidable evil. Parents cannot question

their children in respect of their whereabouts or what-

cibouts. Living under the same roof is a sociological#

economic must# but the strand of filial affection and

piety is snapped off. Western education# which is a

'mystery to the old and uneducated# stands like an iron

wall between them. They are like islands# far-flung

from each other# surrounded by dark waters of misunder­

standing and distrust. This post-Independence social

situation in India is dealt with by Indo-Anglian novelists

with psychological insight and understanding.

Vv" This theme of a generation-gap is analytically

presented by R. K« Narayan in The Vendor of Sweets. The

uneducated but rich Jagan is vitally interested in his

son Mali’s career. Both are cranky in their own ways^X

Though they live under one roof# they are in two different
workday. They do not even meet each other for an incre&i-
88
bly long time. Jhabvala also indicates the differences
between the two generations in wealthy families. The
elders find that their children are educated and arty

young persons# almost strangers to them - except in

material ways. The young are impatient and impudent and

put up with their parents and elders condescendingly.

 66

%( la The Nature of Passion, Viddy's general attitude to his

89
elders and his advice to Nimrni illustrate the point.

R. K„- Narayan points out how unhappy family life drives

a person away from life, A loveless home is a veritable
hell, A widowed person, whose son does not understand,

love 'or respect him, wishes to leave everything and

become a hermit. Jagan, in The Vendor of Sweets, agrees

with the bearded man that old people should vanish into
90
the forest, leaving worldly affairs to their children.

Nayantara Shhgal depicts the problem of England -

returned, Anglicized, aristocratically educated, Indian.

He is like a bough cut off from the family tree. His

way of life has fallen in a different gear. Physically

flung back to India, he cannot shed his foreign affilia­

tions and affinities. Arjun Mitra, in This Time of

Morning, with prolonged training in England, does not

feel at home in his native land, in spite of his being
attached to his family and Bengali food. 91 Many

aristocratic families do not appear to be much concerned

with love or affection. They talk of political scandal

and intellectual dissent and play games and converse
when they are tired of anything, but there is no shade
of love. Maya, in Anita Desai’s Cry, the Peacock, feels

,caged in such a family as her husband's, where they

incessantly but also hypocritically and superficially

talk of intellectual problems. 92
 67

Political agreements or differences would cement

or sever family relationships. K. A. Abbas reveals

that to cherish- nationalist*s, patriotic, self-effacing
sentiments in a family of fanatic Muslims is fraught
with peril. Anwar, in Inguilab, finds that his uncle
Amjad Ali, imperious and imperialistic, regards jail­
going and mixing with Congressmen as family dis-honour.

His effort is, therefore, to conceal his leanings from

93
his rude and ruthless uncle. Attia Hosain also
suggests, in Sunlight on a Broken Column, how politics

would sometimes tear a family asunder. Hamid is feudal,

Saleem is communal and Laile is liberal. Sa l e m and

Nadira, both communal, are drawn to each other, married

and are happy in their own limited way. Laiia and

Kemal both are nationalists and have genuine affection
9 A
and regard foor each other. "

^/'The modern age has witnessed the separatist tendency

of the people, aroused by the democratic, socialistic,
political structure and economic stress and inadequacy.

Younger members of the household often wish to lead

their lives freely and, therefore, their elders, forestall­

ing strife and opposition of the younger generation, them­

selves propose to live separately. To them, such an

arrangement is likely to maintain the spirit of family
good will, if at all it is possible. To the young, it
 68

means being liberal-minded, progessive and modern. The

process of the disintegration of the family ha4 started
in the west much earlier than in the last. The West has
restricted the concept of the family to brothers and
sisters, Madeleine, in Raja Rao*s The Serpent and the
Rope, writes in her letter to Rama : for us any
person other than a brother or a sister is an outsider,
an enemy." 95 Raja Rao cryptically hints at the difference
between the Western and Eastern concepts of the family.

Though the joint family is a vanishing phenomenon,

the process of its disintegration will be necessarily
tardy in our country. If the members of the family,
after separation, live in the vicinity of each other
and if there has been no ill-will while separating, the
artificial well cannot hold good, in Jhabvala's A
Backward Place, Mukund and Bal, despite his wife judy
being English, stay like one close-knit joint family
even after their formal separation# 9 6 / / It is a great pity
\

that in the name of industrialisation, our agrarian and

rural civilisation is allowed to go to pieces. Mo one
could stem the tide of sociological changes, since the
new era means the dismantling of the old patterns of the
family. Now often there are ruptures and rifts between
brothers and sisters : one member of the family and the
other. They are flung far away from one another, in
anonymity and oblivion. One, however, yearns for a
 69

large family gathering at the time of the wedding,

especially the bridgegroom* Ravi, in MarkandayaSs

A Handful of Rice, is glad that he has not completely

cut off from the roots and that his father, at least,
is fortunately'there to give him respectable identity
97
and status. Markandaya also shows how those brought-

up in the old traditions of the joint family system

would not throw out even the sponging relatives on the

street, unless they were downright treacherous persons.

Apu, in A Handful of Rice,.tolerates Puttama until the

latter steals away the life-savings of the former. The

new generation does not like these outdated beliefs as

indicated by Ravi's admission. Markandaya gives a

touching picture of the bygone joint family, poor but

98
not so m spirit. The joint family system is a gift
of tradition and heredity. It is like 'a b«nyan tree
taking its strength from the subsidiary roots'® A rich

house would always be crowded with friends, relatives,

visitors and hangers-on. But on account of woman - and

property, too - the solidarity of the joint family is

often seriously impaired. Malgonkar shows, in A Bend

in the Ganges, how the family of the Talwars, hereditary

landlords, established and reputed, is divided into the
Big and Little Houses owing to Dada Talwar's separation
99
for his love for Aji, a young belle of lower caste.
All efforts are made to mend the rift between the members
 70

of the same family, but women have only one kind of life

and live constantly in the same house and .are, therefore,

slow to forgive. They practise their own methods of

ostracising the renegade woman, who is not allowed to

worship the family gods and goddesses. The main branch

of the family retains the right of maintaining the

family shrine. Malgonkar reveals that such factors

permanently bifurcate the Talwar family into two hostile

houses. Excessive greed of money and quarrels of

women are the predominant factors that have contributed

largely to the disintegration of the joint family system.

It is a sorrowful experience to see the members of the

same family drifting away from one another. It becomes

unbearable, when owing to one defaulter, the remaining

members have to suffer the pangs of unjust, unnatural

separation. Kesaro and Panchi, in The Old Woman and the

Cow by Mulk Raj Anand, were on good terms but the greed

of Molaram and the inability of Kesaro and Gauri to

pull on together, drive Panchi to Rafique Chacha.

Despicable charges are then levelled by them against each

■ 101
other. There is usually a desire in the minds of the

younger generation, especially the women, to live separa­

tely. They have no love for their parents-in-law and

talk about them contemptuously. Men have their own

family obligations to discharge and often have to

discourage their wives' separatist tendencies, In Anita

Desai *s Cry, the Peacock, Pom asks her husband Kailash

 71

to leave their family and start living comfortably in a

new flat. Kailash, however# prevails upon her to live

with his parents.'*'0'2

Rich, orthodox# unprogressive and lethargic families

are out of context in the modern age. They simply cannot

exist comfortably now in the days of the socialistic

pattern of society based on the necessity and dignity

of allround universal human labour for a common goal.

Asoke# in Tapati Mookerji 's Murder Needs a Staircase#
confesses that traditional families have got to change

with the changing times# otherwise they are bound to be

103
demolished by the New Time-Spirit. Tapati Mookerji
also suggests that there is no remedy for the malaise
of a - degenerated family torn by mutual distrust,

hatred and sponginess. Destruction is its destiny.

Asoke speaks about his own family ruthlessly ; "Its

roots are too deep in cancerous tissue to be pulled out

easily, without killing the living organism - the family. 104

This shows the modern detached and dispassionate attitude

towards the crumbling sociological institutions.
There is no hollow nostalgia for the decay of a rotten
family.

The decline of a great family is saddening. The

large house of a crowded family wears a depressing
look of futility when all the members have left it on
 72

account of one thing or another. The surviving, solitary

member of such an ancient household is likely to be

engulfed in abysmal dejection. Babush, in Sorrowing

Lies My Land by Mascarenhas, wanders like a wingless

bird through a large nest from which all other birds
have flown to disheartening distances in and out of the

world. Nostalgia rends his weakened heart-as is the

case of Laila's lonely sojourn through the ancient
house where she had spent her early life before her

marriage with Ameer in Attia Ho sain 1s Sunlight on a

Broken Column. Babush 1argeheartedlv analyses the new
spirit of the era of transition which is responsible
for their wretchedness which started with Antonio's
running away with Lakshmi. "Sorrow had arisen out of

the passing of an era, an era of good-will, love,

affection, dignity and self-respect making place for

a period of selfishness, intolerance, indignity and

.,105
oppression."

Thus, Indo-ftnglian fictionirriters have examined

the nature, scope and future of the family in its

myriad facets. It must be noteAthat their attitude

is, more or less, detached and dispassionate. Even
those of the novelists-such as R. K. Narayan, for

instance - who have a profound regard for Indian

culture and tradition and its social institutions,

also depict how the days of the Sway of the cumbrous
\ unwieldy joint families are gone for ever. Narayan,

the high-priest of the family and religion, traces

the slow but steady disintegration of the family in

his novel The Vendor of Sweets. These novelists

comment on the family and its traditions, ties, unity,

sanctity, honour, happiness, property and responsi­
bility, They also locate the position of woman in the

average Indian family and analyse the impact of the

factors of love and marriage. Woman, land and property

may be regarded as the proverbial root-causes for

separation, tussles, estrangement and even hostility,

but woman is also represented as the socio-religious
prop of the entire family. They try to resurvey the

\ post-In dependence social scene of generation-gap .and

\ present the extremes of the old fad for iron-handed
^authority and the new fad for senseless revolt. They
\ discover the minute lines even of subtle differences

jand bring out the general factors of disintegration.

They express their feeling that the large family has

been disappearing from the Indian social scene, but

|the fundamental Indian family values are not likely

\
Ito be fully wiped out. They are nostalgic, realistic
\
fand still optimistic.
 74

NOTES AMD REFERENCES

1, R. K. Narayan, Mr, Sampath, Indian Thought

Publications, mysore, (1949), 1966, p, 12,

2, Anita Desai, Voices in the City, Peter Owen,

London, 1865, p. 168,

3, Narayan, Mr, Sampath, p, 36,

4, R, Prawer Jhabvala, The Nature of Passion,

George Allen and Unwin, London, 195 6, p, 235,

5, K. Nagarajan, Chronicles of Kedaram, Asia

publishing House, Bombay, 1961, p, 27,

6, R. Prawer^ Jhabvala. Get Ready for Battle, John

Murray, London, 1962, p, 44.

7, Raja Rao, The Serpent and the Rope, John Murray,

London, 1960, p. 9.

8, Attia Hosain, Sunlight on a Broken Column, Chatto

& Hindus, London, 1961, p. 167.

9, Khushwant Singh, I shall'"h\)t hear the Nightingale,

_ — "

John Calder, London, 1959, p, 43. -

10, R„ k . Narayan, The Guide, Indian Thought Publi­

cations, Mysore, 1958, p. 15 6.

11, B. Rajan, The Dark Dancer, Heinemann, London,

1959, p. 7.

12, Attia Hosain, Sunlight on a Brolcen Column, p. 39.

13, Narayan, The Guide, p„ 154.

 75

14, R. K. Narayan, The Vendor of Sweets, Indian Thought

Publications, Mysore, 19 67, p. 25.

15* Shakuntala Shrinagesh, The Little Black Box,

Seeker & Warburg-.', London, 1955, p. 119.

16. Ibid., p, 196.

17. R» K. Narayan, The Financial Expert, Indian

Thought Publications, Mysore, 1952, p. 85.

18. Ibid., 129. '

19. Ibid,, p. 143.

20. Ibid., 128.

21. Mulk Raj Anand, The Road, Kutub-Popular, Bombay,

1963, p. 71.

22. Anand Lall, The House at Adampur, Pearl Publica­

tion Pvt., Ltd*, Bombay, 1956, p. 129.

23. Jhabvala, The Nature of Passion, p. 260.

24. Attia Hosain, Sunlight on a Broken Column, p® 286.

25. R. prawer Jhabvala, The Householder, John Murray,

London, 1960, p. 66.

26. Jhabvala, Get Ready for Battle, p. 193.

27. Manohar Malgonkar, The Princes, Hamish Hamilton,

London, (1963) Second Impression, 1964, p. 275.

28. Bhabani Bhattacharya, A Goddess named Gold,

Orient Paperbacks, Delhi, 19 60, p. 214.

29. Attia Hosain, Sunlight on a Broken Column, p. 312.

30. Narayan, The Financial Expert, p. 121.

31. Narayan, Mr, Sampath, p. 115.

 76

32, I b i d . / p . 117,

33, Veena P a i n t a l , S e r e n i t y i n S torm / A llie d

P u b l is h e r s / Bombay/ 1965/ p . 9 6 .

3 4, B/ Rajan# Too Long in t h e W est/ J a ic o P u b lis h in g

House/ Bombay/ 1961/ p . 82.

35. Katnala M arkandaya, A H andful o f R ic e / O r ie n t

P a p e rb a c k s , D e lh i, 1966, p , 3 3.

3 6. Khushw ant S in g h , I s h a l l n o t h e a r t h e n i g h t i n g a l e ,
p . 199.

37. B habani B h a tta c h a ry a , So Many H u n g ers, J a ic o

P u b lis h in g House, Bombay, 19 47, p . 205.

38. M anohar M algonkar, A Bend in t h e G anges, Hawish

H am ilto n , London, 19 64, p . 3 14.

39. N aray aa, The Vendor o f S w eets , p p . 1 4 3 -1 4 4 .

40 a Karaa l a mark an da y a , A S ile n c e o f D e s ir e , A P o u r

S quare Book, London, 1966, p . 29.

41. I b i d . , p . 2 9.

42. J h a b v a la . G et Ready f o r B a t t l e , p . 157.

43. Khushwant S in g h , I s h a l l n o t h e a r th e n i g h t i n g a l e ,
p» 229.

44. M arkandaya, A S ile n c e o f D e s ire , p . 9 6 .

45. Kamala M arkandaya. P o s s e s s i o n, Putnam & Co. L t d . ,

London, 19 63, p . 174.

46. M arkandaya, A S ile n c e o f D e s ir e , p p . 13 9 -1 4 0 .

 77

4-7. I b id ./ p. 159.

48. K a m a ia M a rk a n d a y a , N e c t a r i n a S i e v e / J a i c o
P u b l i s h i n g H o u se , Bom bay, 1955, p . 2 2 .

49. B h a tta c h a ry a , So M any H u n g e r s , p. 43.

50. R, P r a w e r J h a b v a l a , A B a c k w a rd P l a c e , O r i e n t
P a p e r b a c k s , D e l h i , .1 9 6 5 , p* 2 0 0 .

51. S h rin g a g e s h , The L i t t l e B la c k B ox, p . 116.

5 2. M a rk a n d a y a , A S i l e n c e o f D e s i r e , p p . 9 8 - 9 9 .

53 „ R. P r a w e r J h a b v a l a . . Esm ond i n I n d i a , G e o rg e
A l l e n a n d Unw in L t d . , L o n d o n , 195 8, p® 2 4 1 .

54. N a r a y a n , M r. S a m p a th , p , 1 9 9 .

55. H o s a in , S u n l i g h t on a B ro k e n C olum n, p» 8 6 .

5 6. S h r i n a g e s h , T h e L i t t l e B la c k Box, p.- 1 1 5 .

57. A nand L a l l , T h e H o u se a t A darnpur, p . 1 2 4 .

58. N a r a y a n , T h e V e n d o r o f S w e e ts , p. 96.

59. S h rin a g e s h , The L i t t l e B la c k Box, p . 6 7 ,

60. J h a b v a la , The N a tu re o f P a s s io n , p . 41.

61* B. S. N i r o d y , N a n d i n i . P u b l i c a t i o n s D i v i s i o n ,
G o v t, o f I n d i a , D e lh i, p. 3.

62. R a ja R ao, T h e S e r p e n t a n d t h e R ope, Hohn M u rr a y ,

London, 1960, p . 49.

63. J h a b v a l a , A B a c k w a rd P l a c e , p . 2 9 .
 78

64. Lambert Mascarenhas, Sorrowing Lies My Land, Hind

Kitabs Ltd., Bombay, 1955, p. 20.

65. Anita Desai, Voices in the City, p. 205.

66. Hosain, Sunlight on a Broken Column, p. 250.

67„ Khushwant Singh, I shall not hear the nightingale,

p. 192.

68. Mascarenhas, Sorrowing Lies My Land, pp, 2~3.

69. Ibid., p. 12.

70. Narayan, The Guide, p. 151.

71» Hosain, Sunlight on a Broken Column, p« 247.

72. R« prawer Jhabvala, To Whom She Will, George Allen

and Unwin Ltd., London, 1955, p, 10.

73. Ibid., p. 246,

74. Santha Rama Rau,_ Remember the House, Victor

Gollancz Ltd., London, 1956, p. 127.

75. Bhabani Bhattacharya, Music for Mohini, Jaico

publishing House, Bombay, 1952, p. 131.

76. Mulk Raj Anand, The Road, Kutub-Popular, Bombay,

1961, p. 60.

77. Malgonkar, The princes, p. 185.

78. Hosain, Sunlight on a Broken Column, p, 179.

79. Jhabvala, Get Ready for Battle, p. 68.

80. Bhattacharya, Music for Mohini, p. 221.

 70

<81® Bhattacharya, So Many Hungers/ p. 210.

82 « Bhattacharya, Music for Mohini, p. 159.

83, Malgonkar, The Princes, p. 226.

84® Anita Desai, Voices in the City/ p. 58.

85. Ibid., p. 162.

86 . Aamir Ali, Conflict, National Information and

Publications Ltd., Bombay, 1947, p. 26.

87. Ibid., p. 28.

88 . Narayan, The Vendor of Sweets, p. 48.

89 * Jhabvala, The Nature of Passion, p. 18.

90. Narayan, The Vendor of Sweets, p. 126.

91. Nayantara Sahgal, This Time of Morning, Victor

Gollancz Ltd., London, 1965, p. 26.

92. Anita Desai, Cry, the Peacock, Rupa Paperbacks,

Bombay, p* 53.

93. K. A. Abbas, .Incruilab, Jaico Publishing House,

Bombay, 1955, p. 79.

94. Hosain, Sunlight on a Broken Column, p. 226.

95. Raja Rao, The Serpent and the Rope, p, 262,

96. Jhabvala, A Backward Place, p. 10.

97. Markandaya, A Handful of Rice, p« 57.

98. Ibid., p» 176,

99. Malgonkar, A Bend in the Ganges, pp. 28-3 0.

 80

100. Ibid./ pp„ 28-30.

101® Mulk Raj Anand, The Old Woman and the Cow,
Kutub-Popular, Bombay, 1960/ p 9 96.

102® Anita Desai, Cry, the peacock, p. 69,

103® Tapati Mookerji, Murder Meeds a Staircase,

Jaico Publishing House, Bombay, 19 63, pp. 29-30,

104. Ibid., p. 30.

105® Mascarehnhas, Sorrowing Lies My Land, pp. 225-227.

« • « < » * *
 81

CHAPTER ; III

MARRIAGE

'■Carriage/ a social instituion, is inextricably

interwoven with caste, family and religion in India*
Considerations of dowry and family-heir further compli­

cate the problem* Most marriages in India are arranged

marriages. The new age with its demands of modernity

and its changing socio-economic structure has had a

serious impact on the enlightened in India and the Undo-

Anglian novelists have accordingly dealt with this

aspect. They have reised their brows in resentment

against early marriage, dowry, unsuitable arranged

marriage, the sad lot of a childless woman, wedding

expenses, the hypocrisy of loveless couples.

Raja Rao comments on the meaning of marriage in

a philosophical manner. Savithri and Rama, in The

Serpent and the Rope, are in love, Savithri wishes

to know whether he would marry her, if she asked.
Raima uses in this context that marriage means the death
of one's ego. "You can marry when you are one. That
is, you can marry when there is no one to marry another.
The real meaning is like 00, not like 010. When the

ego is dead is marriage true. Who would remove my ego?"

 Nagarajan stresses the role of destiny in matri­
monial affairs. According to Koni, in Chronicles of
Kedaram, the modern so-called love resultes in fantastic
unions of all sorts. Marriage being sacred, one has to
marry suitably from the view-point of age, physical
fitness etc. and here destiny has a.; hand in the matter.

R, K. Narayan shows, ir. Mr. Sampath, how the rela­

tionship of marriage thrives on mutual love and under­
standing. Srinivas is reminded of how he has neglected
3
his wife who may be thirsting for his cares!? and love.

Nayantara Sahgal observes, in This Time of Morning,

through Arjun Mitra, that people scarcely think calmly
or deeply before getting married. He comes to discover
this while brooding on his wretched marriage.
marriage was the only venture into the unknown on which
human beings embarked without the least hesitation or
preparation". 4 In Santha Rama Rau’s Remember the House,
Baba wishes the decision made for her, by Hari or
/. . 5 v- ' '
someone or something.

Indo-Anglian novelists comment on what a true

marriage means. Raja Rao shows that the perfect consu­
mmation of two souls would mean a large area of resem­
blance. Religion means inner life and unless one pene­
trates into the heart and soul, a full understanding
 83

does not grow - Rama experiences this. He remembers

his ropm is an old chapel. He kneels and prays? just

then j(adeleine comes and she knews she knows him. He

feelJ ‘married to her as never before'. On that night

she becomes his wife again. "I am such a different man

today. For to wed a woman you must wed her God".^
Anand Lall points out how it would sometime require

years together to feel truly married. After years of

married life, Basanti and Cyan, in Seasons of Jupiter,

have the realization of true love. It is like a new

7
marriage, or rather it is a marriage at last. Khushwant

Singh indicates that a happy marriage means the

marriage of minds. Such happily married persons gauge

each other intuitively. John Taylor, in I shall not

hear the nightingale, rightly feels that there is

something on Joyce's mind about Sher's fate and its

8
reactions on Sabhrai and others. In Nayantara Sahgal's
This Time of Morning, Mira and Kailas have created a

balance which can stand in critical circumstances and

their married life is blissful despite 'all ups and

downs and insecurity and frequent partings of a political

g
career in a country struggling to be free*. A true
marriage is founded on perfect understanding and no
shadow of discord or dissent darkens its sunny bliss.
In Veena Paintal"s Serenity in Storm, at long last,

after Ashok's death, Deepak returns and he and Rashmi

 84

feel resurrected and married since long - the perfect

10
blending of body, mind and spirit. Markandaya illust­

rates how a happy marriage is a bulwark against the

hurricanes of temptations and trials. Ravi, in A

Handful of Rice, wants to live in luxury like Damodar,

but that would jeopardise his domestic bliss. His

heart is at the cross-roads. All the splendour of a

Damodar- world, however,, plaesjlnto insignificance

because of Nalini's restorative influence on his-jaded

nerves. Ravi is even sorry for Damodar who does not

know what it is to be. married. A good wife fills .

her home with sweetness,, peace and love. Nalini washes

9

out the acrimony of revenge from Ravi*s mind and fills

12
it with tranquilliaing sweetness. Santha Rama Rau
brings out how the usual expectation for happiness
is that the husband should make his wife participate in
life. Baba, in Remember the House, wonders whether
her taciturn father could have made her mother happier

by including her in his life. But there is no discontent

in her mother and perhaps it has all worked out for the
best. 13 Padtnini Sengupta pays homage to Indian wifehood

in Red Hibiscus. Santosh, good like a Hardian hero,

admits that he should have paid more attention to Sita,

but he has been absorbed in his books and duty to his

mother. He adds that Indian husbands are selfish because
14
their women are good and unselfish. Jhabvala discusses
 85

the traditional expectation that a husband should fulfil

financial obligations of the family. Sudhir, in A

Backward place# is sorry that Bal cannot support Judy,

who, besides the difficulty of revising her way of life

in a foreign social set-up, has also to cope with

15
financial difficulties.

Nayantara Sahgal shows how in India marriage is

regarded as helpful in cultivating a sense of respec­

tability and responsibility. In This Time of Morning,

when Kailas* mother complains about Hari‘s unwashed

look and lack of courtesy, his father says that they

are thinking of his marriage so as to make him settle
1
down in life* R. K. Narayan indicates how marriage

is held as sacred' in India. Gaffur,' in The Guide,

sees Raju manoeuvring to bag Rosie's love and warns
17
him against defiling the sanctity of marriage. Later
on, Raju *s mother also urges Raju to remember that Rosie
is another man's wife and to let her go back to her
husband.'1®

j Indo-Anglian novelists have stressed the aspect

of equality in marriage. In Bhattacharya*s A Goddess

Named Gold, Meera's grandfather knows that though

Meera is 'the builder of a new paradise', she,like

all girls,, has to be married, but her groom should

19
deserve her* "Like unto like, the only key to happiness."
 86

This reflects the new .'spirit of the times. M. V. R.

Sartna also upholds this ideal of equality in’The Stream.

Gopalam treats Saguna as an equal and his mother thinks

20
he is hen-pecked. Gopalam *s outlook is the product

of the post-Independence recognition of human values.

Markandaya shows how a"small margin betwen the achieve­

ments of the couple does not tilt the balance of marital

happiness. In Nectar in a Sieve# Nathan, though illite­

rate, does not obstruct Rukmani's reading. Of course,

he must have secretly felt infra dig, but he bears it

21
in a manly way. Narayan also shows that love dilutes
the sting of superiority of the partner. Sriram, in

Waiting for the Mahatma, feels he is unworthy of Bharati,

because she is superior to him in the field of national
service based on Gandhian precepts. He is diffident

when they go to Bapu for his consent to their marriage,

22
but Bharati is c3hm and serene.
r

^/B. Rajan, Bhattacharya, Nagarajan, Jhabvala,

Santha Rama Rau, Malgonkar and a few others offer their

views on arranged marriages in India. Rajan says, in

Too Long in the West,, that the system must go. Kalyan

Sundaram and Nalini both agree that the evil must end.
Kalyan is planning a crusade against it through research
and writing; Nalini desires that it should be left to

the people concerned to end it. ’’Arranged marriages".

 87

he snorts. "The people in them are dead. They're yoked

23
together like bullocks at a funeral." Sengupta depicts
■the generational tug-of-war over it in Red Hibiscus.

Sita wants to marry Nirmal and her mother votes for

Santosh. Sita protests that she does not even know him.

The old lady'remarks that in India parents who knew

the world would still like to arrange their children’s

24
marriages. Even an orthodox person like Koni, in
Nagarajan 's Chronicles of Kedaram, points out that

marriages are arranged by well-wishers or meddling

persons without much regard for the suitability of
25
the match. But Aamir Ali shows how all arranged

marriages are not always blindly or callously fixed.

In Conflict, Shankar's father told him how they are

carefully searching for a good girl fpr him: he believes

that a good wife can make a man, a bad one can break
25
him. R. prawer Ohabvala Implies through Tarala *s
utterance, in To Whom She Will, that any interference
.in such an intensely personal matter as marriage would

be disastrous. Tarala resents Radha's frantic efforts

27
to force Amrita into an arranged marriage. This
shows that even in advanced Hindu families social

dictatorship, howsoever benevolent in intention, is

still rampant. In Esmond in India, Madhuri also believes
that parents must fix up everything and complains that

Har Dayal has not cared to arrange a proper match for'

 88

28
Shakuntala. This indicates how some aristocratic

Indians have only the veneer of progressiveness, but at

heart.they are still as conservative as ever. Anand Lall

ironically exposes how social reformers themselves are

sometimes compelled to arrange marr:ibges of their children.

In The House at Adampur, when Lena can-not find out a

suitable groom for herself, Santi Devi, a feminist, has

29
to think of helping her, against her own convictions.

Rajan also hints at the irony underlying Nalini's sub­

conscious fascination for the system of arranged marriage.

She, in her mind, dwells on its occasional desirability

when it may resemble the traditional Swayamvara, when

the bride-to-be is wanted by many young people. It is

like 'Draupadi *, presiding over a tournament '.^0

Malgonkar, in The Princes, shows '..how a conventional

marriage, because it would receive social approval,'

might prove a happy one. Abhay glories in his happiness

with Kamala* He wonders whether two- complete strangers

can find happiness in marriage. He finds that they are

really happy. Rajan also shows how an arranged marriage

can bring happiness if the pair show?good will and desire

to understand. Kamala, in The Dark Dancer,, apprehends

man's domination in an arranged marriage,' but Krishnan

also appears to be the victim of it. And it is not -such

a horrible•thing after all, she muses, when it yields“

such a husband
 89

Santha Rama Rau and Malgonkar explain how fanciful,

aristocaratic girls prefer to slip into the groove of

arranged marriages® In Remember the House, Baba wonders

if one can deliberately plan a husband-hunt, a sort of

an arranged marriages® Pria retorts j "I don't know .why

not. Every body does®Some people are sensible enough

33
to admit it-to themselves, of course. . Like Baba,
Sundari, in A Bend in the Ganges, hovers between an

arranged marriage and a romantic one® She is not sure

whether marriage bring^ happiness, romance, love® She,
however, feels that a Hindu girl has to trust her parents

families persons are keen on arranging marriages of their

children. In To Whom She Will, Radha, who has had the
benefit of a marriage by choice, is now in favour of

arranged marriages and cites the examples of affluent

families arranging marriages even by taking recourse to
35
brokers and advertisements® Nagarajan suggests that

parents enlist and appreciate whatever help they must

from others, since the task of arranging a marriage is

very difficult® In Chronicles of Kedaram, Vanchi endecs

himself to the Dikshits by arranging the marriage of Vasu

36
and Charulata® Bhabani Bhattacharya shows how a small
person like a caste-priest, a barber or a bangle-seller

or the like can succeed in arranging a marriage, when

important persons cannot. In Music for Mohini, Mohini *s

 90

marriage is negotiated by a mere Bangle-seller. In her

father's opinion, these old customs and conventions are

37
sound and seem *to suit our mental climate....®1.
Jhabvala reveals how some young people are not

opposed to arranged marriage because it brings unhappi­

ness, but because it is outmoded. In The Nature of

Passion, Nimmi and Kuku harbour an illusion that they
have married according to their wish. Kuku even says
that he has been attracted to her and then had asked
his people to arrange the marriage. The novelist’s

irony is very effective ..... that it was quite

easy to imagine they »'ere young lovers and their
38
marriage of their own choosing”. Sentha Rama Rau
explains how some young ladies resent arranged marriages

because they are not still prepared to shoulder the

social responsibilities of marriage. In Remember the

H ouse, Baba and Hari like each other, but Baba is more

in love with love than with Hari and does not like to

marry in a conventional manner. She feels Hari, in

reply to his proposal. "No, the answer isn’t yes -

couldn't possibly be. I still think there should be

39
more to life than just settling down." Bina in
Distant Drum. Roshni in Serenity in Storm. Swarna in
The Stream, Amrita in To Whom She Will. Bharati in

Waiting for the Mahatma, Zohra in Zohra* Nimmi in The

Nature of Passion, Nalini in Too Long in the West and
others are also waiting for love or lover to crown
their marriage and hate to walk into the trap of tradi­

tional marriage. This is indicative of the reluctance

of most modern young women to bear the noose of tradi­

tional married life.

The Indo-Anglian novelists dealing with the princely

Order have generally shown the failure of arranged

marriages e.g. Hiroji*s marriage in The Princes, Hanut's

marriage to shevanti in Maura. Kali's and Jumbo's

marriages in Remember the House. Victor's three marriages

in Private Life of an Indian prince.

Several Indo-Anglian novelists discuss whether love

should be the foundation of marriage and comment on the

/ ■
interaction of love and marriage. D. C. Home. Jhabvala,
Attia Kosain. Nergis Dalai and Anita Desai indicate that

with the growth of democratic ideals and individual

liberty, young persons now assert that love should be

the motivating force of marriage. In Home's Hungry

Hearts, when Jithu tells Gitanjali that despite her

incompatible marriage, she is perhaps still in love

with her husband, hhe retorts that she would not be

afraid of unhappiness, but she has ceased loving Kishenlal

In Jhabvala *s Esmond in India. Shakuntala admits that Dr.

Narayan is doing social service in villages, but she

does not know him fully and admiration alone could not
 92

be the basis of marriage* Like Gitanjali, she also is

41
a votary of love® “But I can only marry for love."

In Hosain's Sunlight on a Broken Column, Laila's rebellious

marriage leaves many persons gaping* Sita, who has

married conventionally, tells Laila that love has nothing

to do with marriage and that love is anti-social, while

42
matrimony preserves the world and its respectability.
In Dalai’s Minari, Anita, excessively romantic in her

sensitivity, is pained to see her married life falling

into a rut, because her husband is constantly busy with
43
his work® Anita Desai *s Maya, in Cry, the Peacock,

hungers for active and full participation in Gautam's

affairs and he does not permit her to enter some areas

of his mind® She is vexed that she is not loved as she

4 . 4.
loves. ~ Maya, Gitanjali and Anita are miserable,
because they cannot differentiate between premarital

courtship and post-marital life.

D* C. Home shows how harmony - sometimes achieved

artificially - in marriage is not an indispensable

ingredient of happiness. Ranjit, in Hungry Hearts, asks
Gnyan whether Savitha still nags him® Instead of

disowning the charge, Gnyan remarks that too much

harmony in marriage is a sig'o of want or of suppression
45
of feelings. Santha Rama Rau suggests the hollowness
of vague, romantic aspirations. Baba, in Remember the
 93

House^ has wandered away from Hari in search of a vague*

romantic ideal she can-not reach® She has to come

to terms with life's offering. She does not love Hari*

but she admits that love is only one of the reasons

of marriage. Their marriage would not quite be a gamble,

because they have much in common. ^ R. K. Narayan shows

Raju's inconsistent expectation. He* who is instrumental

in wercking the marriage of Marco and Rosid, now

suggests to Rosie that they - Raju and Rosie - should
put their relationship on husband-wife basis, because
he resents her hobnobbing with all types of arty
48
people® Perhaps he is afraid of losing her® Marriage

is a bond of social security, after all l

Nergis Dalai, Veena Paintal, R, K. Narayan, and

M® V. R» Sarma comment on a married woman's 'other

harmony'® In Minari, Acaita realises that her attraction

for Tej is futile and that Ranjan stands for safe marital
48
love. Roshni, in Serenity in Storm, does not vsrish

to defile the sanctity of social customs by encouraging

Sanjay, though she does not regard love as immoral.

Sanjay feels that one should not bother about anything

except one's conscience and that the bond of love cannot

49
be broken by marriage. Sarma also substantiates how
a married woman’s guilty love would creatft many compli­
cations. Swarna, in The Stream, is disgusted with her
 94

husband Rao. Her dilemmatic position is that after

giving herself up entirely to Gopalam- physically and

emotionally, she can-not keep Rao away from her*50 R.

K. Narayan reveals the compunctious visitings of guilty

love* In The Guide, Rosie's mind is torn between her

love for Raju and duty to Marco, She\allows Raju to make

love to her but she is also aware of her treachery to
51
Marco® Awareness of the obligations of marriage and

feeling the urgency of love - this is her cross® This

is the conflict between the conscience and the heart

and this is like Guinevere's - Rosie's fate,

Rajan shows that in an Indo-British marriage,

the two backgrounds do not quite vanish or merge, in
The Dark Dancer, Cynthia and Krishnan love each other

well, but they have their own national moorings and also

their socio-political - religious, too - differences.

"Though Cynthia was anti-colonial, she was not un-English;

nor was Krish un-Indian,1,52 This points out the incong­

ruity of such unions in the hours of political and

national crisis. Malgonkar also shows, in The Princes,

how difficult it is for an Indo-Hritish marriage to

prosper when Abhay confesses his love for her, Minnie
remarks that they are very different.53 Difference

in social backgrounds in an unconventional marriage is

bound to be there. When Abhay sees Minnie smoking, he
 95

is- aware of the -gulf between their backgrounds-

. -He
54
knows his people would not accept her. B. Ra-jan indi­

cates how the difference of religions may also at

times result in an internal' crisis# tilting the entire

balance and harmony of a perfect union. -When Cynthia

is not blessed by the priest of an Indian triple# '

Krishnan is reminded how their union cari-not have

55
the sanction of the family and society and religion.

In this context of religious impact on marriage. Raja

Rao's words analysing Rama's marriage with Madeleine
should be recalled : "For to wed a woman you must wed

her God.11

vjs/Malgonkar comments on the failure of a marriage-

even before its commencement due to temperamental di­
fference. In A Bend in the Ganges, Sundari and Gopal

are not cut out for each other.' She is pro-terrorist

56
and he -is terror-stricken by the mere word terrorist.

In Jhabvala1s To Whom She Will, Ram Bahadur rejects

Hari because of his unsatisfactory background. 5 7 Nandxni's

mother, in B. S. Nirody's Nandini, also has her

misgivings due to the difference between their and Dr,

5B
Amar's social position. D. G. Home, in Hungry Hearts,
shows how Savithri and Gnyan are for the same political
party, have the same objectives and outlook and still

the difference between their upbringing and education

59
can-not be surmounted. Sita, in Attia Hosain's

Sunlight on a Broken Column, loves Kemal but feels that

they should not marry 'with different backgrounds and
 96

different religions# two small cogs in a huge social

machine’. u vv

Nayantara Sahgal# Anita Desai# Veena paintal and

seenuth Fatehally dwell on the misery of incompatible

marriages. In This Time of Morning# Arjun and Uma do .

not share mutual interests. He is formal# placid#

retiring and refined. She is temperamental# exotic#

feline and wild. They start drifting apart - he in

C •«

his study and she with her shady admirers® In her

first novel# A Time to be Happy# Nayantara Sahgal shows
the failure of the married life of Harish and Maya. She

is like a lake and he like a waterfall. They can-not

start life on a right note and fail to attain 'some
62
semblance of a workable relationship'.

Anita Desai indicates the failure of marriage

due to unsuitability. Maya# in Cry# the Peacock#

loves Gautam passionately and feels that he does not

love her. She expects warm professions and demon­

strations of love# but he goes on quoting from the
Gita. She tells Gautam that he has never loved and

that he does not love her. 63 In Voices in the City# her

father thinks that Jiban, a fairly educated, respec­

table middleclass person - safe# sound# stolid and

unimaginative - would be a suitable partner for Monisha
 97

64
who is hypersensitive and even morbid* Monisha's

father's intentions are excellent but thus progresses

the tragedy of her sensitive soul i Life is not an

arithmetical example which can be written and rewritten

until the correct•solution is obtained, Zohra and Bashir

in Zohra# Roshni and Ashok in Serenity in Storm# Gauri

and Panchi in The Old Woman and the Cow# Baba's parents

in Remember the House# Krishna's parents and Devaki and

her husband in Morning Pace* Premala and Kit in Some

Inner Fury. Rosie and Marco in The Guide# Saroj and Inder
and Mara and Jit in Storm in Chandigarh, Abide and Ejaz
in Sunlight on a Broken Column, Adit and Sarah in Bye-
Bye# Blackbird - these and others illustrate how marriage
hits the rocks because of incompatibility between
husband and wife.

''^Jhabvala and Padraini Sengupta express their dislike

for early marriages. In Jhabvala's The Householder#

Sohanlal tells Prera about the curse of early marriages

in India® Before we knew what we want# we would be

tied with wives. Life would then be a story of duty
65
and even burden® In her novel To Whom She Will#

Tarala and other ladies are glad that the m e n a c e of

early marriages is now checked. The tone of self-
complacency is soaring. Dr. Mukherji puts in that her

sweeper's daughter# only 12# had been married the

 98

66
previous week* In Sengupta's Red Hibiscus, Sita# still

19# wishes to wait for love* She does not like to

marry than® She does not like early marriages# She

thanks God that the Sarda Act now prohibits early

marriages. She remembers that her mother and grand­

mother were married at 14 and 9 respectively®

Markandaya# Hathi Singh# R. K® Narayan# Bhatta-

charya and Jhabvala sympathise with the lot of childless

woman in India. In Nectar in a Sieve# Ira can-not

bear a child. Such a woman# abandoned by her husband#
68
loses all interest in life. Huthi Singh shows that be
she a princess or peasant girl, the curse of child­
lessness is acutely felt by a woman. In Maura# Shevanti
can-not bear a child# because Hanut# lost in the
mire of lust# does not go to her at all. How can she

remove this curse unless Hanut# briskly drunk# is left

69
with her in complete privacy ? R. K. Narayan shows

how a barren woman suffers death in life in an Indian

hone. Jagan’s wife# Ambika# in The Vendor of Sweets#

is childless after ten years of married life. His

mother speaks harshly about it : "All one asks of a

girl is that she at least bring some children into a

house as a normal person should# ..... why c a n ’t a
girl bear children as a million others in the world ?*•70
 99

Jhabvala shows how women, gifted with children

by the grace of God, feel proud and superciliously

parade their motherly anxieties before childless"women*

In To Whom She Will, Radha once tells Tarala that she,

being a mother, has no time for committee work, which

would be important to childless women, who have nothing

71
else to do* Bhattacharya describes how all would

look down upon a barren woman in a village. In Music

for Mohini, the tree of marriage, though two years old,
is still barren : Mohini has not conceived still and
Jayadev's mother is terribly upset and desperate.

Mohini is aware that she would not be able to serve

72
the village®

Bhattacharya indicates how a childless woman is

compelled to offer sacrifice in order to remove the curse

of sterility. Her mother-in-law asks Mohini to offer her

blood to the Devi. Jayadeva, a representative of the

new, awakened India, boldly opposes his mother's will

and states that they have to establish new ideals in
73
Behula, not to submit to cruel and primitive ways,1
In R. K® Narayan's The Vendor of Sweets, Jagan*s parents

also insist on the religious cure - a sort of penance -

for Ambika's barrenness* They undertake a pilgrimage
to Badri Hill®
 100

Kamala Markandaya brings out how a barren woman *s

mind gets distorted with hate and jealousy under the
strain of persistent contempt : She deserves care and
treatment but that is hardly given. In Nectar in a
Sieve* Ira has no interest in life* but loves Selvam
and Kuti* despite her hate for her pregnant mother. 74
Attia Hosain suggests that a barren woman is prone to
jealousy* for she is afraid of her husband's marrying
again* In Sunlight on a Broken Column* Ranjit's wife
remains childless for five years and then Ranjit, gets
tired of her and remarries in order to carry on the
75
family's ancient name.

Kamala Markandaya points out how even a micro­

scopic suspicion - a canker in the bud - nibbles away
marital happiness. In A Silence of Desire* Dandekar
is appalled to see a photograph of an unknown handsome
young man in Sarojini*s trunk® Instead of clarifying
it* the suspicion within consumes him like the bug-breed
*76
in the soil of suspense® Friendship with the other
sex is not easily imagined to be normal in Indian
families® Dandekar's mind, usually a bulwark against
the cynical levity of. Joseph's trite remarks* echoes
Joseph's words that women are sly and fickle. 77 When
Jay* in Remember the House* relates how a man* proud of
his secret affair* is befooled by his wife* who makes
 101

him get the divorce and immediately thereafter she

herself marries her lover. Sundaribai is shocked.

71 '

The married life of the Kalipurs in the same novel* of

the wintons in Malgonkar*s Combat of Shadows* of the

Clintons in Karkandaya*s The Coffer Dams should remind
one of the similar distrust which is the bane of

conjugal harmony®

Khushwant Singh comments on howjthe aspect of sex

is neglected in most Indian marriages. There is no

privacy of love and no art of making love® Sex has come
to be regarded as something ugly and sexual dissatisfac­

tion breeds obsession and perversion® The novelist

brings out this point in relation to the sexual life of
78
Sher-Champak in I shall not hear the nightingale,,

M. V. R. Sarma hints at the sexual immorality polluting

marriage. In The Stream* Swarna's guilty love for Gopalam

seeks consolation that she knows of married women who have

secret lovers* because their husbands also are probably

faithless to. them. But, outwardly, they are all

respectable* Marriage* she feels* is a legalised

79
immorality* Markandaya also depicts the sexual
immorality in marriage in Nectar in a Sieve® Nathan

confesses before Rukmani that he is the father of

Kunthi *s sons® This 'is a crisis in their life, but

Rukmani displays supreme self-control and dignity and
... . . 8 0
preserves, their marriage.
 102

Nayantara Sahgal comments on happiness and marriage

in This Time of Morning® When Rashmi tells Neil that she
and her husband have parted, he remarked that marriage
does not always bring happiness and that if people
remain happily married, there may be something wrong;
many people are happily married but are too intelligent
to continue to be so® 81 Kamala Markandaya shows how
gradual estrangement of life-partners darkens the
bliss of marriage. In A Silence of Desire, the mutual
faith of Dandekar and Sarojini has been wrecked and
she does not look up to him for comfort or compassion
and braves the undiagnosed enemy with ascetic courage
in her deepening isolation. Dandekar's heart is filled
82
with the anguish of selfreproach. Nergis Dalai, in
Minari, shows how there is no greater intimacy than
marriage and how this truth dawns upon couples when
they feel estranged towards each other® After her
leaning on Tejf Anita eschews Ranjan's company. But
she is disconsolate® Even her lovely children cannot
make her shed the gloom of loneliness. "There is a
special intimacy about marriage which is unlike any
other# and in a way she felt bereft." S3 Anita Desai
suggests that marriage is a very delicate texture of
emotions, which, if proper care is not taken, might
wear off® In Voices in the City, Dharma's only daughter
runs away along with her first cousin. This Is a
 103

marriage-quake, indeed i Dharma and his wife are

estranged from each other aftefer this occurrence. He
teils ftmla s “Our relationship -is not all so straight­
forward and pat, married relationships never are.
There is the matter of loyalty, habit, complicity -
things X couldn’t talk to you about till you married
84
and knew for yourself,"

Vt" Indo-Anglian novelists show how marriage is

regarded as sacrosanct in the East* Khushwant Singh,
Nayantara Sahgal, Jhabvala and paintal stress the
traditional oriental aspect according to which a woman
regards her husband as her God, In I shall not hear the ,
nightingale, Sabhrai regards her husband as a God and
would not generally think of thwarting his wish* She
85
represents the best in Indian traditional womanhood.
In A Time to be Happy, though Sanad's mother does not like
his decision not to do penance on his return from Europe,
she stands by her husband. The author adapts a
Miltonic quotation in this context, "Like any good
Hindu wife, she believed that his concern was with
God and hers with God in him," In Get Ready for
Battle, Kusum tells Gulzarilal that Mala and the child
be allowed to accompany Vishnu because - 'A wife’s
87
place is always by the side of her husband*. Also,
in Serenity in Storm, Roshni does not allow her father
 . 104

to speak ill of Ashok, who is, after all, her husband*

In Nectar in a Sieve, Rukmani tells Kenny that a woman's
place is by her husband* This- traditional Indian concept
- woman's happiness in- her husband, who is her God -
is almost religiously upheld through centuries of
Indian life. Of course, the view that man also must
hold his wife in affectionate regard is the gift of the
present age,

v>'' Jhabvala, B-. Surya Rao and Padmini Sengupta

clarify how sex and marriage cannot be separated for
long in India, A pre-marital sexual affair must have
matrimony as its essential culmination® In Esmond in
India, Esmond realises the great importance that even a
sophisticated Indian girl is expected to attach to a
sexual act* He has allowed her to sleep with him and
this, as- Betty remarks, may not mean much to him,
but to the girl it is 'the beginning and the end of
the world*» in Red Hibiscus, Nirmal, who wants to
make love to Sita but not to marry her, feels that
'Indian girls were insufferable Victorian grandmother^
always thinking of marriage® D, Surya Rao shows in The
Two Visions, how Kamala Kumari has to suffer for her
pV*e-marital sexual liberty with Jagadish and how she
strives to put the marital noose round his neck® Even
in England - Victorian England, of course - Hardy's Jude
 105

had to pay the price for a sexual adventure by staking

his career# love and life.vt''

Indo-Anglian novelists show how marriage is

believed to be a social anchorage in India® In Nergis

Dalai's Miner i# Tej *s mother# who knows how dissipated

and debau^cherous his life is and is despaired of

and indifferent to Tej *s personal life# makes a last

try# however: "I wish you would get married® Marriage

often helps a man to anchor himself somewhere® You

89
have no roots® You drift too much®" Zohra's parents

in Zohra# Mohini *s grandmother in Music for Mohini#

Baba's grandmother in Remember the House# Vimala's

mother, Lakshmi# in The Two Visions# JRoshni's mother

Radha# in Serenity in Storm# Site's grandmother in

Red Hibiscus and others show how elders in India would

not feel comforted until the marriageable youngsters

fall into the groove of life's routine# marriage®

Raja Rao# Jhabvala and Malgonkar depict Indo-

European marriages and their problems® Raja Rao# in

The Serpent and the Rope# suggests the clash of

cultures and the consequent failure of marriage.

Madeleine# who is unable to bear the burden of a

frustrated marriage takes to Buddhism and withdraws

into herself. She tells Cathy that Rama should get his
freedom# however painful the parting® He must
 106

marry someone younger from his own country. He will

90
be happy with an Indian woman, I have no doubt*-"

Ohabvala also suggests how an inter-racial marriage

would fail if it does not have the strength of true

love, ideal or mission. In Esmond in India, Esmond

marries Gulak mainly out of his desire to have an

Indian 4d£e. The marriage has no solid foundation of

love or of tradition and so it leaves regrets. Esmond

feels trapped in the stupidity and alienness of Gulab.

He grows aware of the gaps between their ways of life.

91
and thought. Esmond finds that there is no neutral

ground between them. They can neither converse on

casual topics, nor rationalise unhappiness. He

regrets that he has been lured away b y Gulab's

mindless beauty® "An animal, he thought, I am married

to an animal." This proves how an inter-racial

marriage, if impulsive and rdsh, would bring to the

fore the differences of social backgrounds and culture

under the stress of life's realities® JHafovala, however,

depicts, in A Backward Place, how an Indo-English

marriage can succeed, if not spectacularly at least

tolerably, by adjustment and fortitude® Judy is happy

with Bal and his people and has adjusted herself to

the new environment admirably well® She tells Shanti

that she does not mind spending her time as a tradi­

tional Indian housewife - cooking and cleaning and

looking after the children and sitting at home, day

and night* Judy, however, has to hear a lot of

unpleasant music from her European friends about her

marriage. Etta, herself a failure in life, is her

bitterest critic. She tells the Hochstadts about Judy

"She's busy proving that I t ’s possible ■,pr
f a nice

healthy English girl to be an Indian wife in an Indian

93
slum - " This points out one of the major hurdles
in the way of an international marriage. Sometimes

both nationals would try their utmost to run down such

a marriage. Jhabvala indicates the interaction between

the cultural traditions of the East and West in an

Indo-English marriage. Gulab, in A Backward place,

thinks like an orthodox Indian girl that a husband

has every right to treat his wife as he wishes, but

has to protect her virtue. Esmond can-not ensure her

safety in their own home* This is enough. Esmond’s

right as her husband stands confiscated now and she is

free to return to her people. 9 4 Malgohkar vividly

portrays the dramatic struggle in Anglo-Indian rela­

tionship. In Combat of Shadows, Ruby's disillusion­

ment is crushing* Hefmother’s advice reverberates
in her mind like the refrains of a pathetic ballad.
She has betrayed her poor father's trust in her*

Her Trevor’s prophetic criticism of her craze for the

British catches her soul in a whirl, when Winton
 108

wantonly goes to England to marry an English girl

95 It is' a spiritual landslide l a^
tjiere.

Padmini Sengupta traces the cause of India’s

overpopulation to the Indian marriage-mania and the
two corollaries that girls should not remain unmarried
and men must have sons for their shradh. Sita, in
Red Hibiscus/ refers to this in a playful banter
that supposing she marries an orthodox person and
can~not give him a son, he would remarry and leave
her helpless® She tells Kusum : "Really, sister-in-
law, I think everyone is marriage-mad in India,
That's why we are so overpopulated,..."96 When
Santosh's uncle wishes her many children, she asks
herself why Indians are always thinking in terms of
marriage and children in spite of India's teeming
millions. 97 Bhattacharya expresses the craving of a
woman for motherhood. In Shadow from Ladakh, Satyajit,
desirous of observing celibacy, is prepared to give
Suruchi her freedom.....to remarry. However. She
prefers the path of self-denial which entails a lot
of suffering because she has passionately wished to
have two sons. Suruchi, grief-stricken for her
unborn sons - Ajoy and Sanjoy - tells sumitra that
when she marries, she must have many children. When
parents cannot achieve something, they vehemently
 109

wish their children to achieve it. Huthi Singh also

has shown the importance of motherhood to a married

woman. Shevanti, in Maura, believes that Hanut could

not ignore her, if she can bear a child® Her future

99
hinges on her having a child or not having one.
D. C, Home and Zeenuth Futehally also show the importance

of children in married harmony. In Hungry Hearts,

Ranjit admonishes Savitha - a modern woman of the era

of freedom ~ not to break her marriage, since she is

not only a woman but also a motheri She should pull

on, from the viewpoint of her son's happiness. Zohra,
who deeply loves Hamid, did not leave Bashir, also
because of her children.

Indo-Anglian novelists show how uneducated people

especially women, think that higher education is a

handicap for a girl, if she has studied abroad, it is

a greater handicap® The usual fear housed in some

Indian minds is that education encourages a rebellious

attitude. In Ra,Ian's Too Long in the West, Laksbmi

regretfully asks Samba si van who would marry -Nalini
with an American University degree. She does not like

his prank of advertising and feels that people

101
would think them unable to afford a dowry. Kalyan

also tells Nalini that foreign education is dangerous

for girls who would ape western manners and avoid
 110

marriage® Zohra, in Zohra by Futehally, after her

engagements can continue her studies because of her

father's intervention, otherwise her mother and Unni

are against it® In Surya Rao's The Two Visions,

Vimala's mother disapproves of Vimala's college

education and nags her husband to arrange her match.

In Paintal"s Serenity in Storm, Radha raises her brows

at Roshni's study of painting, but Col, Mehta permits

her to study until she married®

R. K. Narayan comments on the influence of art

on marriage® Rosie tells Raju, in The Guide, how she

has to sacrifice her art of dancing for her marriage
with Marco which has raised her social status® Marco,
immersed in his research, is quite indifferent to Rosie's

lovea The art, which she has sacrified' for Marco,

pushes her into Raju 's embraces. For the consummation

of marriage, art is sacrificed by Rosie; for the

consummation of art, marriage is sacrificed by the

same Rosie® Her art gives her inner strength away from
the bonds of marriage, love and lust® Raju realises

it : "Neither Marco nor I had any place in her life,

which had its own sustaining vitality and which she
102
herself had underestimated all alone®"

\ / Malgorikar, Rajan, Jhabvala and Nirody discuss the

 111

problem of wedding expenses in their novels. In the

Princes by Malgonkar* the grand preparations for his

wedding set Abhay thinking about the unjustifiable and

103
criminal wedding expenses. An Indian wedding is an
elaborate and expensive ceremony. In Jhabvala's Jo

Whom She Will/ Prana comments on the extravagance of an

ordinary clerk on the occasion of the wedding ceremony
104
of his ordinary daughter. In Rajan’s Too Long in

the West/ Ernest can-not help criticising the waste of

money in a poor country like India. He himself is
dreaming of his lavish wedding in Church* whereas Nalini

thinks a civil wedding to be more sensible. Ernest*

who criticises the west involved in Indian weddings*
himself wishes to spend much, simply because he can
afford it. Nalini, however* feels that the poor need
105
poetry even more than the rich. If the foreigners

whose nations are giving, monetary aid to India criticise

Indian extravagance* who can say they are in the wrong ?
Nirody* however, gives an answer to this question in

Nandini. Dr. Amar tells Nandini that they will have a

simple wedding. Our growing nation can-not afford

pomp and waste. Not only Nandini agrees to it* but

suggests that the amount thus saved be sent in charity.
Amar has no objection* whatever. This trend of

social reform in India reflects the new touch of the

new era after Independence.

 119

suggests these conflicting tendencies# in Distant

Drury? through Mr* Sonal 's attitude to his daughter's
marriage on one hand and Kiran and Beena marrying
only for love on the other*

As B, Rajan indicates# the traditional concept

of marriage is founded on happy family life and#
therefore# parents desire their children to marry into
prosperous families* The modern concept of marriage is
nourished on romance and individualism and# therefore#
young persons wish to marry according to their choice*,
In Too Dong in the West# this piece of conversation
between Lakshmi and Nalini brings out the rift
between the thoughts of the two generations*

"Ypu never marry only a man#11 said Lakshmi.

"I don't propose to marry anything else." 132

Markandaya has portrayed the tug-of-war between

these two parallel inclinations in the mind of an
individual. Ravi# in A Handful of Rice# is a
representative of the new generation, perturbed and
agitated and having no faith in the old values of
orthodox Indian society. He would have grown into a
die-hard revolutionary# but then Nalini enters his
life# like a fairy from the land of heart's desire#
 120

133
and sooths him and revives the old values in him.

D. C. Home also expresses the inner, mental conflict

of a modern woman. Gitanjali, in Hungry Hearts, finds

herself at the cross-roads in life. Life with Kishen

has become impossible and she has to assert her freedom#

Her mind is torn between the traditional Indian Griselda

ideal of submiss.iveness and the modern inclination to cry

revolt, break the home and run away to freedom - like

Ibsen's Nora. Gitanjali is led to anarchic freedom,

because she has lost her moorings. Nobody can under-

134
stand why. Kishanlal has broken more than a marriage*

Sengupta, in Red Hibiscus, also shows how Sita is bold

enough to think of even leaving her husband Santosh

to preserve her identity.

Bhattacharya and R. K. Narayan illustrate the

differences between the old and the new generations

about the position of married woman. Meera tells her

grandfather, in A Goddess Named Gold, that Suhagi has

to pay for her husband's second marriage and has t*

please him and the new woman. The minstrel comments:

"She had to be happy in self-sacrifice." Of course,

135
Meera discarded it. as 'old world talk'. To raise

self-sacrifice to the pedestal of a source of happiness

indicates the measure of ancient spiritual legacy.

The new generation would not brook meek and unjust

 121

suffering. The difference of views on marriage between

the two generations illustrated b y jagan and Mali# in

The Vendor of Sweets, stand out poignantly when Jagan

expresses his sad bafflement at Grace *s leaving Mali#

who brusquely retorts that his father's is an outdated

belief. Jagan protests - 'But a wife must be with her

husband# whatever hap p e n s '. 'That was in your day# *

said Mali and left. The old and the new minds are

often like two distinct, separate planets, worlds.

That is why families asunder#; homes break and jiests

crumble.. .This predicament makes work burdensome#

peace impossible, dream futile, hope vain# love hollow

/
and life purposeless.

Thus# Indo-Anglian novelists indicate how Indians

have befton to delft away from their ancient cultural

heritage under the impact of the new age and its demands

and expectations# yet the bonds are only loosened, not

broken. Indians are hovering between two worlds -

shedding the old values and setting up the new ones.

The conflict between tradition and revolt is very

actually felt in the present age* This tussle is apparent

in the attitude of the two generations to marriage. The

young wish to assert their individuality and indepen­

dence as opposed to the parental suthority# and choose

 122

their mates, often on the basis of love, irrespective

of the traditional considerations of caste, creed,

community, family or money* They are inclined to

rationalise the concept of marriage in the new, changing

sociological context, but the actual process of transfor­

mation has not been very rapid*

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1) Raja Rao, The Serpent and The Rope* John Murray,,

London, I960,, ‘p.- 296*

2) K* Nagarajan, Chronicles of Kedaram, Asia

Publishing House, Bombay, 1961, p, 29.

3) R. K* Narayan, Mr. Samoath. Indian Thought

Publications, Mysore, 1949, 1966, p. 48*

4) Nayantara Sahgal, This Time of Morning. Victor

Gollancz Ltd,,; London, 1965, pp. 129-130.

5) . Santha Rama Rao, Ran ember the House. Victor -

Gollancz Ltd., London, 1956, p. 255,

6) Raja Rao, The Serpent and the Rope*- p. 86*

7) Anand Lall, Seasons of Jupiter. Jonathan Cape,

London, 1958, p. 96.

8) Khushwant Singh, I shall not hear the nightingale.

John Calder, London, 1959, p. 217.

9) Nayantara Sahgal, This Time of Morning, p. 14.

 123

10) V eena P a i n t a l , S e r e n i t y i n Storm # Allied

P u b l i s h e r s , Bombay, 1966 ,p . 334*

11 ) K am ala M a rk a n d a y a , A H a n d fu l o f B ic e , O r i e n t
P a p e r b a c k s , D e lh i , 1 9 6 6 , p* 118*

12) I b id * , p p . 1 2 4 -1 2 5 .

13) S a n th a Rama Rao, Ranember t h e H o u se , p* 176*

14) P a d m in i S e n g u p ta , Red H i b i s c u s , A s i a P u b l i s h i n g
H o u se, Bombay, 1962, p . 144*

15) R, P ra w e r J h a b v a l a , A B ackw ard P l a c e . O r i e n t

P a p e r b a c k s , D e lh i , 1 9 6 5 , p* 4 0 .

16) N a y a n ta r a S a h g a l, T h i s Tim e o f M o rn in g ,. p» 1 9 0 .

17) R .K . N a ra y a n , T he G u id e , I n d i a n T h o u g h t
P u b l i c a t i o n s , M y so re , 1 9 5 8 , p . 7 7 .

18) I b i d . , , p . 153*

19 ) B h a b a n i B h a t ta c h a r y a , A G oddess N a m e d .S o ld ,
.O r ie n t p a p e rb a c k s , D e lh i, 1960, p . 2 9 8 .

20 ) B habani M .V .R . S arm a, The S tre a m . T r i v e n i p u b l i s h e r s ,

M a s u lip a ta m , 1 9 5 6 , p . 14*

21) K am ala M a rk a n d a y a , N e c ta r i n a S ie v e . J a i c o
P u b l i s h i n g H o u se , Bem bay, 1 9 5 5 , p . 12*

22) R. K. N a ra y a n , W a itin g f o r t h e M ahatm a, I n d i a n

Thought P u b lic a tio n s , 19 5 5 , p . 168.

23) B, R a ja n . Too D eng i n t h e W est, J a i c o P u b l i s h i n g

H ouse,, Bombay, 1 9 6 1 , p* 66*
 124

25) Padraimi Sengupta* Red Hibiscus, p* 54*

26) K. Nagarajan, Chronicles of Kedaram* pp. 10-11*

27) Aamir Ali* Conflict* National Information &

Publications Ltd** Bombay* 1947* p* 30*

28) R. Prawer Jhabvala* To Whom She Will* George

Allen & Unwin Ltd.* London, 1955* p, 14.

29) R. Prawer Jhabvala* Esmond In India* George Allen

& Unwin Ltd.*, London*! 1958* p. 157.

29) Anand Lall, The House at Adaropur* Pearl Public ac­

tions Private Ltd.* Bombay* 1956* p. 165.

30) B. Rajan* Too Lone in the West* p. 63.

31) Manohar Malgohkar* The Princes* Hamish Hamilton*

London, 1963* Second Impression, 1964* p. 231.

32) B. Rajan* The Dark Dancer* Heinemann* London*

1959, p* 24.

33) Santha Rama Rao* Remember the House* p. 244.

34) Manohar Malgohkar* A Bend in the Ganges* Hamish

■ ' Hamilton* London* 1964* p* 12*

35) R. prawer Jhabvala* To Hfaom She Will* p* 245.

36) Nagarajan* Chronicles of Kedaram* p, 36.

37) Bhabani Bhattacharya, Music for Mohini* Jaico

Publishing House* Bombay, 1951, p. 65.

38) R. Prawer Jhabvala* The Nature of Passion.

George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London* 1956* p. 257.
 125

39) Santha Rama Rao, Ran ember the House. p. 128.

40) D. G. Home, Hungry Hearts, Kathashilpa, Calcutta,

1965, p. 112,.

41) prawer Jhabvala, Esmond in India, p. 193.

42) Attia Hosain. Sunlight on a Broken column,

Chatto & Hindus, London, 1961, p. 296#

43) Mergis Dalai, Mlnari. Pearl Publishing Private

Ltd.,, Bombay, 1967, p. 33.

44) Anita Desai, Gry, the Peacock. Rupa Paperbacks,,

Bombay,- p. 120,

45) D. C. Home, Hungry Hearts. P. 112.

46) Santha Rama Rao, Remember the House, p. 255.

47) Narayan, The Guide, p. 170.

48) Nergis Dalai, Minari, p. 176*

49) Veena Paintal, Serenity in Storm, p. 283.

50) M. V. R. Sanaa, The Stream, p. 182*

51) Narayan, The Guide, p# 106.

52) B. Raj an. The Dark Dancer, p. 164.

53) Malgonkar, The Princes, p. 198.

54) Ibid., p. 115.

55) B. Raj an. The Dark Dancer,: p. 170.

0
 126

56) ■ Malgonkar, A Bend itt the* Ganges# p. 115#

57) Jhabvala, To Wheat She Will# p. 10.

58) B. S# Nirody, Handini , publications Division*..

Government of india, Delhi* 1967* p. 31.

59) D. C« Home* Hungry Hearts, p. 123.

60) Attia Bossin* Sunlight on a Broken Column* p. 215.

61) Sahgal* This Time of Morning* p* 28.

62) Mayantara Sahgal* A Time to be Happy. Jaico

publishing House, Bombay, 1957* p. 40.

63) Anita Desai, Gry, The peacock* p. 129.

64) Anita Desai* Voices in the City, Peter Owen*

London, 1965* p. 205.

65) R. Prawer Jhabvala* The Householder, John

Murray* London* 1960, p. 134.

66) Prawver Jhabvala, To Whan She Will* p. 41.

67) P. Sengupta, Red Hibiscus, pp. 9-10.

68) Markandaya* Mectar in a Sieve, p. 58.

69) Huthi Singh, Maura, Constable*. London* 1951*

p. 31.

70) R. K. Narayan* The Vendor of Sweets, Indian

Thought Publications, Mysore, 1967* pp. 170-171.

71) Jhabvala, To Whom She Will, p. 72.

72) Bhattacharya* Music for M o h ini, p. 208.

 127 ,

73) Ib id ,, p . 221,

74) M a rk a n d a y a , Heb t a r i n a S ie v e , p . 6 1 ,

75) A t t i a Ho s a i n . S u n lig h t: on a B ro k e n C olum n, p ,3 0 0 ,

76) K am ala M a rk a n d a y a , A S i l e n c e o f D e s i r e , A F o u r
- S q u a re Book, L o n d o n , 19 6 6 , p , 2 5 .

77) I b id .,, p . 27.

78) K h u sh w an t S in g h , I s h a l l h o t h e a r t h e n i g h t i n g a l e , .
^ p» 4 3 ,

79) M. V. R. S a n a a , T h e S tre a m , p . 1 2 6 .

80) M a rk a n d a y a , M e c ta r i n a S i e v e , p , 8 6 ,

81) S a h g a l, T h is Tim e o f M o rn in g , p . 1 4 3 ,

82) M a rk a n d a y a , A S l i e n c e o f D e s i r e , p , 65.

83) N e r g is D a l a i , M i n a r l . p . 1 3 0 .

84) A n ita D e s a i, V o ic e s i n t h e C i t y , p . 2 3 5 .

85) K h u sh w an t S in g h , I s h a l l n o t h e a r t h e n i g h t i n g a l e ,
p . 19 4 .

86) S a h g a l, A Time t o b e H appy.: 5 .

87) R. P ra w e r O h a b v a la , G et R eady f o r B a t t l e , Jo h n
M u rra y , L o n d o n , 1 9 6 2 , p . 2 1 5 .

88) J h a b v a l a , Esmond i n I n d i a , p* 232*

i ...“ "' Tn"

89) N e r g ia D a l a i , M i n a r i , p . 2 1 0 .

90) R a ja R ao, T he s e r p e n t an d t h e R o p e,, p . 399.

91) Jhabvala, Esmond in India* p* 46*

92) 'ibid.,. p* 207.

93)' Jhabvala, A Backward place, p. 33. -

94) .Jhabvala, Esmond in India, p. 248.

95) Manohar Malgonkar, Combat: of Shadows. Haraish

: Hamilton, bondon,1 1962, p. 147*

96) p. Sengupta, Red Hibiscus, p. 11*

97) Ibid., p.: 114*

98) Bhabani Bhattacharya, Shadow from hadakh.

Orient Paperbacks, 1967, p* 25.

99) Huthi Singh, Maurs. p. 120.

100) O. C. Home, Hungry Hearts, pp. 51*»52.

101) B. Raj an#; Too bong in the West, p. 24.

102) Narayan, The Guide, p. 199.

103) Malgonkar, The princes, p. 230.

\

104) Jhabvala, To Whom She Will, p* 104.

105) B. Rajan. Too Long in the west, p. 123*

5 mmm 1 >

106) B. S. Nirody, Nandini. p. 149.

107) Jhabvala, Get Ready for Battle,: p. 41.

108) Santha Rama Rao, Remember the House, p. 194.

109) M. V. R. Sanaa, The stream, p. 136*

 129

110) Anita Desai, Voices in the Gity. p. 211*

111) Narayan, Mr* Sampath, p. 56*

112) B. Rajan. The Dark Dancer, p. 306,

113) R. Prawer Jhabvala, The Mature of Passion,

George Allen and Unwin ltd,, London, 1965,
p. 239,

114) Ibid 0 0 , p, 87,

115) Ibid., p. 41,

116) B* Raj an. Too Long in the West, p, 75,

117) Mulk Raj An and, "Lady Bountiful" in Laiwanti and

Other Stories, Jaico Publishing-House, Bombay,'
1966, p. 23.

118) M. V. R. Sanaa, The Stream, p. 19,

119) Malgonkar, A Bend in the Ganges, p. 315,

120) Jhabvala, Esmond in India, p. 165.

121) Ibid., p. 208.

122) Jhabvala, Get Ready for Battle.1 p, 13,

123) Ibid.,' p. 23.

124) Ibid.,, pp. 54-55.

125) Ibid,, pp. 68-69.

126) Veena Paintal,: Serenity in Storm, p. 312.

 130

127) Ibid., p. 140,

128) Bhattacharya, A Goddess Mamed Gold, p. 49*

129) Attia Hosain, Sunlight on a Broken Column,

pp* 29— 30*

130) Sahgal, A Time to be Happy*, p* 18*

131) Attia Hbsain, Sunlight on a Broken Column*

p* 23 6*

132) B. Rajan, Too Long in the West* p. 79*

133) Markandaya, a Handful of Rice* p* 177*

134) D* G. Horae, Hungry Hearts* p. 79*

135) Bhattacharya, A Goddess Named Gold, p. 296*

136) Marayan, The Vendor of Sweets, p. 133*

 CHAPTER ...IV 131

THE CASTE SYSTEM

Our debt to Mahatma Gandhi is manifold. He took

within his fold many things. The problem of untoucliability,
in all its socio-political context, engaged his serious
attention. This led' him to thinking about the cruelty of

the caste-structure. He fought valiantly to abolish it.

It is because of him that the monstrous grip of caste is so
relaxed now. He is the fountainhead of inspiration for the

writers of India in this respect also. Political freedom

came later on, but earlier Gandhiji had brought with him,

on his return from South Africa, social democracy.

During the quarter century preceding Independence,

Indo-Anglians - like other Indian fictionwriters, to mention
a few leading ones amongst them, Tagore, Sharadbabu, prem

Chand, Khandekar, Ramanlal Desai, Meghani - welcomed this

first glimpse of social revolution. In pre-Independence
times, Mulk Raj Anand is the champion fighter on this front.

He has preferred to concentrate mainly on the problem of

untouchability. It is a pity that except Bhabani Bhattacharya
no great writer has devoted an entire novel to this important
theme. The inter-play of subtle caste-complications and

reactions to the Caste Order should not be unrewarding.

The ruinous tidal waves of caste are receding now, but,

good or bad, the caste system has been a part of Indiahlife
and, with a stab of regret, one is compelled to remark that
Indo-Anglians, in fairness to Indian life, ought to have
treated this aspect more fully.
 132

Quite a few Indo-Anglian novelists have viewed

the position of Brahmins in the Indian society from
different angles. There are both types of Brahmins s
pious scholars and selfish gluttons. True Brahmins
study and honour scriptures and are enlightened guides
for others. They do not hanker after material gain,
but are always contented. They are men of thought but
do not'despise action. They are virtuous and practise
Brahmacharya. They are scholarly and non-violent, but
not cowards. Such an ideal concept of Brahminism
offers strength even to those who have strayed away
from it. These novelists are also critical in their
attitude to Brahmins who, in their opinion, must not be
extremists about rites, rituals, food, medicines,
planetary influence etc. They must give up all sense of
social superiority as mere birth right, despotism and
superstitions. These novelists have shown that selfish,
greedy and vicious priests will always be looked down
upon and have also warned them against casteism and
fanaticism. In the pre-Independence era. Brahmin was
mostly depicted as a degenerated priest, - selfish,
gluttonous and lecherous - as illustrated by Mulk Raj
Anand'and Raja Rao in untouchable and Kanthapura respec­
tively. In post-Independence times, Anand's views have
not altered much, but Raja Rao has endeavoured to
examine and present both sides of the picture. B. Rajan
and others have indicated what the real defects are and
 133

hew these could be removed. A new spirit is afoot and

things have to change radically and so must Brahmins too.

The origin of castes is wrapped in myths according

to traditional views. Bhabani Bhattacharya shows* in
Music for Mohinm, how people of the older generation
still believe that castes were created by God. Equality
cannot be thought of. "All men are b o m equal ? Then
why did the Creator bring forth the Brahmin out of His
mouth, the Vaishya from His navel, the Sudra from His
X
feet ? Tell us that." The old and orthodox challenge
the young people with new lights to explain this. No,
the castes cannot go, they say emphatically.

Raja Rao defines Brahmins. He states that Brahmin

is a person 'devoted to truth and all that' and,
'Brahmin is he who knows Brahman', etc. Rama, in
The Serpent and the Rope, roguishly tells Georges and
Catherine that Brahmins are reputedly those who know
Brahman and they are notoriously those who love good
banquets. Catherine observes that he is not a Brahmin
xn the sense of being a glutton. 2 Brahmins can pride
themselves on being at the top of the caste pyramid,
provided they have had the highest spiritual achievement.
Those who have just parasitically banked upon their
birth should lament the depths of degradation reached
by them. Brahmins are expected to be pure, contented
and happy. Ideal Brahmins just do their worldly duties
 134

and prepare for happiness in the other world, ignoring

material happiness. As Krishnan, in B. Rajan's
The Dark Dancer, points out to the Singhs s "We Tamil
Brahmins are a tight-lipped community. There are other
values needed to complete a civilization and may be we've
3 '
tended to neglect than." This is generally applicable
to all true Brahmins. Raja Rao also supports this view
in The Serpent and the Rope. His hero Rama says s
"Holiness is happiness. Happiness is holiness. That is
4
why a Brahmin should be happy...." Raja Rao shows
that Brahmins are to be enlightened guides. Madeleine
acknowledges her debt to Rama's Brahminism which, as Rama
5
ironically observes helps her to see Buddhism. Raja

Rao brings out how Brahmins have to respect the ideal

of continence even in married life. Madeleine, who

resents touch, prevails upon Rama to forgo bodily ■

pleasures.6 How could a proud Brahmin say, 'no' to such

a proposal from his wife ? B. Rajan shows that Brahmins
are not only scholarly and self-abnegating, but also
courageously non-violent. Only a truly brave Brahmin like
Krishnan, in The Dark Dancer, displays rare courage in

saving a Muslim - who tried to kill Krishnan - from the

fury of a Sikh who cannot understand Krishnan*s
magnanimity. But B. Rajan also shows that Brahmins,
though peace-loving, are not craven and cowardly and would
be furious when unbearably wronged. Krishnan cries out
for- revenge when Kamala, his new-found love, is killed
by a fanatic.8 To have a great sage as the originator
 135

of one's dynasty is to feel distinguished; but then, all

Brahmin families could be trqced back originally to some

sage or the other - this, as Nagarajan illustrates in

Chronicles of Kedaram, gives the democratic - equalising -

touch. As Gangadhar Suri puts it s “Therein lies your

strength. Part of a real democracy. No rank, no prece-

9
dence, no manoeuvring for social position." Koni

naughtily suggests - it would be a democracy of aristocrats.

The irony is unmistakable. Rajan shows how Brahmins

never violate scriptural edicts, in spite of their foreign

education, because the sacred thread plants priesthood

in their hearts. Kruger, in The Dark Dancer, testifies

to Krishnan's being a true Brahmin, because he went to

Benaras and performed the funeral rites after Kamala's

death .10 Raja Rao shows how Brahmins feel a natural

superiority owing to their high caste which gives a

status higher than one given by continental education,

I

prolonged stay in Europe and a French wife — Rama

experiences all t h i s .11 A Brahmin would hardly forget

his Brahminhood, though the Brahmin and h e might be

12
'separate points of references'. Rama stresses

Brahmins' superiority, insularity and status, even in

suffering. Kamala Markandaya also illustrates this

point. In A Handful of Rice, a Brahmin woman, raped by

British Tommies, commits suicide instead of living in

shame. Purnima, in He who Rides a Tiger, commits

suicide because of her mismatched marriage with an

elderly Brahmin. Almost absolute supremacy has made

 136

Brahmins - as some liberal Brahmins themselves think -

'too smug* and--'too complacent' and they deserve 'some

shaking. ,:l:4 Such views as expressed by Gangadhar Suri#

in Nagarajan's Charonicles of Kedaram# annoy Roni, a

representative of traditional Brahminism. These critical

views have a post-Independence ring about them. Brahmins
Mifoo have received foreign education are likely to dis­
regard the claims of traditional religion. They cease
to be regular temple-goers and do not say their prayers
daily# e.g. Krishnan in The Dark Dancer. He nevertheless,
takes Cynthia to a temple for blessings and is tormented
to know that Cynthia# the foreigner - the casteless -
cannot be blessed. 15 This indicates that the religious
learning, lying latent in the- subconscious, assetts
itself in the face of a crisis. Brahmins# even those who
are away from Brahminism# cfchink that they have a monopoly

of religion# and are the receptacles of godliness#

conveniently forgetting that being born a Brahmin is not

being Brahmin.' Krishnan consoles Cynthia when they

fail to receive blessings from the priest, in the tone
of conviction he does not at all feel * “Wherever a Brahmin
A

is# there is a temple." Rajan# however, points out that

Brahmins - if they wish to remain leaders of religion -

must prefer inner and deeper religion to rituals. Cynthia#
in The Dark Dancer# tells Krishnan that the deeper
acceptance comes from 'the knowledge of having done right *
17
and not from something done with flowers and saffron.
 137

This frank self-criticism indicates the new spirit

awakened after Independence. Brahmins believe that they
are privileged to be thinkers and philosophers and that
it'is the duty of the lower castes to act. Krishnan, in
The Dark Dancer, when engaged in practical politics,

imagines Kruger's reaction thus j "Action" Kruger might

have said, "is basically a lower-caste privilege. A
18
Brahmin is the intellect, the philosopher.... "

Rajan and Bhattacharya illustrate that the external

caste-marks are sometimes used for deception. In

The Dark Dancer, Krishnan is taken in by a Muslim

IQ
wearing the sacred thread of a Brahmin. In He who Rides
a Tiger, B-10, a prisoner - released from the prison of

Brahminism - advises Kalo, a Kamar, to counterfeit the

20
twice-born and that too, with the help of a simple thread.
Malgonkar reveals how people sometimes bribe priests to
earn the right of wearing the sacred thread and bettering

their caste status. Hiroji, in The princes, tries to

whitewash the ugly past of his disreputable ancestors by
© 21
buying off the Brahmin caste-mark. In Bhattacharya1s
He Who Rides a Tiger, Kalo, 'a fake Brahmin, feels the
prick of conscience when Viswanath, who is a Kamar like
Kalo, appreciates Kalo's Brahminism ; "So long as there
are true-hearted Brahmins like you, people cannot lose
22
faith in this social order, The dramatic irony is
effectively managed.
 138

Brahmins- are particularly rigid in not taking food

cooked or touched by lower castes and consequently, they

avoid hotel food also. It is, however, indicated that

these caste-notions have undergone a lot of change-in

modern times. Brahmin children obey the caste-injunctions
drilled into them by elders and do not accept tempting
food from persons of lower castes. In Bhattacharya*s
Music for Mohini, Heeralal refuses to touch -curried pork
cooked and served by the beggar woman at the snake-
charmer's. Not only Heeralal himself, but his low caste
admirers also disapprove of a Brahmin defiling his
caste. The woman asks the Brahmin boy, in a quavering
23
voice, not to lose his caste. Bhattacharya also brings

out how, by not allowing persons of lower castes to

touch their food. Brahmins offend their sense of self-
respect. In He Who Rides a Tiger, the priest-woman ‘s
words addressed to Obhijit are much too harshs "Casteless

waif l Boy from the gutters i Dare you set eyes on a

Brahmin's kitchen ? You will pollute the food with your
24
breath." Brahmins generally do not eat hotel food, so,
while on journey, they have to observe fast. Women are
more rigid about this than men, who have to go to different
places frequently. In R. K. Narayan's Mr. Sampath, Editor
Srinivas advises his wife to forget her rigid caste-
25
notions. This reflects the general post-freedom trend
of concession in caste-considerations. Brahmins are

proverbial teetotallers. Krishnan, in Raj a n 's The Dark

Dancer, has taken a strong dose of gin to assuage the
 139

pain of a serious wound. Karaala remarks that Kruger would

not like 'Gin in a Brahmin's blood-stream.* Her satire
is clear. Gin as medicine is not gin. This critical
attitude indicates the post-Independence impact on
social evaluations. Brahmin families have faith in
planetary influence and the atmosphere of fatalism is
rather thick in a traditional Brahmin household.

In Anita Desai 's Cry, the peacock/ Mayahs father's

love for his child makes him shed superstitious astrolo- •
- — 27
tjical beliefs and he has got horoscopes burned. This
is also a new sentiment fostered in the climate of freedom.
Khushwant Singh shows how ignorant and illiterate
Brahmins sometimes become victims of their own dogmatic
and superstitious beliefs. Ganga Ram, in the short story
“The Mark of Vishnu", meets with an untimely1death due to
his blind worship of the V mark of the Kala Nag. This
critical attitude is characteristic of modern India.

Indian novelists in English have criticised Brahmins

and priests. According to them# these priests are
prejudiced and parochial and hamper the new advancement
of the Indian society. They are mere mercenaries. A
little more money and they would adjust any muhurat for
anyone for anything. They are poor parasites and not
H
persons of prx^iples. Raja Rao# however# appears to be
fairly impartial in his approach. Nagarajan points out
 140

that Brahmins engaged in the priestly and ritualistic jobs

are looked down upon. In Chronicles of Kedaram, Koni
feels that his stocks would not rise by the avowal of his
priestly ancestry. 29 Vanchi is unduly harsh with the
priests at the time of Vasu 's wedding and haughtily
30
orders than about. Raja Rao caustically shows how
Brahmins have lost social respect by debasing the priestly
profession and turning greedy like Jews. The Benaras
priests disallows Rama to perform the funeral rites
after his father's death, because he is foreign-returned.
But the Walpole method would succeed. A small sum of
31
fifty rupees would deaden their Brahminical consciences.
Nagarajan too has a similar situation in Chronicles of
Kedaram. Gangadhar Suri finds it difficult to get the
priests for religious functions in his family, because
3?
he had gone to Burma. Vivekanand's teachings, social
reform movements and Gandhian principles helped in doing
away with these taboos. Anand shows how priests try to
eke out their living like parasites by flattering people,
adjusting muhurats, reading horoscopes according to
clients' wishes. In PrivatejLlfe of an Indian prince,
the priests flatters Vicky by saying that the stars
always tally for him. Raja Rao suggests that Brahmins,
as priests, are a study in contrast. Rama is not sure
whether the Brahmins of Benaras ~ a surrealist city -
 141

are like crows or like the Sadhus. “You never know where
34
reality starts and where illusion ends#"
/

Nagarajan brings out the conflict between Brahmins

and non-Brahmins. He shows how people - among them,'

some modern Brahmins also - believe that Brahmins had the

monopoly of government service for long and now it should

be the turn of non-Brahmins# Koni,. in Chronicles of

Kedaram# resents 'preferences based merely on caste and

community*. Chari,! Vasu, Vanchi and many others advocate

35
the case of low castes# Nagarajan also shows that the

virus of communal hate results in false and fernzied

attacks# After Vanchi *s acrobatic appeal to Brahmins to

support him in elections, non-Brahmins raise a cyclone

of abusive scandals against Brahmins. Koni feels lost

but Suri hopes that the friendly spirit would ultimately

36
prevail. The novelist also suggests that Brahmins -

and other high castes too - who have been in power in

India for the last many centuries, should not now appeal

to caste-fanaticism like 'Brahmins for Brahmins*. They

might have to suffer," because non-Brahmins far outnumber

than# Nagarajan illustrates this by describing the

37
election campaigns at Kedaram.

The Bania caste is traditionally considered to be

a shrewd caste but ttee its shrewdness has been sometimes

depicted in a derogatory manner - as in Aamir All and

Anand. It is not pleasant when Aamir Ali refers to

Gandhiji's infallibility, in The Conflict, because 'he

•38
was a shrewd old Bania*. Again,’ he describes the
 142

Mahatma lecturing to the A.I.C.C. in 1942 as 'Like a

39
Bania sitting in his shop*. it is ironic that the

prophet of castelessness is thus referred to in terms of

caste - parochialism. In Anand's private Life of an Indian

Prince.. Vicky abuses Banias, whenever he is peeved and
indignant. "I shall teach, that snorting Bania,1 Bool
40
Chand, the lesson of his life.'" Vicky is sarcastic
even with Diwan Popatlal, “Your Gujerati and Marwari

Banias are coming in to spread their tentacles around

41
the life of Sham purl" -

Indo-Anglian novelists have shown their royal

characters to be vain about their birth* The Rajput

caste is the caste of fighters and rulers. Anand's

Vicky, the weak tyrant in Private Life of an Indian Prince.

Malgonkar's Hiroji, the desparado in The Princes, Hanut',

the sensualist in Huthi Singh *s Maura,! were all proud of
their tribes. Throughout the entire expanse of Maura,
Hanut is seen only once pre-occupied with ethnocentric

sentiments about a Rajput R€naissance : "Two militarist

races in the world - the Germans in the West and the

Rajputs in the East. Master races both. We Rajputs

ought to realise that..... It's our heritage to rule -
we are the only ruler race extant. We don *t go out for

what we want. A Rajput Renaissance,, that would be

42
something to' work- for."

Bhattacharya deals with the problem of education

of the children of low caste people at length in He

Who Rides a Tiger. People of lower castes, like others,

 143

desire to give their children proper education, but persons

of higher castes discourage the spread of education and social
opporunities among lower castes# Kalo is worried about Lekha1s
education, because of caste-prejudices of the high-born# The
children of low-caste people pursuing professions not consid­
ered respectable come in for insults and harassment from
their high caste class-mates# Lekha has to face all this;
Kalo's profession is ridiculed. One girl impudently says
to Lekhas "Smith girl, tell your father not to cheat his
43
customers." Such low-caste children are almost ostracised
if they are clever and ridiculfi if dull. Lekha always
stands first which makes it worse* The greatest pity is
that some persons of low caste them-selves are critical
of the advancement of their own caste-brethren due to
envy or ignorance. One Brindavan refers to Lekha thus;
"A Kamar girl puts on the feathers of learningi A sparrow
44
preens as a parroti" Not only the children of lower
castes studying feel isolated but their parents also are
looked down upon, sometimes by their own caste-fellows.
This may be because of their inferiority complex or their
suspicion of the new light of learning.

The Indo-Anglian novel reflects how -caste people

have to put up with social tyranny. Bhattacharya shows
how these unfortunate persons, harassed by social
injustice bordering on starvation and loss of their
women's virtue, cannot but feel embittered and almost
 144

dehumanised* The high-born people chastise and abuse

the down-trodden as and when they wish. In He Who Rides

a Tiger* the trader from Calcutta regrets that Kalo

stayed away from his trap and says that God had sent

‘this mighty hunger to teach the low-born people a true

45
lesson1. The author shows in the same novel how the

attitude of the high castes creates in persons of low

castes a desire to hit back. Kalo can-not forget that

his Lekha has returned from the gate of Hell*. He creates

a fake God not just to eke out a living, but there is
the sense of revenge. Desperation and destitution,
insult and injustice, rouse the rebel in man and enable

him to defy the Caste Order. Kalo, who feeds wronged

by the society, seeks his rehabilitation and retaliation
in posing as a Brahmin by putting on the brand-new nine-
stranded Brahminical thread, defying and defiling' the
45
holy emblem. Kalo plays the counterfeit Brahmin so

well that the merchant who. owned the site of the temple

and the magistrate who had sent him to prison come and
47
touch his feet now. The tyranny of higher castes

breeds revolt and allows layers of hate to thicken in

the hearts of the social bottom-dogs. Kalo ruthlessly

wreaks his colossal revenge against society by pollut­

ing the castes of high-bofcn and let them know of it in

his Olynf^Lc Confession. Kalo is enthused to see Biten

and Viswanath by the side at that crucial moment;
 145

"They had come back in time to hear him, to see him drive

his steel deep into the tiger. The scum of the earth had
48
hit back, hit back where it hurt.“

The irony of the caste system lies in the fact that

the lower castes themselves do not wish to abolish the

caste system but are always very eager to better their
caste-status anyhow and, as MuLk Raj An and illustrates,
marrying into a higher caste is one of the ways. In the

story, 11At what price My Brothers1*, Tara Singh asserts

repeatedly that he does not believe in caste and has given
his daughter - who never existed - in marriage to a

barber who walks into the Sardar snare and loses his

money and dream of having *a high-born bride in his

49
home*. It,is a pity that people of lower casteps

themselves also like to ftRtter themselves by feeling

caste-superiority. They also need a foot-rest of

inferior castes. The problem of relationship between

Hindus and Harijans is already complicated but that is

not all. The one between Chamars and Bhanqis is more

baffling. The outcastes themselves would cast others

out. They wish to perpetuate their own internal caste- I'

hierarchy. Bhattacharya explains that most of the people

are the willing bondmen of the caste system. Only the
people at the bottom of the social pyramid really object
to castes and, of course, those nourished on the visions

of universal brotherhood. In He who Rides a Tiqher. B-10

(Biten), once a Brahmin, takes his food even with untouch­

ables. Even Kalo, a Kamar, can-not think of doing so,- because

 146

vn
q^ouchables were “as far beneath him in the scale as
50
Brahmins were above*'. Over and above the internal
caste-order of the casteless# the Untouchables# Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes have their own vested
interests in keeping the cobra of communalisnt alive.
They are not prepared to forgo their special privileges
and concessions regarding election# education# service
etc. Harindra# the Village social reformers# in Bhatta-
charya.'s Music for Mohiml# comes to know all this.
“Don't you go about giving folks ideas#" the cobbler
warns Harindra threateningly. "What if our own low caste
folks lift.up their heads to the higher among us? What
if a scavenger claims to be a leather-worker’s brother
and equal?"51 It is very easy for foreigners to cast
aspersions on high caste Hindus for their caste system#
but they must understand that the system is far too
complex to be wiped out all so soon as they might wish
from their distance.

Indo-Anglian novelists have dealt with the problem

of untouchability# bringing out the misery and craven­
ness of untouchables® They show how the high castes
cause their heart-burns but they also show that all high
caste persons are not always harsh and hostile. These
social underdoges also have their sense of self-respect
and feel like retaliating. Harijans are also Hindus and
yet they do not feel involved in the fate and future of
Hindus. There is a sort of listlessness and indifference
about them. It is also indicated that it is not just to
 147

uplift Harijans by devaluing people of higher castes. The

depiction of the Untouchable in pre-Independence fiction

is more or less concerned with the atrocities of the high­

born Hindus and the wretchedness of the Untouchable, In
post-Independence times, the probl'em is discussed more

seriously and fairly,

- Mulk Raj Anand brings out how not only are the

bodies of untouchables broken by hard work but also their

spirit is slain by ancient, chronic and deep-rooted

inferiority complex. He describes how people of high

caste, at times, would annihilate untouchables, if they
could, their rage is so devilish. Their children are not

taught to respect the untouchable elders, All this indi­

cates their desire to peipetuate their supremacy. It

also reveals their vanity and meanness. Such thoughts

throng in the mind of 'Old Bapu* in Anand's story/
' 53
honoured by that name. High caste Hindus of older

generation firmly believe that "Breeding always tells" s

Malgonkar brings out this in The princes. Ruler Hiroji

chides Abhay for paying for the studies of Kanak Ghand,

who should have been only curing leather in his life but
53
for Abhay's generosity. Later, Minister Kanak Chand

reveals his meanness and ungratefulness. Low caste

women are considered to be game by men of high castes.

People of low caste feel the humiliation andjbhink of

effective retaliation. In Sengupta's Red Hibiscus,

Rasmi's drunkard husband Ramdani wants to teach the
Sepoy,, who used to harass Rasmi, a strong lesson. He
 148

says# "X may be a Bhangi# but I have hands just as strong

as anyone else. Let it not be said that I cannot protect
my woman,"5 4 This reflects the increasing tendency of
self-assertion based on the sense of human dignity - a
patently modern sentiment. In Bhattacharya*s Shadow
from Ladakh# Jhanak# an untouchable woman# wreaks her
vengeance on the high society by luring to her fiery self
youths of high castes and wrecking their lives, 55 Padmini
Sengupta shows how Harijans are a part and parcel of the
Hindu community# but because our castes are based on
professions, they do not feel a sense of belonging, Rasmi,
in Red Hibiscus# does not feel enthused at the, British
'quitting India - as if Independence is meant only for the
Hindus and the Muslimsl The Hindus call them outcastes and
the Muslims consider them beyond God's grace, "Only
Mahatma Gandhi, Rasmi knew# loved them and# of course# God
5&
Himself,"

Nagarajan shows that the orthodox high caste Hindus

are not always cruel to low castes# whom they would help
in a general manner# but because of their deep-seated
conventional religious notions they cannot bear Harijans'
presence in their houses and temples. In Chaonicies of
Kedaram# Koni feels shocked and polluted to see an un­
touchable moving in Vasu's house as his personal servant,
Koni surmises that,they might invade their temples even
 149

57
and the.orthodox have to survive that shock also.
Sengupta also shows how a few persons even of the old,

orthodox generation are charitable to the lower castes.

In Red Hibiscus. Bara Ma, the big mother in the Das

family, warmly compliments Raismi on her serving to add

to her husband's inadequate earning. "Yes, you're a
58
brave caste. No wonder Mahatma Gandhi admires you."

This kindly attitude is representative of the opinion

of high castes in Gandhian times. Owing to Gandhiji's

firm devotion to this aspect of social reform, there

has been a dramatic and radical change in the country

so far as attitude to caste is concerned.

Nagarajan illustrates that the attitude of social

reformers and some progressive persons to high castes

is, sometimes, a little unreasonable. Instead of lifting

up lower castes, they seem to be lowering high castes.
Nirmala, in Chronicles of Kedaram, believes that one can
lift up harijans by becoming harijans. Koni does not
59
like that the superior classes depress themselves.
Injustice should npt be redressed by injustice. It would
be a primitive sense of justice.

The Indo-Anglian novel reflects how caste raises

impediments in the path of love. The authors seen to

believe that true love should not be strangleAby caste-

parochialism and stratification, because the marriage of

true minds is the real union. However, they show how

 150

caste plays the stock villain in the story of ‘star-

cross 'd lovers'. M.V.R. Sarma suggests that stratifi­

cation is almost suffocating the social conscience.

A love affair, even if it is true and pure, between

persons of different castes is *a disease of the mind',

whereas marriage, though devoid of love, in the same

caste is *a social event'. Murty, in The Stream, uses

these filthy weapons against Swarna to deter her from

60
marrying Gopalam, Sarma shows that love is above

caste and creed considerations. Swarna, in The Stream,

tells Murty as much. But according to the orthodox, love

is a sinful act, if the lovers do not belong to the same
caste. The woman marrying out of her caste would be like
a 'mistress of someone belonging to a different caste' -
as Murty taunts Swarna. Difference in castes is the
surest way for lovers to dejection and death,because
their parents would then hasten to arrange even monstrously

mismatched marriages. In Bhattacharya's He Who Rides A

Tiger, Purnima loves Basav, who is not a Brahmin. She
is made to marry a Brahmin widower with children and

grand-children and she drowns herself. This fills her

brother Biten with disgust for castes. • Santha Rama

Rau brings out that the same caste is a great factor in

favour of youthful lovers, though they may belong to

different social strata or environments. In Remember the

House, Baba's grandmother feels activised about fixing

up Baba's marriage with Krishnan, because their caste
 151

63
is the same. R.K. Narayan suggests that a young' man,

when deeply immersed in-love, is likely to be indifferent

to considerations of caste, for the magic of romance
would beautify even an ugly caste. In The Guide, whes(

Rosie refers to her caste of tempie-dancers - treated

as public women - Raju vociferously consoles her; ‘All

that narrow notion may be true of old days, but i t 's

different now. Things have changed. There is no caste

64 -
or class today." R.K* Narayan here definitely points
out that the caste Order is crumbling in the New Age

after Independence.

Indo-Anglian novelists have discussed the problem

of inter-action between caste and marriage exhaustively.
How hypocritical, monetary, retaliatory caste-consi­
derations govern the problem of marriage is illustrated.

The questions of inter-caste sexual liaisons and inter­

caste marriages are also discussed, whether even an
international marriage is feasible is judged by a caste-

obsessed traditionalist. These novelists seem to opine

that winds of change have started blowing and that caste-
considerations cannot much govern the problem of marriage,

which means the loosening hold of castes in general.

Khushwant Singh tears off the curtain of caste-hypocrisy

in matrimonial affairs. In his story, A Bride for the

Sahib, Mr. Sen's matrimonial advertisement states ; *G

and D no bar*, despite which, the applicants selected
 152

for consideration were of the same caste as the Sens *

and were supposed to be able to give 'substantial
65
dowries'. To pose as an advanced person having no
regard for castes at all has been a fashion in rage

in' our, times, but not many Indians are really progressive

in action also, Anita Desax suggests that financial

considerations help one in diluting the caste predilec­

tions and prejudices of a family in decline* In Voices

the City, Amala's father, a Bengali highborn, marries a
S6
girl who is a part Nepalese, Bhattacharya shows that

girls sometimes feign to belong to a higher caste and

marry out of desperation, or sense of sacrifice or that

of revenge even, I»ekha,~ in He Who Rides a Tiger, offers

herself as a sacrifice to Brahmin Moti Chand's lust and

insists on marrying him and defiling his caste.

Caste, Shows Narayan, is a necessary ingredient of

a respectable marriage, Sriram, the hero of Waiting for

the Mahatma, is captivated by Bharati at first Sight and

then he wants to ask her about her age, caste and horo-
68
scope to ascertain whether he is eligible to marry her*
The factor of difference in caste would dampen the fire
of middle-aged high caste person's lust* In Bhattacharya's

A Goddess Named Gold, the widowed Halwai, old enough

to be Meera's father, wants to marry her, but as he tells

her* "The sadness that our castes disagrees, mine and

 153

69
thine.” By marrying a man of higher caste a girl of

lower caste would get a rise in caste status and,

therefore, sometimes, money and caste status could

coerce a sweet maiden into an unhappy marriage. The
barber go-between explains to Meera's grandmother how
70
Meera would gain in caste status by marrying the Halwai.

An inter-caste marriage tests a man *s sincerity and

courage, because arranged marriages tend to fall into a

groove of comfortable routine, but not love marriages.

In Jhabvala's To Whom She Will, Hari complacently feels

that Sushila will make a good wife for him* Amrita makes

him uneasy due to her different, superior family background.

71
Sushila is one of them after all. Jhabvala shows that
those who marry outside their castes are constantly sub­

jected to a censure by the orthodox. In The Mature of

Passion, Phuphiji prided herself on her correct augury

regarding the inter-caste love-marriage of Chandra prakash

72
and Kanta. Jhabvala points out that even people with

advanced ideas raise objections to inter-caste marriages.

They deceive themselves that they do not lay an exaggerated '
sthess on family status, but, in fact,- they do not care

about anything else, pandit Ram Bahadur, in To Whom She

Will, feels he cannot allow Amrita to marry Hari whose
73
caste is different and whose family status is not adequate.
 154

Even conservative communities connive at sexual

adventures of their members with persons of other commu­

nities and castes* but they feel revolted at the sugges­
tion of their marriage- as revealed by Khushwant Singh
in Train to Pakistan. Jugga *s mother scorns Nooran and

drives her away ; "You a Muslim weaver*s daughter marry

a Sikh peasant 1 "The fact that Nooran had Jugga1s child
74
inside her does not soften the old woman* Anand also
shows how inter-caste sexual adventures are ignored by

the heads of royal families, but inter-caste marriages

are not accepted. In Private Life of an Indian prince,

Ganga Dasi, being a Brahmin woman, could never be

75
acknowledged as the lawful queen of Vicky, K>c/~

Indo-Anglian novelists bring out how caste conside­

rations are now much less predominant than before. The

same caste is a vital factor in marriage, if all things

are equal but not otherwise. In Sengupta1s Red Hibiscus,

Kumodini feels that Nirmal, a Brahmin youth, will be

rejected as the would-be groom for Sita, because he is

dissipated and that Santosh, a non-Brahmin youth, has
better chances, because he is an intelligent youth of
76
sterling character. Owing to recent social reform,

Raja Rao explains, some Indian families now seem to have

got rid of caste-taboos. In The Serpent and the Rope,,
Lakshamna and Little Mother both are thinking of a
77
matrimonial alliance,! despite their different conraunities.
 155

Not belonging to the same caste is a severe hurdle in

th© way of young lovers thinking of marriage, but not so
in 'Shanti Niketan* - as shown by Bhabani Bhattacharya in
Shadow from Ladakh. On account of Tagore's advanced and
liberal views and the free, uninhibited mental climate of
•Shanti Niketan*, it becomes possible for Satyajit and
Sucheta to marry and become happy, though they do not
78
belong to the same c<3.ste* Bhattacharya maintains that
any person can, if he or she so chooses, marry outside his
or her caste. In Music for Mohinl, Harindra gives an
electric shock to Behula, a citadel of Brahminism and
orthodoxy, because he, a non-Brahmin is marrying a Brahmin
girl and defying a timeless social practice. 79 This bold
attitude of the author belongs to post-Independenee times.
The New India has to give a fight royal to time-worn
traditions of social inequality* The country has been
taking big and firm strides in the direction of breaking
all chains. The Caste system has to go and has been
going since Gandhiji's emergence as the national leader.

The Indo-Anglian novel deals with caste-distinctions*

The novelists generally feel that these distinctions are
not still quite disappearing, Khushwant Singh points gut
that caste distinctions cannot be eradicated by legislation,
because these-have struck deep roots in the course of
many, many years. In Train to Pakistan, Iqbal ruminates on
the spirit of social inequality s "In a country which had
 156

accepted caste distinctions for many centuries# inequality

had been an.inborn mental concept. If caste was abolished
by. legislation# it came up in other forms of class dis-
80
tiftction". Raja Rao feels differently. It is suggested
that in cities predominantly Muslim# Hindu girls have to '
behave with restraint. In The Serpent and the Rope# Little
Mother# after comparing conditions in Hyderabad and
Bangalore#^ says appreciatively of the latter - “After all
it's Brahmin^land1. Raja Rao, through Rama# reminds us that
/

Little Mother had forgotten that 'the benign congress

81
Regime had abolished caste distinctions'. Lambert
Mascarenhas suggests how in cultured families caste
distinctions are not harped upon. Whenever low castes
raise their heads# high castes are alreted and endeavour
to keep the lowly under their thumb. In Sorrowing Lies My
Land# Babush does not even know anything about castes :
Bramane, Chardos and Sudra. Inacinho knows about it from
his father's talk with others. 82

The sameness of caste paves the way of equality and

identification. The champion of the down-trodden soon
finds full support and help in crisis. In Bhattacharya*s
He Who Rides a. Tiger# when there are signs of violent
attack against Kalo# coolies come to Kalo's rescue, because
they know him to be one of them. 8 3 prawer Jhabvala brings
out how the question of morality is also coloured by caste
considerations. If a crime is committed with a person of
 157

the same caste, its gravity is not as great as when it

is committed with a person of other caste. In The Nature

of Passion, Nimrai's mother is aggrieved to know that

Nimmi has been dining and dancing in the clubs with a

84
Parsi youth. Raja Rao indicates that cooperation between

persons of the same caste even for an impious or dishonest

motive is considered quite natural. In The Gat and

Shakespeare, Govindan Hair's queer logic helps him in
understanding that Bhoothalinga Iyer and Rama Iyer,' both
being Brahmins, it is natural even for the Inspector,
85
Rama Iyer, to save Bhoothalinga Iyer, Also, in Mulk
Raja Anand's Private Life of an Indian Prince,' Pandit
Shiv Nath, a Brahmin, is supposed to be favouring Gangi,
86
also a Brahmin, and spoiling the case of Tikyali Rani,

Indo-Anglian novelists have shown how caste consi­

derations play a very important role at the time of

elections and also after elections in spreading fanaticism,

Khushwant Singh shows how ethnocentric sentiments are

roused and exploited : it is generally expected that people

have to support the candidate who belongs to their caste.

If he is of the same sub^caste, then he has as good as

pocketed the votes of his caste-brethren. In "The Voice of

God", Ganda Singh wrests the promise for full support from
the Lambardar of Bhamla on the basis of upholding the
prestige of the Sikh peasantry and his belonging to the same
 158

87
sub-caste as they are, The influence of casteism on

elections has been disastrous®' It has caused segregation

and hostility between one caste-group and another.

Nagarajan indicates that the feud between Brahmins and

non-Brahmins in some parts of South India is a notorious

socio-political fact. In Chronicles of Kedaram, if Vanehi

fans the fire of Brahmins' fanaticism^®does Meghanatha in

respect of non-Brahmins, more effectively. Vane hi has to

88
lie in the grave dug by him. The author, again, shows
that post-election effects of communal hate and dissension
are devastating. Kedaram is torn asunder between Brahmins

and non-Brahmins - what an awful expression J - after the

elections, Koni finds, to his chagrin® Kedaram is in the

relentless grip of endless emotional tension and mutual

distrust spreading like miasma but maddening like night-

89
mare® The caste taboos regarding touch, food, drink,

marriage and other things are losing their hold on people,

but casteism has menacingly raised its head in political

and economic spheres in post-Independence timese Once

politicians appeal to the bigotry of people, sheer majority

of the number will win the day® It would be like etheris­

ing human minds resulting in intellectual stagnation or

bankruptcy.

The fact that the caste system is an offshoot of

 159

religion has created many complications* In Train to

Pakistan, Iqbal, Khushwant Singtt's mouthpiece, takes all

communities to task i “India is constipated with a lot of

humbug. Take religion. For the Hindu it means little

besides caste and cow-protection. For the Muslim,

circumcision and Kosher meat. For the Sikh, long hair and

hatred of the Muslim. For the Christian, Hinduism with a

sola topee. For the Parsi, fire-worship and feeding
90
vultures". Mulk Raj Anand shows how the conservative and

ignorant low caste villagers are not willing to shed even

their superstitious notions which they miscall religion.

They complain against the government that it shows scant
respect for religion. Bali, in "The Power of Darkness",

says that those in authority are ruffians and scoundrels

who do not respect religion and the gods. He stoops to

finding fault with individuals,* “And to think that the

Prime Minister of this faithless country is himself a

91
Brahmin i Look, folks, darkness has come 1“

Indo-Anglian novelists show how professions and

castes are connected. Caste-taboos regarding crafts and

professions have to be obeyed. Craftsmen feel dejected

if they cannot practise their crafts owing to caste

considerations. In fact, they wish their crafts to be

passed on to their children as proud items of legacy.

Bhattacharya shows how one would naturally regret to see

one’s craftsmanship being wasted away owing to caste

 160

discrimination® In He Who Rides a Tiger, Kalo has to

/
tears! away from his craft just when it has reached the

stage of art. When he sees Viswanath working, he cannot

help thinking of throwing away the mask and mantle of

priesthood and of being in his smithy. 92 This shows that

crafts are a tie like castes and craftsmanship is a god­

send,' whose call cannot be ignored. Bhattacharya shows

that fathers expect from sons the continuation of clans

and crafts. Kali is down-cast to know that he would be

sonless and deplores that his tradition and cultivated

skill would go futile. "This skill in his work was the

pivot of his being, and he was its last repository.
93 R. K. Narayan
Obhijit would have to be an empty name".

explains how professions and castes are connected. To be

born in a high caste is not sufficient for retaining
social dignity* If, by chance, one's ancestor# were
connected with a profession or job looked doito upon by
society, it would be almost permanently stigmatic.

Margayya, in The Financial Expert, regretfully remembers

that his ancestor's had been professional corpse-bearers

and that it would be difficult to find out a good girl

of the same caste for Balu. Of course, the passage, of

time and magic of money can obliterate an unfortunate blot
on the caste, as is found by him. 94 Nayantara Sahgal ex­

plains that caste taboos regarding professions are

inviolable and to be highborn turns out to be, sometimes, a
 161

liability in itself* Persons of high castes can accept

reputable white-collared jobs only* In A Time to be Happy,
Raghuvir# a Brahmin M*A*# does not like Sanad's suggestion
to work in the business of manufacture and sale of toys to
earn more money/ because Brahmins cannot stoop so low i95

Urbanisation and Industrialisation have contributed

to the loosening of the hold of caste. Economic string­
ency and rather liberal urban life compel persons of higher
castes to accept jobs or professions infra dig* In Kamala
Markandaya's Nectar in a Sieve/ Arjun revolts against the
shackles of the Caste Order and accepts a job in the
tannery, because going without food is worse than taking
96
the risk of losing caste* Caste distinctions are not
very rigid in cities* Jalim# in Padmini Sengupts's Red
Hibiscus# does not have to suffer# any longer# the pangs
of social inferiority and injustice# after first getting
education in a city and then a post in a mill there® 97
Probably this is why persons of low castes are now-a-days
feeling inclined to leave their ancestral professions and
villages# Drainage has almost assuaged the wound of un-
touchability* The hate for Harijans rests founded on the
nausea and filth of their work® The“foundations of
prejudice have to crumble# The are already shaking.

Independence has widened the Indian's mental hori­

zons and has fostered a general cosmopolitan outlook on
life and ideals® He is striving to be a world citizen
 162

and,; as such# is inclined to put his house in order® He

cannot afford to be parochial and unjust and has to
direct his efforts towards evolving a pan-Indian social
order® Indo-Anglian novelists faithfully reflect this
sociological metamorphosis and seem to assert that the
caste-bonds are loosening and that the stigma of casteism
is wearing out® Gandhiji's appearance on the Indian
socio-political scene has hastened this process of social
revolution. Bhattacharya indicates that surnames or
honorifics denoting caste-affiliations are to be discarded
and the ideal to be above caste-considerations should be
practised, not only preached. Satyajit, in Shadow from
Ladakh, does so® He disowns caste and voluntarily invites
castelessness. 98 The author stresses again that concern
for caste means orthodoxy which is out of context in the
present social order® In the same novel, Bhashkar thinks
thus. Mrs. Mehta, when on Bhashkar's behalf she has
advertised for his marriage, does not consider applications
99
soliciting information regarding the advertiser's caste.
Though R® K® Narayan does not preoccupy himself with the
problem of castes, he brings out the adverse points of the
system® In response to Grace's query whether the system
has now disappeared, Jagan, in The Vendor of Sweets,
replies : “Well, we don't believe in caste these days,
you know". Jagan says generously? "Gandhi fought for its
abolition® Jagan, an orthodox person is driven to
 163

speaking against the Order he would not wish to see gone*

Narayan *s irony is subtle. The novelist again indicates

the Gandhian influence on caste in Waiting for the Mahatma.

When Srirara Knows Mahatmaji's views on caste, he becomes

painfully aware of the injustice meted out by the orthodox
101
and high-handed high-born to the down-trodden. Also, in

Narayan *s Mr. Sampath, Srinivas depicts his hero in his

102
story as striving for the abolition of the caste system.

Padmini Sengupta shows how some cultured families have

started discouraging caste discrimination owing to the

awakening of national consciousness, social equality and

humanitarianism. Kusum and Sita, in Red Hibiscus,

admonishes the caste-obsessed Kumodini 'not to put ideas

103
of caste into the children's heads'. Political
awareness and patriotic fervour have led to the crumbling
of the caste pyramid in India. Bara Ma, in Red Hibiscus,
asks K u s o t to go with her Doctor husband to the slum to
help Rasmi and her people, despite Gariesh’s fuming

against 'those low caste Harijans*. She feels that if they

do not actually help the poor, there is no point in
104
their fighting for freedom. Nagarajan illustrates how
the highborn orthodox have never found themselves in

agreement with Gandhiji *s views on caste. In fact, they

have' clearly been hostile to Gandhiji for his efforts to

abolish caste. Koni, in Chronicles of Kedaram, is no

 164

105
exception* The caste system has caused many complex
problems* many heartaches. It has kept us away from
belonging to the modern world - it smacks of such primi­
tive stench l This is a chain all advanced* educated
Indians wish to demolish® Such thoughts fill the mind
of Rashmi* in Nayantara Sahgal*s This Time of Morning*
and she voices them before Neil® She reflects that had
Buddism spread in Indian the caste system would have
disappeared and Indians would have felt different and
m o d e r n ® T h e caste system is like a dead weight on
Indian social conscience® It retards our social and
national progress and the new generation feels that it
must definitely go®
v '/
^ The Indo-Anglian novel reveals the perspective in
which the foreigner regards the Indian caste system.
The picture that emerges* as seen through Western eyes*
seems to have been based on misconception* misunder­
standing and sometimes* even malice® Their attitude is
not that of a kindly mentor but of a hostile, prejudiced
critic. This also betokens absence of communication and
understanding between East and West. Mrs, Jhabvala wields
her most perfected weapon of irony against those
Westerners who hypocritically express lip-sympathy for
the social bottom-dogs in India. When Sudhir* in A
Backward Place* tells Clarissa that Indians too judged
 165

people by their -trorth, not by their birth, she retorts

by referring to the caste system in India. She says

she is very much against untouchability. It is quite

horrible and yet she finds something beautiful about

107
the caste system® Her attitude is ambiguous - a

flatterer's and also critic's® Ruskin Bond shows how

foreigners would not miss any opportunity of taunting

Indians with the injustice done by the higher castes

to untouchables® In spite of their missionary approach,

they would wish to avoid untouchables on the ground of

class-distinction. The missionary's wife, in The Room •

on the Roof asks Rusty not to play with the sweeper boy.

Even if he had been an Indian, she adds, he would not

have been allowed to play with him from the view-point

of caste.
vX'

R„K.Narayan expresses the average American's

reaction to castes in India through Grace in The Vendor

of Sweets. She says to Jagan : 'I had heard so mush

about the caste system in this country, I was afraid to

come here, and when I first saw you all at the Railway

Station I shook with fear,"

109 Narayan shows how

Americans have been meddlesomely inquisitive about the

caste system in India® They invariably ask Indian

Celebrities whether the system is going - as did the

American T® V® Reporter, in The Guide® Raju, the fake

110
swami, categorically replies s 'Yes'® It is interst­

ing to speculate whether the American was really glad to

know that the Indian caste system was going after all®
 166

Thus# the caste system is dealt with from different

standpoints. These novelists have commented on the apex
of the caste pyramid viz.# Brahmins t their love of
learning# sense of duty and unworldliness on the one hand,
and their greed, gluttony and gullibility on the other®
Brahmins as priests come in for rather severe treatment -
it is a study in degeneration. The Bania is represented,
more or less, as shrewd, mean and avaricious. They deal
with high castes as a group and their unjust and cruel
attitude to low castes - as also the caste snobbery of low
castes themselves and their sense of revengefulness and
retaliation against high castes. They examine the inter­
action between caste and love, caste and marriage, caste
and profession, caste and superstition. They also trace
the effects of casteism on election and of urbanisation
and industrialisation on castes. The Indo-Anglian novel
presents the picture of caste through the eyes of West,
and illustrates how the ties of castes now definitely
tend to loosen in the post-Gandhian and post-Independence
era.

Bhattacharya, Raja Rao, Rajan and Nagarajan discuss '

the strength and weakness of Brahmins as a caste. Bhatta-
charya’s attitude is satirical, Raja Rao *s philosophical,
Raj an ‘s sceptical and Nagarajan ’s sympathetic. Raja Rao
delineates his Brahmin hero, Rama, in a sophisticated and
elaborate manner. He is away from Brahmins but never away
 167

from Brahminism® In anyone *s embraces and under any sky#

he does not cut himself off from his Brahmin roots®
Rajan's Krishnan is a renegade Brahmin and hates# like
Rama# conservative Brahmins such as his uncle ‘Kruger*®
Nagarajan# though mildly satirical of his hero# Koni# whom
he invests with a certain degree of dignity even in his
parochial caste - loyalty. Koni represents orthodox
Brahmins who are good at heart and idealistic# though
one may not appreciate their ideals®

Mulk Raj Anand and Padmini Sengupta describe the

relations between high and low castes. Sengupta's
methods are artistic and coloured by sympathetic and
tender understanding of the aspirations of the crushed
sections of humanity. Anand is activised by the fury
of a political-cum-social reformer who wants to ruthlessly
change the social inequality. His fury is not always the
righteous fury of a Valmiki# but it is all worked up® His
championship of the down-trodden is unquestionable. M.V.
R. Sarma's attitude to caste is liberal. He does not want
caste to come in the way of love® He does not develop this
theme# but his views are modern and romantic. He has
depicted caste-prejudices# notions and distinctions. Mrs.
Jhabvala# perhaps in her excessive enthusiasm to Indianise
herself rapidly# is too prone to make her novel only too
Indian to miss using castes as background for conflicts
 168

of love# marriage# family and society. Her attitude to

caste is indifferent and casual# and of course# romantic

inasumuch as it helps her in weaving conflicts arising

from difference in castes of lovers. R. K. Narayan is

a mono-theist# engaged in the worship of the god of art.

He does not bring in references to social or political

problems# but he is not impervious to them. His comments

and observations are few but subtle and significant.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1® Bhabani Bhattacharya# Music for Mohini# Jaico

Publishing House# Bombay# 1952# pp. 185-186

2® Raja Rao# The Serpent and the Rope# John Murray,

London# 1960# p. 411*

3« B* Rajan# The Parle Dancer, Heinemann# London# 1959#

p . 112.

4® Raja Rao# The Serpentand the Rope# p. 24.

5. Ibid.# p* 24.

6. Ibid.# p. 17®

7® B* Rajan# The DarkDancer# p® 206.

8. Ibid.# pp® 283— 284®

9® K. Nagarajan# Chronicles of Kedaram# Asia Publi­

shing House, Bombay# 1961# p. 9®

10® B. Rajan# The Dark Dancer# p, 305.

11. Raja Rao# The Serpent and the Rope# p. 33.

 169

12® Ibid®, p* 136.

13 . K am ala. Markandaya, A Handful of Rice, Ori ent

Paperbacks, Delhi, 1966, p, 13 4®

14® K. Nagarajan, Chronicles of Kedaram, p. 89.

15. B* Rajan, The Dark Dancer, p. 168.

16. Ibid., p. 171.

17. Ibid®, p. 173.

18. Ibid®, p® 34.

19. Ibid®, p. 191*

20 . Bhabani Bhattacharya, He Who Rides a Tiger,

Jaico Publishing House, Bombay, 1954, p. 43.

21 . Manohar Malgonkar, The Princes, Hamish Hamilton,

London, (1963), Second Impression, 1964, p. 23.

22 . Bhattacharya, He Who Rides a Tiger, p, 128.

23, Bhattacharya. Music for Mohini, pp® 28*29®

24 . Bhattacharya® He Who Rides a Tiger, p® 212.

25 » R® K® Narayan, Mr® Sampath, Indian Thought Pub-

cations,' Mysore® 1949, pp® 3 4-35.

26. B. Rajan® The Dark Dancer, p® 211.

27, Anita Desai. Cry, the Peacock, Rupa & Co.,

Calcutta. p« 86®

28. Khushwant Singh® “The Mask of Vishnu" in Vice

of God and Other Stories® Jaico Publishing House
Bombay, 1957, pp® 24-25®
 170

29e Ke N a g a r a j a n , C h r o n i c l e s o f K e d a ra m , p® 8 .

30® Ib id ® # p„ 3 6 .

3 le R a ja R ao, T h e S e r p e n t a n d t h e R o p e ® p s 1 2 .

32® K . N a g a ra ja n ® C h r o n i c l e s o f K e d a ra m . p . 11®

33® M ulk R a j A n an d , P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e .
H u tc h i n s o n , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 3 , p® 54®

34® R a ja R ao, T h e S e r p e n t a n d t h e R o p e , p« 1 3 .

35® K® N a g a r a j a n , C h r o n i c l e s o f K e d a ra m , p . 236.

3 6® I b id ® , pp® 1 5 6 -1 5 7®

37® I b id ® , p® 153®

38® A am ir A l l , Co n f l i c t , N a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n &
P u b lis h in g L td ., Bom bay, 19 4 7 , p® 95®

39® Ib id ., p. 105®

40® A n an d , P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e , p® 242® '

41® I b id ® , p® 2 6 8 .

42® H u lh i S in g h , M a u ra , C o n s t a b l e , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 1 , p® 25 4 .

43® B h a tta c h a ry a , He Who R id e s a T i g e r , p® 8®

44. I b id ® , p . 12®

45® Ib id ., p® 17®

46® I b id ® , p . 8 4 .

47. I b id ® , p® 95®

48® I b id ® , p . 241®
 171

49 M ulk R a j An a n d , 11A t W hat P r i c e My B r o t h e r s " i n

L a lw a n ti an d O th e r S t o r i e s , J a ic o P u b lis h in g
H o u s e , Bom bay, 1 9 6 6 , p p . 5 2 - 5 3 .

50® B h a t t a c h a r y a , He Who R id e s a T i g e r , p . 1 5 6 .

51. B h a t t a c h a r y a , M u s ic f o r M o h in i, p® 174®

52« M ulk R a j A n a n d , " O ld B a p u " i n T h e P o w er o f

D a rk n e ss an d O th e r S t o r i e s , J a ic o P u b lis h in g
H o u se , Bom bay, 1 9 5 8 , p» 100®

53. M a lg o n k a r , T h e P r i n c e s , p . 1 6 .

54® P a d m in i S e n g u p t a , R ed H i b i s c u s , A s ia P u b lis h in g
H o u s e , Bom bay, 1 9 6 2 , p» 22®

55. B h ab an i B h a tta c h a ry a , Shadow f r o m L a d a k h , O r i e n t

P a p e rb a c k s , D e lh i, 19 6 6 , p® 74®

56# S e n g u p ta , Red H i b i s c u s , p . 27®

57® K, N a g a r a j a n , C h r o n i c l e s o f K e d a ra m , p® 146®

58* S e n g u p ta , Red H i b i s c u s , p® 40®

59® K* N a g a r a j a n , C h r o n i c l e s o f K e d a ra m , p® 227®

60® M .V. R. S a rm a , T h e S tr e a m , T r i v e n i P u b l i s h e r s ,
M a s u lip a ta m , 1956, p p . 1 7 8 -1 7 9 *

61® I b id ® , pp* 121-122®

62® B h a tta c h a ry a , He Who R id e s a T i g e r , p® 110®

63# S a n t h a Rama Ram, Rem ember t h e H o u s e , V i c t o r G o l l a n -

c a L td ® , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 6 , p p . 21-22®

64 R. k. N a r a y a n , T he G u id e , In d ia n T hought P u b lic a ­
t i o n s , M y s o re , 1 9 5 8 , pp® 74-75®
 172

65® Khushwant Singh, "A Bride for the Sahib" in A Bride

for the Sahib, Orient Paperbacks, Delhi, 19 67,
pp« 10—11®

66® Anita Desai, Voices in the City, Peter Owan, London,

1956, p e 211®

67® Bhattacharya, He Who Rides a Tiger, p® 229®

68® R* K. Narayan, Waiting for the Mahatma, Indian

Thought Publications, Mysore, 1955, p e 13®

69® Bhabani Bhattacharya, A Goddess Named Gold, Orient

Paperbacks, Delhi, 19 60, p® 53®

70® Ibid®, p» 200®

71® R® prawer Jhabvala, To Whom She will, George Allen

and Unwin Ltd®, London, 1955, p® 290®

72. R® Prawer Jhabvala, The Nature of passion, George

Allen and Unwin Ltd®, London, 1956, p® 56®

73® Jhabvala, To Whom She Will, pp® 9-10®

74® Khushwant Singh, Train to Pakistan, Pour Square

Books Ltd®, London, 1961, p. 116®

75® M. R. Anand, Private Life of an Indian Prince, p® 122®

76* Sengupta, Red Hibiscus, p. 50®

77® Raja Rao, The Serpent and the Rope® p® 29®

78® Bhattacharya, Shadow from Ladakh, p8 17®

79® Bhattacharya, Music for Mohini, p® 197®

80® Khushwant Singh, Train to Pakistan, p, 66®

I

81® Raja Rao, The Serpent and the Rope®, p® 285®

 173

82® Lambert Mascarenhas, Sorrowing Lies My Land, Hind

Kitabs Ltd®, Bombay, 1955, pp. 21-22.

83® Bhattacharya, He Who Rides a Tiger, p. 240,

84® Jhabvala, The Nature of Passion, p® 219.

85® Raja Rao, The Gat and Shakespeare, The Macmillan

Company, New York, 1956, p® 104®

86 ® M® R* Anand, Private Life of an Indian Prince, p® 48®

87 ® Khushwant Singh, "The Voice of God in The Voice

of God and Other Stories, pp® 12-13®

88 ® K. Nagarajan, Chronicles of Kedaram, pp, 71-72®

89 a Ibid®, p. 87®

90® Khushwant Singh, Train to Pakistan, p® 150®

91. Mulk Raj Anand, "The Power of Darkness" in The

Power of Darkness and Other Stories, p® 108®

92® Bhattacharya, He Who Rides a Tiger, p® 210®

93 . Ibid®, p® 11.

94a R. K. Narayan, The Financial Expert, Indian Thought

Publications, Mysore, 1952, p® 100®

95, Nayantara Sahgal, A Time to be Happy, Jaico

Publishing House, Bombay, 1957, p® 145®

96® Karaala Markandaya, Nectar in a Sieve, Jaico Publi­

shing House, Bombay, 1955, p. 51®

97. Sengupta, Red Hibiscus, p® 108®

9 8s Bhattacharya, Shadow from Ladakh, p® 20

 174

99® Ibid®, p. 107*

100* R. K. Narayam,The Vendor of Sweets, Indian

Thought Publications, Mysore, 19 67, p® 72®

101» Narayan, Waiting for the Mahatma, p. 109®

102® Narayan, Mr® Sampath, p® 98®

103* Sengupta, Red Hibiscus, p. 37*

104* Ibid., p® 85.

105® Nagarajan, Chronicles of Kedaram, p* 25.

106e Nayantara Sahgal, This Time of Morning, Victor

Gollancz Ltd®, London, 19 65, p® 140.

107® R® Prawer Jhabvala, A Backward Place, Orient

Paperbacks, Delhi, 1965, pp* 113-114®

108® Ruskin Bond, The Room on the Roof, Wilco, Bombay,

1958, p® 13®

109 ® Narayan, The Vendor of Sweets, p* 72.

110 * Narayan, The Guide, p, 218®

® 9 « $
 CHAPTER : V 175

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CLASSES

S o c io -e c o n o m ic c l a s s e s , l i k e c a s t e s , h o l d a v e ry
v i t a l p l a c e i n I n d ia * I n an u n d e r - d e v e l o p e d b u t
s t e a d i l y d e v e lo p i n g c o u n tr y l i k e I n d i a , t h e r i g i d and
uncom prom ising s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c l a s s e s i s bound to
ch an g e u n d e r t h e im p a c t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f a new s o c i o ­
economic o r d e r c o n s e q u e n t upon I n d e p e n d e n c e . One s t r i k ­
i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e s e c l a s s e s i n I n d i a i s t h a t t h e y were
l a r g e l y b a s e d on c a s t e d i s t i n c t i o n s and c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ,
e s p e c i a l l y d u r in g p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e t i m e s , b u t th e emer­
gen ce o f G a n d h iji on t h e n a t i o n a l h o r i z o n as t h e m ost
p o t e n t I n d i a n l e a d e r p aved t h e way f o r t h e f u r t h e r S o c ia ­
l i s t i c p a t t e r n of s o c i e t y and c o n s e q u e n t l y , i n t h e p o s t -
In d e p e n d e n c e I n d i a , th e co m p lex io n o f t h e e n t i r e c l a s s -
s t r u c t u r e u n d e rw e n t a r a d i c a l and c o m p re h en siv e c h an g e,
The n e g l e c t e d b o tto m -d o g s r e c e i v e d t h e s e r i o u s a n d
e a r n e s t a t t e n t i o n o f t h e new d e m o c r a tic go v ern m en t and
e f f o r t s were made t o n a rro w down t h e m argin betw een th e
h av es and h a v e n o t s . The i n t e l l e c t u a l , i d e a l i s t i c
a r i s t o c r a c y o f f r e e d o m - f i g h t e r s and n a t i o n a l i s t i c s o c i a l
s e r v e n t s came t o th e f o r e f r o n t . T h is meant t h e p ro m in en ce,
t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , o f t h e m id d le c l a s s . P r e a c h i n g and
p r a c t i s i n g Gandhian p r i n c i p l e s a n d i d e a l s i n v e s t e d
 176

social servants with a social status all their own.

Since the mid-fifties', however, the irrepressible craze
for the Westernized - at first Anglicized and then
Americanised - way of life has given rise to a new type
of materialistic aristocracy of •hollowmen'. These and
such other Indian socio-economic classes could not but
be of genuine interest to the author of such a deeply*
involved socio-literary form as the novel.

Indo-Anglian novelists observe with deep concern

and dismay the general conditions of the Indian peasant‘s
life* He is proverbially poor and suffering is the badge
of his tribe. He is superstitious,1, fatalistic and
tradition-bound. He rashly squanders money on marriages
and funerals alike, even by incurring huge debts which
virtually mean the slavery of a lifetime. Over and above
the vagaries of the rain god, his suffering is aggravated
by the forces of exploitation, such as, the landlord, the
moneylender, the village priest, the trader, the lawyer
and the Government official. In the midst of all these
woes, he stands boldly like a picture of endurance, but
when he has to face evacuation his spirit is shattered
and he feels crushed. Indo-Anglian novelists have depicted
the life of the peasant with true understanding and
sympathy.

No Indo-Anglian novelist can afford to ignore the

 177

Indian peasantry, but MuIk Raj Anand is the pronounced

pal of the proletariat. He presents the sufferings of'
peasants with righteous indignation,, but his extreme
preoccupation with it often impairs his objectivity.
This didactic tone is noticed even in The Old Woman and
the Cow. Gouri acquaints Refique Chacha and Panchi
with Dr. Mahindra‘s progressive and sympathetic views
about the Indian peasantry. She quotes his words s
"Where there is poverty,, there is a money-lender, a
priest and a landlord - and God is always on their side." 1
Dal, in The Village by Anand, also finds the rustic a
victim of numerous agencies of exploitation. There could
be a change but - as Dr. Mahindra regrets «* the peasant
fawns on the Khaddar-clad men. Add to these miseries,!
the drought, the gambling, the borrowing, the squabbling
and squandering and to cap all, the drinking and the
wife-beating i Dr. Mahindra traces the remedy to
education alone j so does Dalu in The Village and
rebels against the village mores. Thus, Anand is
consistently advocating modernity and spread of education
in pre-Independence as well as post-Independence times*
This is almost a typical picture of the Indian peasantry
except for political overtones.

Kamala Markandaya shows that poverty is the badge

 178

of the tribe of peasants and, therefore, a growing family

also means growing problems. Rukmani,! in Nectar in a

Sieve, says that they have to go short of many things.

Milk, curds and butter are items of luxury. It is

consoling to know that they do not have to go hungry

like other less fortunate peasant families. Anand Lall,;

in The House at Adampur, shows the plight of the peasants

at Harbanspura, a representative Indian village, which is

gripped in the relentless feudal structure and the old

people dominating the panchayat thought that they are in

league with God or the Guru and that the rain comes only

because of them, pritam Singh relates the story of their

woes j “So.... you see, brothers, on our head is always

an endless Crisis s unploughed land, less grained, less

income with which to pay the land tax, the attachment of

our farms, and, of course, less food to eat. Where does

3
it all stop ?" Markandaya also underlines the inevitable
state of poverty the Indian peasant is perpetually

subjected to. A foreigner simply cannot understand it

and gets exasperated at it. Kenny, in Nectar in a Sieve,’

tells Rukmani how he can bear the folly and the poverty

of the peasant class with difficulty. He adds he could

only take the peasants *in small doses'.^

The peasant loves his land more dearly than his own
life. Separation, from it is another death. The failure

of rains is a great tragedy, indeed. It might mean no

 179

crops# no money# inability to pay the rent of the land#.

evacuation. Nathan, in M a rkandaya*s Nectar in a Sieve#

in
isLa tight corner* Poverty and famine are his companions#
when there are no rains. H e is prepared to sell whatever

he can ; ’.....but if the land is gone our livelihood is

5
gone# and we must thenceforth wander like jackals*.

Andnd brings out that a peasant’s life is insecure and

uncertain, for it largely depends on the mercy of rains

and the drought brings- about all-round degradation. In

The Old Woman and the Cow# Rafique Chacha describes the

misery of drought realistically and extorts Panchi not

to give up faith because a drought is not a personal

crisis. Starvation has dehumanized people who would sell

even their daughter. The damage to land is great but

that# to men# was greater which means the loss of courage

and manhood itself* Markandaya shows' how the ravages of

drought sap away the joy and energy of a youthful peasant.

Nathan# in Nectar in a Sieve#; comes to brood over all this.

7
Then come the rains# mockingly# ironically. The peasant's

lot is a sad one. His hard work cannot improve it. The

failure of rains might ruin him. Nathan is a peasant-,

representative and his woes are, more or less# typical

of his class. "Pear constant companion of the peasant.

Hunger# ever at hand to jog his elbow should he relax.

Despair, ready to engulf him# should be falter. , Fear#!

 180

fear of the dark future; fear of the sharpness of hunger;

fear of the blankness of death.M Anand also shows in

The Old Woman and the Cow, how peasants# wrapped in leth­

argic tedium# are resigned -to their fate# when one drought

succeeds another with clock-like#, merciless monotony.

Panchi f@&s revolted about the drought and abuses the

Brahmins foretelling lies about KARMA. He thinks that

the Congress government is not doing the job well# because

big s&hemes for water and power, supply would mean contra­

ctors getting richer and increasing crops of bri'bes# and#;

in the meantime# there would also be many more mouths to

feed - that was Karma I Panchi is harsh on the exploiter
class who does not directly kill the peasants but sucks

their life-blood up slowly# invisibly.9 Markandaya

indicates that the peasant has to depend far too much on

Nature’s moods. Excessive rains and droughts both harass

him. Nathan and Rukmani, in Nectar in a Sieve# have

their own share of troubles. They see the rising waters

with deep concern. Nathan remarks that the rains have

destroyed their work and that they will have little food
that year.'*’®

Jhabvala shatters the hypocritically romantic picture

of culture-enthusiasts* conception of the Indian village

life. Prof. Hoch# in To Whom She Will# suggests that the

cultural pageant must show the beauty of village life -
 181

the village women at the well, the grace of their

movements, their simple dignity and their rhythiic gait*

Dr. Mukherji hesitantly remarks that they mast also show

'village women in 1about with the female scavenger stand-

11
ing by with a piece of glass to cut the navel cord. •

The contrast between the romantic and the realistic

attitudes to the peasant is well brought out here*
Khushwant Singh shows how affluent city-dwellers treat
poor peasants rudely and raise a wall of mutual prejudice

between them. In Train to Pakistan, the leader - almost

a boy-of the band of four Sikhs# who comes to Mano Majra
to ignite communal hatred, speaks to Meet Singh and the

lambardar with shocking impudence. The villagers- note

that he is one of those educated city-dwellers who, as

they know, always adopt that tough, superior tone, while

talking to poor# simple and unlettered peasants whose age

or status does not deter than from their supercilious

12
vociferations. Administrators in India, as Markandaya
shows, are held in awe and esteem and are equated with

Mai-Baap - mother and father - especially by the peasant

and the lowly# who are gentle and pliable j resigned to
anything and fatalistic enough to endure anything. In

Markandaya*s A Silence of Desire, Chari# when approached

by Dandekar to take steps against the Swamy# thinks all
this about peasants w who# when evacuated, would leave
the land in a defeated# craven way* 13
 182

Anand. shows that farmers could ill afford to be

involved in forced labour - begar - in honour of victor*s

hunting orgies in Private Life of an Indian Prince. They

resent it. The disgruntled elements like revengeful

relatives of the native rulers and the communist guerillas

14
take them within their fold. Buta, in the same novel,

also illustrates the ugly situation caused by begar,;

which was like a great plague in a good many of the former

native states whose rulers became highly unpopular with

the peasantry. This reminds one of how the peasant Sukhua,

in Anand's pre-independence novel. The Sword and the Sickle,'

has his day like the proverbial dog and attacks his land­

lord, shouting, "The old days have gone,..,.The old days

15
have gone." This proves that Anand*s views on forced

labour,; indicativ^of the compassion for the peasant, are

con si stoat.

Markandaya describes how the impoverished peasant

canes to town, thinking that suitable jobs would be avail­

able there merely for the asking. A mirage of job-hunt

is the last straw on the c amel’s back. Ravi, in A

Handful of Rice, has gloriously dreamed of settling like

a prince in a city, but he is quite disillusioned owing

to compulsory fasting and running hither and thither like

a criminal afraid of the police and bearing the pin-

pricks of the haughty rich. '

 183

/•

\7-:/Jhabval a brings out the spiritual quality of the

Indian peasant in A Backward Place* Clarissa shows the- •

sketch of an old peasant to Etta and comments on the

Indian peasant who, in her opinion, resembles the Russian

peasant, as delineated by Tolstoy, in respect of 'strength

and e a r t h i n e s s S h e , however, emphasises the difference

of culture, “Only of course the Indian peasant has a

sort of spiritual quality about him, a divine yearning

which raises him - don *t you feel that ? •* above his own
17
earthiness."

Indo-rAnglian novelists analyse the master-servant

realationship• Domestic servants become the confidants

of their masters during their long and trusted service

by their obedience and efficiency. The insolent mentality

of the master is contrasted with the sad lot of the menial

The Indo-Anglian novelist does not leave anyone in doubt

as to with whom his sympathy lies. Raja Rao comments on

servants and obedience. Zoubie, in The Serpent and the

Rope, has a supreme gift of humour and she can make people

work. Even Marie, who has been sad, lazy and irritable
after Lezo 's departure,’ works like a willing and happy

slave. Rama ran arks i “Servants like to obey those who

' IQ
really know what is right and what is wrong." Jhabvala
points out how good and faithful domestic servants often
enter the innermost recesses of their employer's heart.
 184

Sometimes# they offer greater understanding and sympathy

than even relatives# Kusum# in Get Ready for Battle#, has

no secrets from her servant, with whom she would discuss

anything. She feels that he is very understanding and, has

19
thorough grasp of life*s complex problems.

Jhabvala artistically juxtaposes the aristocratic,

snobbish high-brow mentality with the pathetic lot of the

poor servants slaving for than. In A Backward- Place. Mrs.

Kaul, a superficial#, wealthy lady, has pretensions to culture

and luck to get a high honorary position. She wants to

;4%6vi^e and r$aise culture but is unfeeling an d blind to

2D
her own servants suffering in their own hells of existence.

Jhabvala kills two birds with one stone inasmuch as she

conveys her disapproval of the hypocritical wgys of the

aristocrat and also express ess her regard for the common

man.

Khushwant Singh indirectly expresses his sympathy

for the domestic servant in I shall not hear the night-

11 r'' '"r BiV ~"
inqale. Champak complains against Mundoo to Sher Singh,

indicating the crude appetite of her carnal cravings. Sher

says that the problem of domestic servants is piteous*

They are overworked# underpaid, underfed and underclothed,

21
abused and beaten and disgracefully dismissed at will.

Jhabvala too shows her sympathy for servants. In Get

Ready for Battle#: Sarala Devi criticises her son Vishnu 's

ways but his wife Mala does not respond. Mala espies the
servants peeping at this domestic melodrama and rebukes
 185

servants them harshly. To Saria. this is unthinkable.

Nearly a decade's separation from affluent life has made

her forget the usual harshness shown to servants in such

opulent circles. She leaves pained. She says# "You must

not shout at poor people. You must always respect their
22
feelings." Nayantara Sahgal shows her intense sympathy

for menials with utmost economy and simplicity but with

great effect. In A Time to be Happy# JRoshan Masi is a
wealth-worshipper. She addresses her servant Ramdin as
•Are Kambakht* almost as a rule. The narrator says, "As

a youngster I thought his name was 'Are Kambakht'.

Poverty is one of the major thematic concerns of the

Indian novel and naturally, therefore# the Indo-Anglian
novel reflects the problems of the lower classes in detail.

It is difficult for the lowly to maintain self-respect but

the poor generally help each other. Famine means starvation

and destitution for them and yet in the midst of privation

and deprivation they sometimes display nobility of behaviour

and dignity in suffering. They have to fight all sorts

of social injustice and cruelty and sometimes this leaves
deep scars on their souls which cry for revenge. They

sometimes betray their low breeding# when they wreak their

revenge against persons of the upper class despicably. In

pre-independence times, it was all a tale of woes# but

now# after Independence their class-awareness has united

them to rebel and hit back. The Indian novelist in English

 186

observes their struggles with sympathy and interest.

Malgortkar shows how the poor find it extremely

difficult to maintain their self-respect, winton, in

Combat of Shadows, regards his coolies as slaves. These

coolies do not forget to hit back, when the rare opportunity

comes, if it ever does at all'. Gauri plays the informant

24
to compel Winton to witness his wife in the arms of Eddie.

Bhattachraya.indicates how the poor are generally more

sympathetic and helpful to the poor than the rich. In a

Goddess Named Gold, the poor Meera wanted money for the

uplift of her fellow-beings. The Seth wants it to increase

'his personal property. Both want the new wealth but their
25
objectives are quite different. Despite her aristocratic

sophistication, Nayantara Sahgal offers her unstinted

sympathy to the simple poor folk in search of God. She

does not look down upon their pilgrimages fraught with

discomforts and dangers and their idolatry which is rather

/

out of religious fashion now in secular India. The

narrator, in A Time to be Happy, refers tenderly to

Bihari’s mother’s disarming worship of God, "How many there

must be like her, I thought, - not the priests and the

pandits, but the lowly and the unlettered, yearning

<3
toward God, clinj.ng vine-like to their faith and sustained
Og
by it through all their troubles."

Malgonkar suggests that breeding often tells. Jugal

Kishore, in Combat of Shadows, convinces Winton about his

 187

power to get all the labourers to strike work, Winton feels

revolted at the news that JUgal Kishore is to, contest a

by-election to the Assembly, backed by all the Labour

Unions, supported by the Congress, because JUgal Kishore

is crooked, indecent, corrupt and immoral. He had offered

27
even his niece Gauri to Winton as his mistress. winton
himself may not be morally irreproachable, but sometimes,

these low class men are really low. .Kanak Chand, in

Malgonkar's The Princes, also reminds us of the same thing,

Malgonkar stows that a phenomenal rise from a coolie's

position to a ministership is a very heady experience and
if there is no corresponding moral growth, one might indulge t* £
i orgy of selfish piling of wealth. JUgal Kishore as Minister
of Plantations accepts a thousand rupees per mensem as

hush-money. To resent Winton's resentment of JUgal Kishore,

Sudden caustically remarks that they do not grow morals on
28
their plantations. Upstarts coming into power cannot

resist bribes - perhaps that is one of the chief dangers

before a new, bureaucracy-based democracy. Also, in The

Princes, Kanak -Chand, as a minister, tauntingly says that

the person who wielded the whip - i.e. Hiroji - is no more.

Kanak is conceited and impudent, taking his revenge like a

sheep. Abhay, true to his father, brings his crop down on

29
Kanak and avenges his father.

Bhattacharya brings out how starvation means the

debasement of self and this is why we find some poor
 188

people growing increasingly selfish as the degree of

hunger rises. Onu# in So Many Hungers,- is a good boy#

always ready to share his gifts with others.. He is not at

all selfish and yet 'hunger has debased his warm and innocent
30
spirit*. Hunger has made him a hoarder.-- Hunger has also
made Samarendra a hoarder# the hunger of more and more -
money# though it means more and more deaths of his unfortu­
nate compatriots. Bhattacharya shows the overall effect of
famine on the destitute# in its physical and moral aspects*

It. would mean that death would claim two to three millions
of poor people, a physically shattered race would grow up

in the ninety thousand villages of Bengal• Vastly greater

still would be the inner degradation* In So Many Hungers*

Rahoul remembers the ugly stories of 'deadened motions'*

A mother was reported to have kept on eating her food with

her dying baby in her lap. The author's sympathy is

expressed thus s "It was too much to hope that the burning

experience would leave no scars on the spirit* Bhattach­

arya explains the psychological phenomenon of conversion
of a destitute into a criminal* In He Who Rides a Tiger.
Kalo# tortured by hunger, steals bananas and is arrested*
The magistrate bluntly asks him why he or even his daughter
32
has to live* The irony is devastating and the under­
current of sympathy quite warm*

Bhattacharya shows how a crisis sometimes arouses in

the poor a supreme sense of nobility in the midst of

 189

degradation of human spirit. In So Many Hungers# the whole

of Bengal is down with famine and one could afford to part

with life but not with figs obtained at the risk of life
itself, yet Oun shares his with Robi# remembering that

Robi# too, is a bread-winner of his family. This is a

moment of rare self-sacrifice, raising humanity in its own

eyes. Oftappeased-hunger is the worst enemy of man.

Bhattacharya illustrates the stark realism of life.

Famine-struck destitutes who flock to Calcutta# egged on

by a deceiving hope# find life more difficult* Onu is

driven to the point of begging or licking traces of food.

One big boy# who is licking one side of a jam-tin snatched

from a dog# generously asks Onu to lick the other side. *

This is indeed a great triumph over self. Bhattacharya
demands from us a tribute of tears for the victims of the
famine. Again, in So Many Hungers, a fisherwoman# who can­
not bear the misery of her starving child# is about to
bury the baby-boy alive# but Kajoli *s mother intervenes.
It is cruel to keep the child alive and not to arrange for

his milk? she then has to give away her best cow Mangala
in gift# though the parting is very pathetic. 35

Bhattacharya suggests that the Gandhian era has been

a crucible for the transformation of traditional values.

The concept of morality is not steady like the northern

star; it does undergo change in every new age. But the new
concept of our age is highly revolutionary. As seen in So
 190

Many Hungers* in the days of famine a girl would not mind

even selling her body to alien soldiers and raising money
to give food to others® What is the meaning of the body's
idle sanctity ? The author's comments are full of socio-
ethical significance s "She had sold herfshame, the conven­

tion-bound moron would so decry her, she had abused the

body's sanctity. But Rahoul, walking out of the lane,

felt as- though he had glimpsed the sanctity of the human
3S
spirit, and was dazzled by too much richness and beauty.

Mulk Raj An and shows how the down-trodden are inspired

to fight back, when threatened or insulted. It is injustice

to bear injustice. The new religion is to fight for one's

rights. In Private Life of an Indian prince, Buta, the
shikari, refuses to be underpaid, insulted, abused, in
olden days, Buta would have pocketed the rebukes of His
Highness servilely, but now 'he had been caught with the
spirit of the new times'. He tells Victor boldly s 'No
37
more begar, Maharaja.* Gandhiji helped the lowly in
imparting a new meaning to life. He made them aware of
self-respect®

Bhattacharya indicates that no one likes to be

considered as lowly. Contempt begets contempt® The only

thing is- the reflex action does not always find vent, owing

to conscious, virtuous suppression or submissive helpless­

ness. In He Who Rides a Tiger, Kalo's conscience is
 191

roughened due to constant humiliation and suffering. His ego,

like a snake hit on the head, wishes to take its revenge on
the society which ill-treats him. He perpetuates a huge
deceitcand poses as a Brahmin and the Magistrate,! who had
asked him why he and his daughter had to live at all,' comes
and touches his feet. This is Kalo's revenge, ©f course,:
Lekha refuses to be an accomplice#' morally speaking.®®

Mulk Raj An and sympathetically depicts how a poor woman

has to put up with the worst type of social injustice. T#
escape from her brother-in-law Jaswant *s evil designs on her,
Lajwanti, in the story of that name, runs away to her father
who returnes her to her in-laws - the prey is helplessly
handed over to the heartless hunter. She attempts suicide,
but the pull of life is greater - she cannot do both, live
and retain her virtue. Her confessional words are a piteous
/

cry : ".....there is no way for me.....1 am.....condemned

. ~39 .
to live. Attia Hosain also expresses her compassionate
attitude towards the poor through a similar situation in
Sunlight on a Broken Column. Nandi *s father Jumman believes
that Nandi has slipped and/ therefore,; complains to Abida,
who asks Mohsin to take up the matter. Mohsin, who himself
had once made vain passes at Nandi, starts abusing her very
roughly. Nandi's anger, like a volcano, explodes into
scorching truth's "a slut ? A Wanton ? And who are you
to say it ? Who would have made me one had I let you
Laila*s championing the cause of Nandi and her righteous
 192

outburst against the overbearing injustice of a man of

higher class* blinded by frustrated lust*! shows the sense
of female independence*! dignity and courage «* this being a
distinctive contribution of the Gandhian magic touch and of
post-Independenc e times *’

Markandaya# in & Handful of Bice, suggests how the

poor wish to do away with the foolish and useless traditions*
Appu does not mind getting low payment for his work* Ravi*;
a representative of the new generation* poor yet revolting*,
simply is not ready to bear it* He resents the exploitation
by the idle rich of the poor but clever workers such as Ravi**
“There had been* there was* his sense of outrage that they
should grow rich at his expense : he and his ilk perennially
scratching round for living*; while they sat still and waxed
41
fat on huge peremptory margins*"

The Indo-Anglian novel portrays the woes and the

aspirations ©f the untouchable with scrupulous understanding*
It shows how the caste Hindu perpetrates miseries on the
untouchable and refuses to share work with him in Govern­
ment projects* The novelist's sympathy is won by the
untouchable who shows endurance and courage despite all odds
in life* The change in the condition of the untouchable
before and after Independence is quite evident* The
portraiture is fairly impartial* because it exposes the
class-snobbery of even the bottomdogs who do not wish class-
 193

distinctions to be wiped out altogether and yet they wish to

climb higher on the social ladder..

Mulk Raj Anand criticises the unjust and cruel attitude

of the caste Hindu to the untouchable. In The Road. Ehikhu

and other untouchables lose their homes which are set on

fire by Lachman and Sajnu t this is an example of the suffer­

ing perpetrated on the down-trodden. Bhikhu displays dignity

in his suffering. His conviction is that through work alone

would he be liberated from life *s suffering. The utmost

displeasure he conveys is : "Who ascends on the heads of the

45
lowly will surely fall." Anand also shows how the people
belonging to higher classes do not wish to share work with

the lowly. This class-snobbery has its sway despite the

worsening financial condition of the people of higher social
status who. in The Road, do not like to touch the stones
cut by the untouchables and thus they keep aloof from the
work of construction and earning* "The superior ones did
not want to pool their labour with the low caste ones ."43

In the short story ‘Old Bapu'. once again.1 Anand has

his favourite subject-matter - the travails of an Untouchable.

‘Bapu* is made old before his time by the cruel world and fate.

He loses his parents very early and his half blqha of land
is - smuggled neatly from him by his crafty uncle. Though
only, fifty, he looks seventy. He does not wish to die

though worklessness and consequent starvation would kill him.

The pan-biriwallah*s warding him off like a monsoon fly
 194

indicates £nand*s sympathy indirectly expressed for the down­

trodden* "Don *t break my glass by showing it your ugly old
face i"44 Ruskin<; Bond*® sympathy for the Untouchable is
economically but effectively expressed in The Boon on the
Roof* Rusty is asked not to play with the sweeper boy*
because it is unhygienic. Mrs* Harrison has warned him not
to dream even of such a thing. His boyish mind keeps on
45
wondering s "With whom* then could the sweeper boy play ?"
padmini Sengmpta shows how the prejudices of the caste Hindu
against the Untouchable are diluted under Gandhian influence*
In Red Hibiscus* Bimal *s mother, a fighter for independence*!
asks Kusum to go with Bimal and save Rasmi from the drunken
fury of her weak* jealous husband* "We must help these
poor people* #r else what is the point of our fighting for
4 6
freedom ?"

Anand brings out how even the Untouchables do not .wish

to redress their grievances for good by removing the tyrannies
of class-discrimination*! but they also are interested in
ascending the higher rung of the social ladder. Laxmi* in
The Road* advises her son Bhikhu to prepare the way for
promotion to a higher class in. the next life by spreading
the message of love for everyone and everything* The irony
of the wish is palpable. It amounts to a daughter-in-law
wishing to be a mother-in-1aw instead of abolishing the
latter!s tryanny. "Love everyone and everything....* Then
through our good deeds shall we rise from our low caste and
 195

47
be reborn into a higher caste*"

It is not surprising that in an economically backward

country like India, beggars are an inseparable part of the

scene* Markandaya touches on the problem of beggars cursorily

but nonetheless with artistic objectivity* Though the

author has sympathy for beggars, she does not miss to

describe the evils of begging as a profession *• simulation

and craftiness of beggars flourishing owing to the simple*

minded faith and goodness of people. Dandekar in a Silence

of Desire* observes that there are many beggars and their

constant appearance almost everywhere makes one a little

impervious to their whines, threats, curses and blessings -

48
their professional cleverness. It is difficult to disting­

uish between the real and the fake ones; in fact, sometimes
the fake ones appears more real than the real ones like the

proverbial imitator of Charlie Chaplin*- Markandaya shows

how difficult it is to resist the beggar*s appeal however
hardhearted you feel you have become* The suppliant voice *■»
pathetic or posing - does play upon your sense of justice^

morality and charity* Jhabvala also deals with the beggar

problem, incidentally, from the viewpoint of foreigners.

They would have rearely come across any thing quite similar

to this quite usual Indian phenomenon in parks, bazars,)

trains - almost anywhere and everywhere* Mr. Hochstadt,!

in A Backward place, asks Clarissa to ignore the beggars *

The Hochstadts believe that 'it was no use giving any of

 196

them anything *. If one is charitable#, one should send money

to charitable institutions#: because giving alms to individual

beggars might amount to pouring water into a bottomless pit#

/

Jhabvala presents a cinematic picture of the begging scene

thus i "So# come lepers in handmade carts#, starving mothers

with starving babies, crappled children or deformed old men,'

Frieda hardened her naturally soft heart against then#••1*49

Indo-Anglian novelists have nob bestowed as much

attention on the middle class as they have on the lower and

the upper classes# because the one makes a demand on their

sense of compassion and the other on their sense of satire#

However# they analyse middle-class sensibilities# attitudes#;

traditionalism# idealism and socio-economic concerns#

K am ala Markaadaya illustrates how a man of the middle

class is usually entangled in his socio-economic anxieties#

Family love is an invigorating restorative for him#. He grow*

so used to it that he fails to notice its bliss and his

absolute dependence upon it. When it crumbles# he also does

so# Dandekar# in A Silence of Desire# feels all this when

Sarojini, affected by a mysterious disease and the Swamy*s

mystic#, compulsive magnetism# drifts away from him like a

stray summer c|Qudlet# His modern sensibility has denied to

him the solace of fatality# Suffering is his lot# unaccept**

50
able yet inevitable# Markandaya evokes a very sensitive

picture of a middle class family with all its bliss, loss

 197

of bliss# expectancy, suffering, atonement, redemptive

restoration of love. She same novelist also shows that
middle class persons are complacent about their ethical
beliefs - so would one think from Shastri *s attitude in
A Silence of Desire. He tells Dandekar that the latter's

recent strange behaviour has caused a ripple of censorious

consent in their colleagues regarding Sarojini having an '
affair. He,, however, smugly adds, “Of course, you know,

and I know,; that Hindu woman of our class simply don't have
love affairs

\? y dhabvala illustrates the belief that it is easier to

break the bonds of caste but well-nigh impossible to take

liberties with the time-honoured class-distinction. Radha,!

in To Whom She Will, patiently tries to impress upon Amrita's

mind that they, being modern, do not care for community and
52
caste but class is still important in negotiating a marriage.

Transit from one class to another may not be difficult,!

materially speaking,; but to disown or to adopt a peculiar
cultural make-up is not very easily possible, because
breeding tells. In Train to Pakistan. Hukum Ghand's later
rise cannot obliterate his past habits and limitations as a
member of the lower middle class by birth and breeding. As
remarked by Khushwant Singh, Bi strict Magistrate Hukum

Chand's style of smoking betrays his low breeding in contrast

53
with the sub-inspector's sophisticated manners. ^

Malgonkar shows how a lower middle class family some-

 198

times averts a monetary crisis but has to sacrifice morality*

In Combat of Shadows*, Ruby is destined to walk into the trap
of the wolfish Winton, who offers her a tempting job* " It is
all so sordid* The Mirandas cannot turn down such an offer
5
which ultimately wrecks Ruby’s prospects of marital happiness*
To avert the moral downfall resulting from monetary inadequ­
acy is a stupendous job*

s/ Jhabvala points out difficulties of middle class

idealist’s life - Ram Nath, in Esmond in India* is not
successful from the viewpoint of the world* yet his middle
class sensibility deters him from giving in to the materi­
ally rich* He does not make money* he does not grieve.
His seise of self-respect is unflinching. At the same time*
he does not blame Her Bayal for accepting another way of
life* 55 An idealist’s life is crowned with strange rewards*
Self-sacrifice lends a rare charm even to material insuffici­
ency* It means spiritual height. Ram Nath lives in an
uncomfortable house - the floors cracked* the distemper
faded and the furniture almost non-existent and yet there
is an aura of a living martyr’s past glory around him*
Against this backdrop Har Dayal*s opulence loses its glamour*
"It was a respectable poverty* bohemian*N intellectual * 5 6

R. K. Narayan expresses his conviction that the class-

distinctions must go. Rosie*.; in The Guide* tells Raju that
she belongs to the class of temple-dancers* looked upon as
 199

public women. Raju remarks that it is an old notion. He

says he does not believe in caste or class* “Things have

changed* There is no caste or class today.'* Raju *s
uncle makes it quite clear that Rosie* a mere dancing girl*
C Q
cannot be admitted in their family* Thus*. Narayan shows
how the traditional middle class notions regarding the

classes are rigid t one may risk estrangement from one*s

class. He indicates the dramatic conflict between the two

forces of tradition and modernity in this respect* Markandaya

indicates how ironical it is that even those engaged in the

experiments of rural living could not fully understand the

village life and how difficult it is to wipe out our sense

of class-distinctions and social stratification, Ansuya,

in possession* asks Val whether he has gone to live with the

Swamy* when Val is practically ostracised by M s people,

Val comments on her ‘middle class attitudes* which insist

that one must live in house or dwelling in specific company.
She realizes that ‘it was preposterous to apply those
standards to such spiritual nomads as the Swamy and this
59
boy.• Narayan shows how middle class social sensibilities
are touchy and orthodox and yet this timidity or rigidity
about caste or religion is tided over by one*s sense of
hospitality. Raju *s mother*, in The Guide* is perplexed

how she should be accommodating a ‘Rosie* in her home.

There is something unusual about the name* but she has to be
treated, “a guest was a guest even though she might be a

Rosie."®0 Malgorikar comments on the Englishman‘s opinion

 200

of middle class Indians* Winton# in Combat of Shadows * 1

appoints Ruby as senior to Sarkar# thinking that Sarkar# a

typical middle class babu», will not hit back# This assessment

does not flatter our sense of self-respect as Indians*

'■-The upper classes come in for severe treatment in the

Indo-Anglian novel* Their class-snobbery and prejudices

against and unjust attitude to the lower and the middle

classes are bitterly exposed* Their opportunism and meanness

are contrasted with the idealism of the middle and the lower

classes. The upper section of Indian Society - with its

high-brow whirligig of parties and club-life - full of

pretension#, hypocrisy and hollowness is held up to ridicule*

The upper classes and their opposition to social reformist

activities#; their indifference to national and patriotic

movements# their hypocritical and selfish social welfare

work# their craze for being on various committees# their

anglicised and westernised education and ways and their

rootlessness - all these are dealt with in an unsentimental

and critical manner*

Nayantara Sahgal brings out the hollowness of upper ,

class life in a half-cynical# half-pained manner* In A

Time to be Happy* at a party at Trent *s Sanad finds that

\

though there is a war on# there is also a famine gaping#

the guests - all English save Sandd- with supreme unconcern#

bestow all attention on drinking, tennis# polo# fishing and

weather and# of course# eating course after course of

expensive food. Sanad observes t *It was like a never never

 201

land of inanity#, deliberately sealed and barred against an

ao
intelligent awareness of the real world," Jhabvala also
shows how some ,9aphisticate2iparties are unlndian in spirit
and servile in manner#, leading intellectual veneer to sexy
inclination, The party at Toto Sdxena's# in Get Ready for

Battle, exhibits the luxurious wallowings of the inane

wealthy. Men and women are sitting intermingled - drinking

and smoking and enjoying harmless# sexless flirtation# Here

is Devil's plenty «» Go go# Toto# Ushi, Iqqi# Premola# Pitu#

63
Shila# Ghuchu# Kimi# Bablu and Bibi, Truth has to account

itself and# therefore# it sometimes becomes aggressive#

intolerant# overbearing# Sarala# in Get Ready for Battle by

Jhabvala# is fed up with Vishnu and Mala's comfortable but

lifeless living. She tells Mala s "•*».,You have padded

yourself with all a the comforts of life and now it is only
64
comforts for you and no more life," Gautum also accuses
Vishnu of living luxuriously in a meaningless and spineless
manner : "You have always been soft in the lap of luxury
provided by your father and have been content to roll in it#
like an unborn child in its mother's womb# without even
65
wishing to be born into the real world," The opiate •£

wealth drugs many people into lassitude passivity# inertia,

Jhabvala shows how wealth makes men successful#

practical# complacent and sometimes even cruel. Idealistic
life appears senseless then s they think it idle to talk of

ideals. In Esmond in India# Shakuntala# a sort of dreamer#

 202

tells Amrit that he is not aware of the cultural values of

life as their father is,Amrit, in the typical,. blustering

manner of a well-fed, successful man, replies that he cannot

afford the luxury of ideals. He adds : "Ideals we can leave
to people who have nothing better to do in life*"

Jhabvala's biting irony shows how thick-skinned the wealthy

sometimes become under the coating of self-centredness, Har
Dayal, in Esmond in India, stands out as a representative •£

wealth-grabbing opportunists, turning like a weather-eock,

in the direction of selfish gain. Though before 1947, he

upheld private values, now after 1947, he devotes himself

to the public Cause, Conversion based on conviction and

entailing suffering and sacrifice is one thing and changing

attitudes like a turncoat,, crossing the floor like a brazen

mercenary is quite another, JHabvala indicates that some

wealthy people so§rifice their idealism for materialism, Har

Dayal has grown very rich. He has pretensions to art and

culture. But he cannot forget his past when he had really

felt one with the idealists like Ram Nath. He feels he is

cut off from the main current of active, useful, purposeful
life. He is afflicted by. the pangs of self-torture, when
he compares his life with that of Ram Nath. "He had.felt
then that somehow the main stream of life was passing him
by and he was washed up on a ledge like some almost inanimate
63
jelly fish," The one curse that sometimes accompanies 1
material prosperity is hollowness, disillusionment and loss

of ideals - the deathless regret of having missed something

 203

larger than montonously luxurious and rather insignificant

life,

Jhabvala brings out the contrast between the idle upper

class life and the idealistic middle class life, in Esmond

in India,' Hdr Dayal and Ram Nath, Asnrit and Narayan - self
versus service - the two forces in life are at combat. Hdr

Dayal worships the Goddess named Gold and &nrit is a chip

of the old block. Ram Nath is a self**abnegating idealist*;

exhorting by self-practice the virtue of simple living and

high thinking and Narayan is the most faithful reflection of

his father Ramnath, j»mrit feels that there is nothing wrong

in amassing wealth and enjoying luxuries in life. Only those
69
who cannot have these speak of simple living. But Shakuntala
is wiser than Amrit, She has grown increasingly aware of the
empty glamour of their luxurious living and ignoble thinking.

She does not mince matters ; "What is the use of our

motorcars and nice clothes and jewels and all our servants
if our lives are without purpose and we have no ideals to
70
guide us ?" Nayantara Sahgal shows how the opulent and
anglicised Indians feel cut off from Indian life, Sanad* in

A Time to be Happy, feels that he is midway* belonging to

two worlds - or to neither ? - because his education*1

upbringing and sense of values do not allow him to be Indian*
MeIvor tells him that the representative of India is not

Sanad* but the poor peasant, Sanad himself feels that he

71
has very little in common with his counterymen* Jhabvala
 204

ra
indicates how the active love for the lowly separates a

woman from her materialistic, wealthy husband. Gulzari Lai,,

in Get Ready for Battle, is talking about a divorce, but

garala Devi *s mind is preoccupied with the compassionate

thoughts for the unfortunate dwellers of the Bundi Busti,

Their ways are now entirely different, even opposite. She

tells him ironically how by society he means people having

cars# bungalows and club life and, to him, only they are
human,72

Nayantara Sahgal shows the indifference of the

aristocratic Indians towards our efforts for freedom,

Sanad, in A Time to be Happy, admits this to himself.
Indians like him do not exert themselves at all for
independence. In fact, they simply feel unconcerned. They
are strangers to Indian ways and aspirations, "For him

and others like him it was an academic point,; interesting

73
for the sake of argument but not a matter of vital concern,"

Nergis Dalai suggests that it is a pity that most of the

aristocratic and westernised people of India:'! are uninflue­

nced by the magnetic fight for freedom. Identification

results from compassion or commiseration, Anita,, in

\
Minari,: remarks that her family and friends are just like
sympathetic and kindly foreigners* 7 4 -There is a section ■
of society which keep.s on nostalgically remembering pre-

Independence times as ‘the good old days*, Harilal, in

Sahgal
,
*s A Time top be
*
Happy.-<*,does
* , _ ,
>• «/ *
not like the present
75
which means hard work.
 205

Santha Rama Rau indicates how proud and prejudiced some

* f . $ > ‘ C * v ' ! ' > '

aristocrats are - if they are brushed by or ignored, it is

difficult for them to put up with it or withdraw with dignity.

Baba*s father, in Remember the House* is offered an 'advisory

job * in connection with the drafting of the Indian

Constitution, He imagines that his colleagues may be small

men desiring to write their prejudices in a nation's

constitution. He has no faith in the fashionable talk
76
regarding the common man. An and Lall shows how the
landed gentry look down upon 'people in professions

or in business', Shakuntala, in Seasons of Jupiter, asks

Gyan not to write off Amrita because her father is a doctor!
Gyan ponders how the people of his class are adamant in
their beliefs, 77

Jhabvala exposes the class shobbery of some bureaucrats

who are carried away by surface glamour, Mrs. Kaul, in A

Backward Place, pays much importance to externals. At one

of her parties, she does not like Sudhir's shabbily-dressed

•friends who converse in Bengali. Her friends are quite

different from them — the elite who deserve to be present

78
at a cultural meet, This shows the sorry state of

affairs in cultural matters. The bureaucratic and imperia­

listic framework .of administration has to be reoriented,; if
Indians wish to rub their shoulders with other self-

respecting nations. The novelist indicates that the

wealthy take to social service because most of them wish
 206

•to fill up the lacuna of their life with it* There is

rarely any genuine humanitarian impetus behind it* In

To Whom She Will* at Tarla's, such people gather and talk

of social service and committee elections and remain indiff-

79
erent to the travails of poor village folk* Jhabvala

ironically shows again how social relief work gets entangled

and even lost in the Arabian mazes of Committee-jungles.

Naturally, a real social worker also would feel lost in

such a climate of aristocratic hypocrisy and leisurely

social service. \>iy

Attia Hosain shows how the aristocratic Muslim society,

even in the forties, used to be quite conservative* Hamid,

in sunlight on a Broken Column, has his political prejudices

and Saira has her social ones* When Kemal evinces Congress

and national leanings,1 Hamid rudely reminds Kemal that they

should proudly maintain their heritage and that he has 'no

use for ingrates who enjoy privileges without accepting

responsibilities ** Saira looks down upon Ameer as Raja

Raza Ali *s second wife *s ordinary relation without breeding

and she stresses that good breeding would make all the

difference* Nayantara Sahgal shows how most Zamindars

are reactionary and with vested interests and resent any

degree of land reforms* Govind Narayan, in A Time to be

Happy,; bemoans the loss of Zamindari* His sons must have

something to fall back upon* There are frequent and quick

changes* His sons might wish to educate their children

abroad, wish to settle down themselves abroad permanently*1

 207

He bitterly points out that he has not brought them up to

81
fit into the sort of regime the congress is ushering in.

V^-'Jhabvala refers to how the wealthy are inclined to be

Westernised. Sometimes# though they are uncomfortable in

adopting Western stifle# they keep up their pretensions of

/

being fashionable and uptodate. Gulzari Lai# in Get Ready

for Battle#! has in imitation# decorated his house in western

style# but when alone he likes to enjoy himself in his usual,

orthodox Indian style. He is at ease in sitting cross-

legged and eating lentils# puris and pickles with his
fingers. 82 The problem of foreign-educated upper class

Indian youth is hinted at by Nayantara Sahgal. There is a

sort of hesitancy# tentativeness#! uncertainty# looseness
about this post-Independence Indian new generation blossoming
in foreign Universities and Indian Embassies. It is being
on the horns of a dilemma - a perpetual perch on the fence,

as it were. The mental climate is cloudy# grey, even dark.

In the context of self-fulfilment# and happiness of others#

Rakesh and Leela# in This Time of Morning# are pondering

over the wise words of Kalyan• Rakesh says he will work

for his fulfilment# seek and discover M s whole self and

dedicate it to others as M s contribution. Leela's mind

is befogged, she is frightened about home-returning. These

young persons ‘were further than an ocean away from their

country*. It is not possible to go unchanged from *the

regions of doubts and questioning# the tumultuous realm of

ideas*. The question is how involved could one become with
 208

83
this Western world and still belong to the native land#

It was like hovering between two worlds s one dead and the

other powerless to be born. •

Nayantara Sahgal shows how the westernised Indians

forget their ancient heritage. One of the uppermost

sections of Indian society got anglicised in the process of

receiving Western education, such people developed faith

in foreign labels, knowledge of English life and letters
at the cost of that of things Indian. They were like a

square peg in a round hole on their return from foreign

countries. Harish, in A Time to be Happy, reflects on the
advantages and disadvantages of his westernised education
and outlook. The narrator remarks s "Considering the.,
education he and many like him had received - myself

included - it was surprising that he fitted into his

Q A

surroundings at all." The truth that even wealthy and

anglicised Indian cannot all become English anyjhow dawns ,

upon Sanad, in Nayantara Sahgal's A Time to be Happy.' when

he is not admitted as a member to an English club.. He is

too self-respecting to go there on sufferance, he tells

Marion. He knows in a flash that he can never be anything

el#e but an Indian. "He did not feel that he belonged in

either the British or the Indian set of Sharanpur. He did

not associate himself with Indians of a lower social rung

}

than himself, and he. certainly did not belong with the
85
English. Nayantara Sahgal presents a foreigner*s opinion
 209

regarding the unlndianness of the elite Indians. Neil, in

This Time of Morning, comes to know S a l e m and his friends*

When he thinks of this smart set. he remarks that they have

no solemnity or reserve he has' associated with Indians,

They are witty, gay. pleasantly and intelligently conversa­

tional. He finds that one cannot go on pigeon-holing people.!
because people are people.86

Nayantara Sahgal comments on the position of English

in elite Indian circles. In the upper section of Xnadlem
society many people speak English all the time. It is like
putting on another persorfe dress which is not quite
comfortable. It is like playacting all the.while. Despite
good mastery of the language, a feeling of alienness
persists. Rakesh, in This Time of Morning, wonders why
most upperelass Indians speak English all the time. "We

are still a Goosey Goosey Gander generation, he thought, and

whatever the advantages might be, we certainly aren *t

87
ourselves."

Anita Desai comments on the class-consciousness of the

older generation of aristocrats. In Cry, the peacock,

Arjun had a serious quarrel with his father because he

resents Arjun*s playing with the servants or their children -
the persons of lower class like Mohammed and Hari. He

angrily admonishes Arjun s "You are not permitted to play

with the servants or their childnen, you know that. I have
88
explained to you it is not fair to them*" Arjun *s
 210

resentment is a powerful enough seed to sprout into fighting

Q Q

the Negro Cause like a true rebel. Anita Desai artisti­

cally' hints at the conflict between the ideologies of two

generations based on the forces of tradition and revolt.

Bhattacharya brings out how patriots fetom a fraternity

by themselves. Gandhijifs magnetic spell has brought; people

of various socio-economic strata on the same level, prisons

also acted as levellers* This is how Lakshmi# the richest
woman of Sonamitti. in A Goddess Named Gold, treats the

peasant sfiman an the level of equality. Meera's grandmother

has been her guiding angel. Champa says, “Do you know# Simla,
that before the big struggle Lakshmi had been aloof from
the village? Rich man's wife. In prison she became our
v - 90
true friend and sister," R. K. Narayan comments on the

Gandhian way of life as an aristocracy in itself• Sriram,

in Waiting for the Mahatma# comes under the spell of patrio­

tic aristocracy - high thinking,) simple living and noble

suffering - as contrasted with the traditional concept

of high class living based on luxury-display and money-

exhibition. In the Gandhian world, there is a largehearted

rivalry in managing to live in any set of uncomfortable

circumstances. Sriram# used to comforatable living, finds

the adjustment a little difficult, but he catches the

spirit at last. The Gandhian aristocracy is poles apart
from the aristocracy of the affluent. R. K. Narayan

pithily expresses it thus s “Here the currency was suffering

91
and selfmortification# M
 211

-Thus#; the Indo-Anglian novel reflects the problems

and predicaments of the Indian society which is a three-

, tiered structure consisting of the lower class, the middle

| class and the upper class, generally distinguished on a

| socio-economic basis. How these classes are undergoing a

I
Iradical transformation under the impact of Gandhian thought

•and life and of socio-economic reformist attitude and

(efforts of the popular socialistic, democratic government

after Independence is suggested, indo-Anglian novelists

observe and analyse the change in the attitude of one class

towards another, They feel that class-discriminations and

■•-vrannies must go and they notice the younger generation *s

I revolt against unjust, traditional class-concepts upheld by

•the older generation. The prejudices of conceited elite

against the lowly are severaly criticised and their hypocri­

tical sense of social service is ruthlessly exposed by these

| novelists. They view with pleasure the m e r g e n c e of a new

\ class-awareness and the sense of unity as a class of the

1 lower classes but do not miss to show how their minds are

j filled with a desire for retaliation and revenge against

■the upper classes. In any case, they are no longer prepared

to put up with any kind of social ©r economic injustice.

These novelists seem to sympathise with the efforts "and

aspirations of the lower classes for the betterment of

their life and they seem to resent the hollow. Insurious

and cruel ways of the wealthy. It must, however, be mentioned

that these novelists have not - presented as full and faithful

 212

a picture of the travails and mental agonies of the middle

class in the present context of economic stringency and
hardship as one would expect,

Mulk Raj Anand, Bhattacharya and Markandaya are sworn

advocates of the down-1roddetn and are very severe on social
injustice and tyranny, R. K. Narayan is pre-eminently a
novelist of the average# unspectacular middle class and#
at times# invests the class with an aura of aristocracy
imparted by Gandhian self-denial# asceticism and genuine

social service, JMabvala and Nayantara Sahgal concentrate

on wealthy families and people and satirise their selfish­

ness# parochialism# hypocrisy# injustice and tyranny. On
the whole# these novelists are not impervious to the new
social order that is taking shape on the basis of humanitarian
and socialistic considerations.
 213

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1 M ulk R a j A n a n d , T he O ld Woman a n d t h e Cow, K u tu b -

P o p u l a r , B om bay, 1 9 6 0 , p® 258®

2 K a m a la M u rk a n d a y a , N e c t a r I n a S i e v e , J a ic o p u b lis h in g
H ouse, Bom bay, 1 9 5 5 , p . 24®

3 A n an d L a l l , T he H o u se a t A dam pur, P e a r l P u b l i c a t i o n s
p r i v a t e L td ® , Bom bay, 1 9 6 6 , p . 1 1 8 .

4 M a rk a n d a y a , N e c t a r i n a S i e v e , p® 7 1 ,

5 I b id ® , p. 74.

6 M ulk R a j A n a n d , T he O ld Woman and t h e Cow, p . 101*

7 M a rk a n d a y a , N e c t a r i n a S i e v e , pp* 7 7 -7 8 *

8 I b i d ® , p® 7 9 .

9 M. R. A n a n d , T he O ld Woman a n d t h e Cow, p . 9 2 ,

10 M a rk a n d a y a , N e c t a r i n a S i e v e , p® 39®

11 R. P r a w e r J h a b v a l a , To Whom S h e w i l l , G e o rg e A l l e n
& Unwin L td ® , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 8 , p® 3 9 .

12 K hushw ant S in g h , T r a in t o P a k i s t a n , A F o u r S q u are

B ook, L o n d o n , 1 9 5 6 , p* 1 3 0 .

13 K a m a la M a rk a n d a y a , A S i l e n c e o f D e s i r e , A F o u r
S q u a r e B ook, L o n d o n , 1 9 6 6 , p® 141®

14 M ulk R a j A n a n d , P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e ,
H u tc h in s o n , L ondon, 1 9 5 3 , p® 134*

15 M ulk R a j A n a n d , The Sw ord an d t h e S i c k l e , K u tu b

P u b l i s h e r s L t d . , B om bay, 1 9 5 5 , p p . 330-331®

16 K a m a la M a rk a n d a y a , A H a n d f u l o f R i c e , O r i e n t
P a p e rb a c k s, D e lh i, 1 9 6 6 , p* 27
 2 14

17 R, p r a w e r J h a b v a la , A B ackw ard p l a c e . O r ie n t
P ap erb ack s, D e lh i, 1965, p . 2 3 .

18 R aja R ao, The S e r p e n t and t h e R ope, John M urry,

L on d on , 1 9 6 0 , p . 9 0 .

19 R. P ra w er J h a b v a la , G et R eady f o r B a t t l e , John
M urry, L ondon, 1962,. p . 1 5 5 .

20 J h a b v a la , A Backw ard P l a c e , pp. 9 9 -1 0 0 .

21 K hushw ant S in g h , I s h a l l n o t h e a r t h e n i g h t i n g a l e ,
John C a ld e r , L on don, 1 9 5 9 , p . 4 7 .

22 J h a b v a la , G et R eady f o r B a t t l e , p . 8 8 .

23 N a y a n ta r a S a h g a l, A Tim e t o b e Happy, J a ic o
P u b l i s h i n g H o u se, Bombay, 1 9 5 7 , p . 4 9 .

24 M anohar M a lg o n k a r , Combat o f Shadow s, H am ish

H a m ilto n , L on don, 1962, p . 247.

25 B h ab an i B h a tt a c h a r y a , A G od d ess Named G o ld , H ind

P o c k e t ,Books L t d . , 1962, p . 2 4 7 .

26 S a h g a l, A Tim e t o b e H appy, p p . 7 6 - 7 7 .

27 M a lg o n k a r , Combat o f Shad ow s, p p . 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 .

28 M anohar M a lg o n k a r , The P r i n c e s , H am ish H a m ilto n

L on d on , 1 9 6 3 , S eco n d I m p r e s s io n , 1964, p p . 2 2 5 -2 2 6 .

29 I b id ., p. 360.

30 B h abani B h a t t a c h a r y a , So Many H u n g e r s, J a i c o
P u b l i s h i n g H o u se, Bom bay, 1 9 4 7 , p . 1 1 8 .

31 I b id ., pp. 1 8 9 -1 9 0 .

32 B h ab an i B h a tt a c h a r y a . He Who R id e s a T i g e r , J a ic o
P u b l i s h i n g H ou se, Bombay, =1954, p p . 3 2 - 3 3 .
 215

33 B h a tta c h a ry a , So M any H u n g e r s * p p . 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 .

34 I b i d ® , p® 178®

35 I b id ® , p . 128®

36 I b id ® , p® 19 4®

37 A n an d , P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e , p . 1 9 8 .

38 B h a tta c h a ry a . He Who R i d e s a T i g e r , p . 95®

39 M ulk R a j A n a n d , “L a j w a n t i " i n L a j w a n t i a n d O t h e r
S to rie s , J a i c o p u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , B om bay, 1966, p . 100.

40 A t t i a H o s a in , s u n l i g h t on a B ro k e n C olum n, C h a t t o
& W in d u s, L o n d o n , 1 9 6 1 , p® 2 8 .

41 M a rk a n d a y a , A H a n d f u l o£ R i c e , p„ 8 1 .

42 M ulk R aj A n a n d , T h e R o ad , K u t u b - P o p u l a r , B om bay,
1961, p . 61.

43 I b id ® , p p . 7 - 8 .

44 M ulk R a j A n a n d , “O ld B a p u " i n T h e P o w er o f D a r k n e s s
and O th e r s t o r i e s , J a i c o P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , Bom bay,
1958, p .' 105•

45 R u s k in B ond, T h e Room o n t h e R o o f, W ilc o , Bom bay,

1 9 5 8 , p® 13®

46 P a d m in i S e n g u p ta , Red H i b i s c u s , A s i a P u b l i s h i n g
H o u s e , B om bay, 1 9 6 2 , p . 8 5 .

47 A n a n d , The R o a d , p . 1®

48 M a rk a n d a y a , A S i l e n c e o f D e s i r e , p . 3 0 .

49 p r a w e r J h a b v a l a , A B a c k w a rd p l a c e , p . 92®

50 M a rk a n d a y a , A S i l e n c e o f D e s i r e , p . 90*
 216

51 Ib id ® , p . 120®

52 p ra w e r J h a b v a la # To Whom S he W ill#
■r " 1' 11111 ' 11' 111111..11m_.in.jL.j
G e o rq e A l l e n &
Unwin L t d .# L ondon# 1958# p . 2 4 1 .

53 ' K h u s h w a n t S in g h # T ra in t o P a k i s t a n # p« 2 1 .

54 M a lg o n k a r# C om bat o f S h a d o w s# p . 9 7 .

55 R . P r a w e r J h a b v a la # Esm ond i n I n d i a # G e o rg e A l l e n &

Unwin L t d .# London# 1955# p . 1 8 9 .

56 I b id .# p . 221.

57 R. K . N a ra y a n # T h e G uide# In d ia n T h o u g h t P u b lic a tio n s #

M ysore# 1958# p p . 7 4 -7 5 .

58 I b id .# p. 150.

59 K a m a la M a rk a n d a y a # P o s s e s s io n # P utnam # L ondon#
1963# p . 60®

60 N a ra y a n # T h e G uide# p® 124®

61 M a lg o n k a r# C om bat o f Shadow s# p . 67

62 A T im e t o b e H appy, p . 1 0 2 .

63 J h a b v a la # G et R eady f o r B a t tl e ,, p .

64 I b id .# p . 90.

65 I b id .# p . 101.

66 J h a b v a la # Esm ond i n I n d i a # p. 56.

67 I b id .# p . 68.

68 ib id ® # , p . 226 •

69 Ib id .# p. 91.
 217

70 I b id ® , p . 92®

71 S a h g a l* A Time t o b e H appy, p« 1 4 7 .

72 J h a b v a la * G et R eady f o r B a t t l e , p® 52®

73 S a h g a l* A Tim e t o b e H appy* p . 146®

74 N e r g i s D a la i* M in a r i* P e a r l P u b l i s h i n g P r i v a t e L t d .*
Bombay*, 19 47* p , 9 5 .

75 S a h g a l , A Tim e t o b e H appy* p® 236®

76 S a n t h a Rama Rao* Remember t h e H o u s e * V i c t o r

• G o l l a n c z Ltd®* L ondon* 1 9 6 5 , p . 36®

77 A nand L a l l * S e a so n s o f J u p i t e r * J o n a th a n C ap e,
London* 1958, p . 6 8 .

78 J h a b v a la * A B a c k w a rd P l a c e , p® 5 4 .

79 J h a b v a la , To Whom S he W i l l , p p . 38-39®

80 A t t i a H o sa in * S u n l i g h t o n a B ro k e n C o lum n*, p p . 1 9 9 -2 0 0 *

81 S a h g a l , A T im e t o b e H ap p y , p« 242®

82 J h a b v a la * G e t R e a d y f o r B a t t l e * p . 34®

83 S a h g a l, T h i s T im e o f M o rn in g *, p . 71®

84 S a h g a l* T h i s T im e o f M o rn in g , p . 7 1 .

85 I b id ® , p . 123®

86 S a h g a l* T h i s T im e o f M o rn in g *, p® 9 2 .

87 I b id ® , p , 3 1 .

88 A n i t a D e s a i , C r y , t h e P e a c o c k * R upa P a p e r b a c k s ,
Bom bay, 1 9 6 3 , p® 159®
 218

89 Ibid® # p . 1 6 5 .

90 B h a tta c h a r y a # A G oddess Mamed G o ld , p . 8®

91 R® K® N arayan# W a itin g f o r t h e Mahatma#.. I n d ia n

T h ou gh t p u b l i c a t i o n s # M ysore# 1965# p . 4 8 .
 219

CHAPTER VI

THE POLITICAL ATMOSPHERE

^/The greater the progress of a country fs civilization,

the greater the depths of human life as envisaged in its

conflicts, complications and commitments; agonies, alli­

ances and alignments; involvements, promises and deeds#

The fulness of life would necessarily require that all

interests of the individual should be properly guarded in

his relation to other individuals in the family, society

and country and this is why politics has to play a very

vital role because it controls the government of a nation#

The political situation is of focal importance in the case

of a country struggling to be free from the rule of a

foreign power# sJCs

The Xndo-Anglian novelist could express his views

very frankly about the political situation of India after

the departure of the British from India# In pre-Independ-

ence times it was not easy to antagonise the alien rule

and its administrators. If a novelist with nationalistic

outlook then Wished to deal with the political theme of

the atrocities of the foreign rule, he had to do so in a

very subdued, suggestive, symbolic manner in order to

avert the government charge of subver given ess and thereby

also persecution, prosecution and penalty. Of course,

there were, a few bold exceptions such as'K. S. Venkata-

ramani. Raja Rao and Mulk Raj Anand# Anand's fury,

however, was more directed towards social tyranny than

 220

political slavery. After Independence, the novelist

could survey the pre-Independence scene in all its true

reality, because the foreign power could not penalise

him with retrospective effect. This perhaps emboldened

even an 'uncommitted*, dispassionate and qui€& writer

like R. K. Narayan to employ the political situation of

the 'forties (till the assassination of the Mahatma) as
the' back-cloth for a love story with a difference. The

Indo-Anglian novel faithfully deals with the Indian

political situation in pre-Independence as well as post-

Independence times.

Indo-Anglian novelists express the sentiments of

patriotism and nationalism as felt by Indians including

even foreign-returned people, generally supposed to be

pro-British and pro-American. The narrator,! in Nayantara

Sahgal*s A Time to be Happy, is happy to see Sahdev

compose patriotic lyrics about idyllic life in India.

Sahdev has come to know the secret of Bharat Mata,» her

inexplicable,.; miraculous magic. It is an everlasting
bondage. He' would later criticise much in her but he
would never deny her. The narrator remarks* "Bharat
Mata would be both inspiration and torment to him,
responsible ultimately for the person he became, the

precious essence he alone would embody, distinct from

1
all other human beings." This ode to the motherland

is a post*Gandhian gift. There were many patriots before

 \

221

Gandhiji also, but particularly in the three decades

.preceding Independecne, patriotism became the supreme

religion in India*

S, P0 Dhanda expresses the poetic fervour displayed.

by Indians at the time of the Pakistani aggression* In

Surgeon Goes to War, Raghubir Singh,' a dying soldier,

while sending the gift of the enemy's pistol to his son,

desires that his son, whether he may become a farmer or

a fighter,' should be a patriot and his country should

come first,' his work second and his life last* With

such self-sacrificing, patriotic sons, India should never1

feel humiliated. Such patriotism as this is a guarantee

of perpetual liberty* Nalini,in B. Rajan's Too Long in

the -West,; voices this patriotic sentiment before Ernest.

She admits that her native place is 'queer, crummy and

maddening'; however, when she had. been in the U. S.A. -

and she liked her stay there - she missed her native
3
place* This is a healthy sign of the renascent India,
because one must love one's country as a 'must' - not
for its beauty and benefit only but even despite its

defects and deficiencies* Though Nalini loves America,-

she loves India more, Kamala Markandaya brings out

dramatically the conflict between the forces of love and

of nationalism. Since the 19 42 movement entered its

most active phase, Mira's soul had been caught in a whirl

as she visualised the gulf separating her from her Richard,

This feeling treading on the heels of their complete
merger of love was ironic, she had a premonition that
 222

their ways of life were about to bifurcate# They were

not only lovers but also the ruler and the ruled# The

love of country, her people,, was greater than their love,

"For us there was no other way, the forces that pulled us
4
apart were strong." This underlines the impact of

politics on love# It is truly tragic, because the conflict

is Hegelian - between two goods# Masearenhas presents

the lone voice of Goan nationalism through Tab in Sorrowing

Lies My Land# The pre-Independence Goan sky was darkened

with ignorance,' cowardice, fanaticism and servility.

Portugal was the sole world of Goans and their children

were made to believe that Portuguese was their mother

tongue# Tab tells his children how Indians are far more

civilised than the Portuguese and asks them not to be

5
traitors to their country in any circumstances. Tab
represents the very few Goan-nationalists aware of their

past rich Indian culture. Nayantara Sahgal brings out

how politics means courage and sacrifice in pre-Indepen-
dence times# Rashmi, in This Time of Morning, once ahks

Rakesh whether he wants to enter politics# The novelist

then remarks that politics was not Parliament or a party
system because India was not free then# "It was the tidal

wave of patriotism# It was wanting your country to be

free. If you lived and breathed you took part in politics,"

Rakesh has no option but he does not like Kailas's way#

He wants something quicker* Rashmi observes’that freedom,

£

like trees, cannot grow all too soon. In Surgeon Goes

 223

to War* S. p. Dhanda stresses the secularity and patrio­

tism of India* Kustanis i.e® Pakistanis bomb Tashmir

i.e. Kashmir and many innocent* defenceless Tashmiris

become their victims. One orphaned child is a problem,

abbas Khan offers to bring up. the boy. Gol. Diwan,; while

parting* says that the child is a Muslim. Abbas Khan

largeheartedly renarks that his faith would be Islam but
7 Kamala Markandaya illus­
his true love would be India*

trates the tidal wave of patriotic nationalism - at once

♦ self-ennobling and self-sacrificing. While revealing the

fundamental traits of the characters of Kit*' premala and

Govind - the joy of life* the goodness of life and the

fiery nationalism respectively. '.....and if you said

to Govind - "I am of my country - it is my father and
mother*" - thenceforth he was your bond slave;....." 8
'

Thus* the key that unlocked the immortal hearts of the

\

Bhagat Singhs and the Aaads was extreme, unflinching love

for the country - even fanatical and terrorist.

Gandhiji was not only the most potent political

leader of the three decades before Independence but also

the most peculiar one. Ever since his return from south

Africa he had become the be-all and end-all of the national

movement for freedom. His weapons were most unusual s
truth and nonviolence. He raised spinning and weaving
Khaddar to the level of religion. He set the vogue of

jail-going as an off shoot of his policy of Civil Disobe­

dience and Non-Cooperation. life short* the entire nation
 224

was impelled into action by M s novel, constructive and

dynamic socio-political approach, Indo-Anglian novelists

deal with these aspects of the Gandhian philosophy and

practice,

R, K, Narayan brings out the Gandhian way of life

significantly through sriram's reaction to it in Waiting

for the Mahatma* Until now Shrirara had known how people
were eager for luxurious living which also gave them

status, but in the queer Gandhian camp the values were

topsy-turvy. Here,, not enjoyment but suffering was the

measure of prestige, Narayan expresses it axiomatically i

9
"Here the currency was suffering and self-mortification,"
The sphere of politics is one where opportunism and cunning

should count, but in Gandhiana self-denial and ungrudging

service were the guiding principles, Bhattacharya, in

Shadow from Ladakh, explains the social and economic

significance of the spinning wheel as an instrument of

Gandhian politics, Satyajit plies it loyally, treating

it as a GandMan legacy and instrument of popular philo­

sophy, "That wheel was the common man *s answer to power**

fed machines. It was an emblem of unity between all
10
classes of the people," The English had dreaded it
and to Satyajit it was still a means of communion with

Gandhiji *s spirit. In Nayantara Sahgal's A Time to be

Happy, Sohanbhai defines the influence of the Charkha :

"The Charkha is medicine both for the body and the mind,"
11
he said, "it keeps idle hands busy and calms the mind."
 225

The Charkha is practically a forgotten ideal now, but

once it had a supremely important place among the political

paraphernalia of Congressmen# Mayantara Sahgal also

shows the paramountcy of things Indian - Swadeshi - in

the Gandhi an era. Sanad, in & Time to be Happy, is bent

upon learning how to spin. He tells Ronu how, in ten or

twenty years,' to be in dhoti would be accepted as respect-*

able in India, It would be much cooler than a suit, he

12
adds, and after all, they are Indians, Nagarajan shows
the popularity of Khaddar during the Gandhian age, Hemadri,

in Chronicles of Kedaram, says,that the candidates for

Municipal election must promise to wear Khaddar which is
symbolical of national struggle, Meghnath, whether or
not elected, promises to wear Khaddar at all times. Hemadri

also has to agree to wear Khaddar when he goes about on

Municipal business. This clearly throws him out of gear.

Khaddar becomes indispensible for the love and respect

13
of the people, Zohra, in Zeenuth Putehally's Zohra,

tells Safia that they should buy Khaddar saris* Safia

does not like it,1 but Zohra expresses her keennes -
“They look so pure. I feel as if..,,.as if they have a
14
soul." Khaddar was an eco-political weapon against the
alien government as it was also a symbol of *a newly
aroused nationalism1. This was so because of Gandhiji *s

appeal to use handspun cloth, K. A. Abbas shows how

jail-going,becomes the rage of the nationalists led by

Gandhiji to such an extent that it sheds the stigma

 226

Usually attached to it* In Incruilab. &nwar comes to

realise how* in-the new political climate of the country,

to be a political prisoner is a great honour. Many

patriots break unjust laws and prefer;: to bear the hardships

of prison and the newspapers do not have enough space to

print all these names. In the new saga of political

!

sociology in the Gandhian era, this revolution of courting

imprisonment is a significant change.

Indian novelists writing in English have given pride

of place to S&ndhiji and his political philosophy and its

practice. Of all its aspects, the aspect of non-violence

seems to have attracted them the most. They define,

discuss and illustrate it at length and comment on the

conflict between the forces of violence and those of non­

violence, Non-violence links up Gandhiji to Mahavir and

the Buddha from the religious, moral and spiritual point

of view but Gandhiji's faith in and use of non-violence

as a political weapon *> a weapon of the weaponless -

distinguishes him as a miracuKUs idealist in the sphere

of politics. These novelists bring out how the power of

the human will and spirit worked behind this novel compaign

of non-violence and crowned Gandhiji *s efforts with unpre-

c edented succ ess.

R. K. Narayan describes the principle of non-violence

i
in Waiting for the Mahatma. Mahatma Gandhi himself

explains to his followers that just as drill and discipline

 227

a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r an army, f o r h i s own n o n - v i o i e n t army

also th e re is a r e g u l a r sy stem * "B u t we h a v e a sy ste m o f
o u r own t o f o l l o w ; t h a t ' s Ram d h u n ; s p in n in g on t h e Charkha
16
and t h e p r a c t i c e o f a b s o l u t e T r u th and N o n - v i o l e n c e . "
N arayan a ls o e x p l a i n s t h a t l o v e i s t h e b a s i s o f t r u e non­
v io le n c e . G a n d h ijx e n j o i n s h i s f o l l o w e r s t o p u rg e t h e i r
minds o f any d r o s s o f b i t t e r n e s s o f p a s t h i s t o r y and th e n
ask t h e B r i t i s h t o q u i t e I n d i a and t e l l nim t o v i s i t I n d i a n
any tim e h e l i k e s as I n d i a ’ s f r i e n d and g u e s t , b u t t h e i r
h e a r t s must be f u l l o f l o v e and n o t b i t t e r n e s s . 17 K. A.
Aboas e p ito m iz e s t h e Gandhian p h ilo s o p h y i n i t s two p r i n c ­
ip a l te n ets s C i v i l d i s o b e d i e n c e and n o n - v i o l e n c e ,
Gandhi j i ' s m agic was j u s t s p r e a d i n g i n I n d i a a f t e r h i s
r e t u r n from S o u th A f r i c a and young p a t r i o t i c n a t i o n a l i s t s
came u n d e r h i s s p e l l e a s i l y . Anwar, i n I n q u i l a b , c a n n o t
u n d e r s t a n d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f * S a ty a g r a h a ' b u t h e can
g ra s p t h a t G a n d h i j i does n o t p o c k e t i n j u s t i c e and a l s o
r e s e n t s k i l l i n g even t h e c r u e l i m p e r i a l i s t s , G a n d h iji* s
s im p le and h u m a n i t a r i a n p o l i t i c a l i d e a l i s m a p p e a l s to him s
" . . . . . n o t to obey t h e u n j u s t law s o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, and
1B
n o t to k i l l , a n y o n e ." M a s c a r e n h a s , i n S o rro w in g L ie s
My L and, shows how n o n - v i o l e n c e b l e s s e s b o th s t h e p r a c t i ­
t i o n e r and t h e o p p o n e n t. I t awakens f a i t h i n t h e s p i r i t u a l
i n v i n c i b i l i t y o f th e oppressed. The I n d i a n s t r u g g l e i s
m a g n ific e n t. I t s p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e i s a new c h a l l e n g e -
t h a t o f t h e lamp t o t h e w h i r l w i n d . Tab s a y s t h a t t h i s i s
t h e t e s t o f man’ s s p i r i t . He hopes t h a t t h e r e would be no
l o s e r s i n t h i s h i s t o r i c b a t t l e and t h a t B r i t a i n would
r e a l i z e t h a t by a d o p tin g v i o l e n t ways m a n 's s p i r i t . . .
 228

19
cannot be kept in chains for ever. Non-violence means

emancipation from suffering through suffering*

In Zeenuth Futehally1s Zohra* Hamid emphatically

enumerates the benefits of non-violence in reply to

Bashir’s strictures against it. Hamid concedes that

though the movement had once failed the foundations of

Imperialism were definitely shaken. And it is not easy

to uproot the deep-set Imperialism at a stroke. Hamid

says 2 “Non-violence is not only best suited to our condi­

tions# but it is also the most civilized way. It certa­

inly is the highest form of courage to suffer and not to

20
hit back." The novelist shows the value of non-violence

as a permanent philosophy# especially in the context of a

war-torn world. Hamid informs zohra that on the continent

the people like Indians and ancient Indian philosophy and

culture and respect Gandhiji and are eager to know about

him and his non-violent movement - particularly in the

21
light of the destruction of war. Zohra gives one more

indication of the magnetic influence of Gandhi ji ’s persona­

lity and philosophy of non-violence. Hamid# in reply to

Zohra's question whether Gandhiji is an avatar* replies

that whether an avatar of the Buddha or not* he is a

saint. His non-violence has gripped the imagination of

the people and they worship him because there is something

22
in him which commands such respect. Futehally shows the

peculiar benefits of the non-violent method which generates

love and - destroys hate. Hamid points out to zohra how

 229

Gandhiji's non-violent fight for the country's freedom

has not adversely affected indo-Anglian personal friend­

ships and cites the instance of Sarojini Naidn *s friend­

ship with the Taskers who love poetry, Hyderabad and the
Hyderabad!s• Hamid says s "Gandhiji *s Ahimsa is wonder-

ful• There is no room in it for petty rancour and bitter­

ness? for he has taught us to look upon the British
Government as a thing apart from the British people,“2 3

Nayantara Sahgal asserts the supremacy of non­

violence as a moral and cultured means to achieve justice.

After blandly laying bare the brutalities of partition

massacres, jit, in Storm in Chandigarh, finds that Saroj

cannot partake of that conversation. He renarks that

nuclear disarmament would be a monstrous gamble if both

sides do not carry it out. Some one, however, has to

take it and has to be ready to be destroyed. He then

lauds the national gamble of non-violence as a novel

weapon for freedom. The weapon is the absence of any

weapon. The risk is great and, therefore, the success
24
too is equally great* R. K. Narayan describes, in
Waiting for the Mahatma, how Gandhiji *s principle of non­
violence is placed on the anvil of practice. Gandhiji
sticks to his ideals even in the post-Independence period.
The Partition riots in East Bengal leave his mind in
utter anguish and this queer saint walks through burning

villages, with his indomitable will, spreading the

25
message of brotherly good will and humanitarian tolerance.
 230

Aamir All# in Conflict# describes the principle and

practice of non-violence'. Rashid exhorts Ramchandani

to play Casablanca and not to budge even under the shower

of the lathi charge. "The point of non-violent resistance

is that you must be able to suffer without hitting back."

Non-violence is not a negative principle but it is based
on active involvement and sacrifice.

R. K. Narayan illustrates# in Waiting for the

Mahatma# the power of Gandhian magic through Ghorpad's

conversion from terrorism to non-violence. He still

regrets it sometimes but he is unable to disregard

Gandhiji's wish. He tells Sriram that like his brother#
who has become a terrorist and shot many Englishmen#' he
would also have joined him and shot many more Englishmen#

but he ruefully says that Gandhiji would not let him be

27
violent even in thought. Gandhiji was not only a
philosophic politician, but a tiger-tamer# a wizard who

accomplished miraculous and impossible things. Kailas#

in Sahgal*s This Time of Morning# has no faith in non­
violence# yet he believes that it is the best policy for

winning freedom but after freedom maintaining armed

forces for defence would be a must. Non-violence affords
the only way to fight without resentment and wounds and
is suited to the genius of the Indian and the British.

"for India it was a rescue fran the spirit *s stagnation#

from the crippling malady of resignation# because non-

 231

cooperation was a courageous and determined resistance

20
to evil." Moreover, Kailas has faith in the British
who 'were not bred in tyranny' to recognize the truth

and to heed the cry for freedom. Non-violence was succe- .

ssful, because it was practised by Indians and against :
the English. Kalyan thinks that suffering of any type

is evil. He does not uphold the paralytic living which

29
non-violence inflicts on people. Sahgal shows that

love of peace and non-violence b&speaks a high degree

of cultural development® Rashmi, in This lime of Morning,

remarks that the Partition has disproved that Indians are

more peace-loving than others. Berensen agrees that

there is nothing inherently peace-loving about men. He

sort of defines it s "It's a stage of evolution, like

30
the democratic foteti of government or anything else."
In fact, there is something basically cruel in our sub­

conscious and, as such, we have to nurture the love of

peace and non-violence with special effort and will.
Attia Hosain indicates how the creed of non-violence is
jeered at by some and distrusted by many. In sunlight

on a Broken Column, Zainab's brother tells Laila that

Asad has been talking of driving away the English by non­
violence. His comments deserve notice s "His idealism is
really ignorance? he has not studied history. Has it

ever happened that anyone has given up power easily ?

31
Not even one's parents.... ** This really proves how
unprecedented the creed has been and therein lies its

peculiarity as well as glory.

 232

The .relative benefits .and merits of employing violent

and non-violent methods fo r the country's freedom are

*
discussed and assessed and the non-violent policy is opted

fo r. I t is also clearly stated th at the path- of non­

violence i s more d iffic u lt than that of violence. Kamala

Markandaya offers a sort of comparison between violent and

non-violent campaigns against the foreign rule, in Some

Inner Fury,.these two trends are clearly seen. Roshan, a

Gandhian soldier, t e l l s Govind,, a die-hard te rr o r is t, that

they a ll are interested in freedom but th e ir ways are

different. Govind is not in terested ,in mere dialectical

discussions. Roshan says she is against destruction

because - "Thexje is no power in violence.....only destru­

ction", Govind‘s comments reflec t the desperation of the

violent sect., "The .one follows the other," he says.

32
"First things f i r s t . " , , :National Freedom, like God, was

uniformly worshipped? only the ways.were different. There

was unanimity about .the .end, but sometimes none about the

means. Malgonkar discusses .the views on the use of non­

violence and violence for .the country's freedom. Gian,

in A Bend in ..the .Gances,, maintains that the Gandhian non­

violent movement is the only hope fo r achieving freedom.

Singh brusquely asks him to quote i f any country has ever

shaken off the foreign yoke without resorting to violence.

Gian has no answer, Singh d ietato rially remarks s "Non­

violence is the philosophy of sheep, a creed for cowards.

33
I t i s the greatest danger to th is country." The followers
 233

of both these definite ideologies# whatever the number#

were staunch#, brave and loyal. Malgonkar depicts the

conflict in the minds of nationalists between adopting

non-violent or violent methods for liberating the land.

In A Bend in the Ganges# Basu explains to Debi Dayal how

no’Hindu trusts a Muslim any more and vice-versa. Basu

says that no one would remain non-violent if his near

relations are manhandled. Hindus would be slaves# if

their answer to Muslim fury is non-violence#, which can

be effective against only decent people like the British.34

Basu criticises Gandhiji and the Congress for not admitting

the failure of their nori-violent policy. It has emascu­

lated the people of India. Many more Hindus would die

than necessary. He sees no future for a non-violent

people in a world full of only violence. He poses a very

significant question - “Can a non-violent nation have a

35
violent army ?“ B. Raj an shows how it is more difficult
to be non-violent than violent. Krishnan# in The Dark

Dancer# who could not stay non-violent in the face of the

meaningless violence of the police#! bravely retaliated

and got severely beaten. Later# he tells Kamala that he

doubts whether non-violence could succeed. Kamala says

firmly that it should and if it does not# nothing can.
Non-violence is like water for ever falling and 'wearing
away the very stones of conscience *. An and Lall in The
House at Adampur# throws light on the situation prevailing
at the time of Bhagat Singh "s arrest s people were not
 234

quite convinced about the policy of n oh-violence. Jay

refers to these two trends - non-violent and violent ways

of fight. He admits that there is no universal conviction

about non-violence and the leaders are baffled, "The best

they can do is reaffirm their belief in non-violence and

not attempt to tell the people what to do about Bhagat

Singh, sven the best rule cannot be forced on, people,
37
and certainly not the rule of non-violence,"

The Indo-Anglian novel shows how picketing became

one of the main programmes of lndia*s campaign for freedom,

Anand Lall describes how political volunteers used to

picket shops dealing in foreign goods. He further points

out how the British were baffled at the systematic and
smooth progress of the Freedom Movement and wished to

break it. The volunteers felt that if Gandhiji was

arrested, the country would be in the self-destroying

grip of violence and the foreign authorities would find

a pretext for relentless oppression to deal the smashing

38
blow to the Movement, This reflects the preparedness
of the British to employ all tactics to crush the freedom-
aspiring people of India who forestalled the scheming of

the British, In A Bend in the Ganges, Malgonkar faithfully

records the resentment of the Indians against the British

repression in 1944, The people are being provoked by mass
arrests and callous sentences pronounced on the leaders.

The British are trying to convert the non-violence of the

 235

Congress into the violence of the terrorists - this is to

discredit the Movement in the eyes of the world and to
justify their cruel, measures. .The young people like Debi
Dayal welcome this hardening of the national movement

into a _revolutionary movement1. It is difficult to be

tied down for long to the vegetarian logic of the Indian

3 0
National Congress.1

One finds the criticism of the British political

tactics in dividing Indians among, themselves, of their

repressive measures to curb the Freedom Movement and of
their rank injustice, to Indians, even in such non-political
fields as education and government service. Some Indo-
Anglian novelists.have pointed out how the superior British
diplomatic tactics can pitch. Indians,against Indians and
spread.the. reign of tyranny and.terror among. Indians them­
selves. Krishnan, in B« Rajan's The Dark Dancer, is shocked
to .see. the Indians -. the plice - beating..and killing the
Indians - the Satyagyahis. . "They*re. your own people,
they're only doing what is right*. Can't you see they're
your countrymen even if you are police ?,,Zf0 Anwar, in K.A. .

Abbas's Inquilab. recalls, how his father Akbar Ali,-a

staunch nationalist, is.arrested by a police, officer -
another Indian - and exclaims : "Such Indians are worse
l±*I
than foreigners !,f _ Meera, in Kayantara. Sahgal^s This
Time of Morning, is agonised to see her father Kailas
being arrested by. .an Indian who has a misguided sense of
42
duty. What a sad commentary on Indian morality that
the British could crush, at least for a time, the flower
 2 36

of Indian patriotism -under the steam-roller of Indian

selfishness !

Malgonkar explains how the British had been, through

better diplomacy, successful in separating the Hindus and

Muslims, who, for a long time, had been fighting, hand in

hand, against the British# Once the distrust between the

two communities was bora, the Partition, dyed in blood,

became a must as the price for the freedom1# Hafiz, in

A Bend in the Ganges# says that the Muslims along must
continue their fight against the British and they must

use the same methods against the Hindus-. Shafi argues

that the Hindus too would use the terrorist methods and

there would be a sort of civil war. The Seth, in

Bhattacharya's A Goddess Named Gold, tells the poor fool
of a village constable how the English had ruled over
India by their policy of 'Divide and Rule'

Mulk Raj Anand brings to light a very serious

malpractice perpetrated by the British in the field of
education1# Bev Dutt tells Krishnan, in Morning Face that
Dev Dutt was made to fail at his M.A. (Maths) because he

is an Arya Samajist and the Arya Samaj is opposed to the

British rule in India# In the same novel, it is reve-aled
how Dr. Chuni Lall has to lose his Government service,
because of his patriotisms Babu Ram Chand, who cares only

for his job, tells Chuni Lall - 'Politics is a dirty game'

- in an apologetic but worldly-wise manner. The Doctor
retorts that life is not merely Government service'.
 237

Patriotism once used to be a dangerous virtue and, even

so, many practised it in those glorious days of the
Struggle*

The Indian novel in English paints a nostalgic

picture of the 1942 movement* Bhattacharya shows, in So

Many Hungers* that, during 1942, the enigma was how to

hate the British rule without hating the British people,

whether to cooperate with the British in war or not -

was the conflict in the Indian mindv The national movement

pledged all cooperation in the war-effort but wished to
get the Britisher to recognize the Indian people’s right
to freedom* The ruler committed the blunder of arresting
a great leader who protested against any cooperation in

the w a r . ^ R. K» Narayan’s Waiting- for the Mahatma* has

as its backdrop the 1942 <3j.uit India Movement'* Bharati
asks Sriram to spread Gandhiji’s message - asking the
British to clear out. The two"words - ’Quit India’ became
a mantra or a magic formula* The phrase was seen every-
48
where4* Not a wall was without it. D. C. Home shows, in
Hungry Hearts, that the heroic Quit India struggle was iron-
willed and equally ruthless was its repraisal from the

British ruler. Khetwadi in Bombay

scene and the police opened fire indiscriminately. Viol­
ence gave rise to non-violence. Despite military orders
to the contrary, people bravely succoured their dead and

dying heroes. Death was no stranger". Life exuded nobility

before the final extinction. The rain of ruthless bullets
 238

could not overwhelm the fury of self-immolation. In the

words of Homen: it was Satyagraha at the gate of

H4des. In So Many Hungers. Bhattacharya illustrates
how Indian villages also ware agog with the message of
freedom in 1942. Even lambs became lions and braved the
fire of bullets. The Indian banner filled their hearts
with supreme courage. When the people of Baruni saw

their Devata in danger, they were enraged, "In a split

instant they, vreak as lamb, became as lions. They dared
50
the fire. It was ’Do or Die'!. Rahoul, in the same

novel, too has come out of the protective shell of his

laboratory because he cannot remain impervious to a Bengal
in the throes of unrelieved starvation1
"; He has been ven­
tilating his rage in his speeches, besides his relief
centre work. He speaks of the English, with cold fury :

"You have done us some good along with much evil.1 For
the good you’ve done you have been paid in full1. The
51
accounts have been settled. Now for God’s sake quit."
The spirit of the people in 1942 and the police tyranny
were such as would make frigidity flare up into fury.
Self-sacrifice was a rule and cowardly evasion an excep­
tion; It was an age which elicited even that best from
the weakest. It was a glory to exist in that age and to
have fought for the country was to be God’s darling;

Terrorists, their mode of baptism, their methods and their

activities, their passion for freedom and sacrifices are
briefly but sharply touched on in the Indo-Anglian novel-.
 239

Khushwant Singh presents the grimness of the terrorist

blood-dyed baptism'. Sher Singh, in I shall not hear the

nightingale. is asked by his young fellow-terrorists to

shoot the cranes'. Sher’s indecision is noticed and Madan
taunts him to shed his softness which has been India’s
52
undoing. This underlines the psycho-political short­
coming of Indians who are reputedly kind and often deceived
by treacherous, ungrateful aliens. The Prithviraj and
Shahabuddin story may be quoted as an instance in point'.
Malgonkar throws light on the attitude of terrorists
towards Gandhiji, Congress and non-violence^ 5 Singh and

his terrorist friends, in A Bend in the Ganges, scoffs

at Gian’s Congress-affiliations and Gandhi-worship.’ Singh

even says that Gandhiji is the enemy of India’s national

aspirations5. He also gravely says that the sun of IndiP'a

had set a hundred and fifty years ago when the British
took over the country; They are all breathlessly eager
for the sunrise of freedom. ^ The novelist has drawn
well the flamboyant and hotheaded terrorist impulsiveness
founded on virulent patriotism; K. A1. Abbas shows how,
for terrorists, the party discipline is the first thing
and that the individual does not matter in revolutionary
work. Ratan, in Inquilab. does not tell even his trusted
friend Anwar whether it is Bhagat Singh who has shot
Saunders. He says s ’’He was killed by the collective
wrath of a whole nation seeking revenge for the fatal
54
blow he had dealt against the Late Lala Lajpat Rai•”
The terrorism was a direct reaction to the Imperialist
 240

oppression*. D, C. Home appreciates the sacrifices made

by terrorists at the altar of the nation's freedom..

Rouen, in Floods along the Ganges. does not agree that
Charu Sanyal and his party ivey the Congress has fought
against foreign domination and made sacrifices, . They
simply do not count before the greater record of sacrifice

of the terrorists such as Khudiram, Ashfaquallah, Kanaiyalal,

Satyen Bose, Bhagat Singh and others'? "I hope you don't

pretend that you do not know of the martyrdom of Indian

youth in the Andamans, the massacre of the flower of

Bengal's youth at Pijli, the heroic Chittagong Rebellion,

the Mopla*Uprising, the -Chauri Chaura mass action, the

ennobling patriotism of R.I.N. M u t i n e e r s . A t t i a
Hosain offers sympathy for the unnecessary and almost
unavailing suffering, of terrorists'. Nita, in Sunlight on
a Broken Column, does not believe in courting arrest

sentimentally. She does not approve of the momentary

flash of terrorists &ho shoot at some Britisher and get
hanged. "Children in. politics, that is what terrorists
are, heroic but misguided1. To fight British imperialism
we have to be organised and disciplined and use the kind
56
of weapons that will not misfire." .

Indo-Anglian novelists show how communalism was

rampant in pre-Partition times and yet some people were
devoted to promoting secular outlook and communal harmony.

In D.O.' Homes' Floods along the Ganges. Ataulla Moulvi

fires the hearts of the Muslims against the Hindus*. Anant,

• with his secular outlook, invites the Bafripara Muslims
 241

and, the Pikepara Hindus to a feast.: They are attacked by

the communalist Muslims who have to run away when Ansar

kills their leader.; In the job of rehabilitation the,

Muslim women also help*-, At Anand !s house Aruna is in

peril of being raped by the Muslim invaders.- To save her

from the ignominy of pollutions,! An ant himself hacks her

with his axe.; Bechur Mafs stupefied words reveal the

helplessness of the victims of communalism : "Ah God i .

They say the Muslims also have suffered in a similar way

57
at the hands of Hindus i But why ?" Padmini Sengupta

shows how the birth of Pakistan was countered by a demand

of the orthodox Hindus for Ramrajya - only a Hindu State.

Kusum, in Red Hibiscus.1 writes to Sita about Calcutta !s

uncertain quiet after the riots and the Hindu'fanjtieism

as a reaction to the Moslem fanaticism. If there is to

be a Pakistan,; let there be one, hurting though it is but

India' should continue to be secular,; free and democratic.

Her words speak of her deep faith : "Mahatma Gandhi*s

^ C O

creed of love and tolerance must,: and will,; save us."

poison may kill poison, but that is not a desirable method.;

i , >

Hate has to be overcome with love.!

IndorAng^ian po^elists have faithfully reported the

communal fury and riots at the time of, the Partition which

dealt a fatal,, blow, to the expectation that Hindus and

Muslims
•’ ■}
could ever again, live
i : i - 1 : : • ' ' -
in harmony.,
* ■ . . . i • ■ 1 : , j t i
The ;Partition
" : •
t ( * 4 ,

raised between, the two communities, a, strong, and thick wall

of mutual, distrust,#; malice .and acrimony. . It was an all-

 242

c o n s u m i n g volc a n o - all human v a lues were i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y

demolished; i n tte c o m m unal bonfires, of hate a n d vengeance*

B. Ra j an s u b t l y i n d i c ates h op even, d u r i n g seventy t wo days

b e f o r e the Indi a n freedom*:, t he a t mosphere was c h a r g e d with

suspicion's*!, a p d m fa^.ip.e*|.,
,pratap, Singh,t in The Dark

Danc.er,.
t a u n t s I m t i a z that h e w o u l d oe r h a o s be regarding
.................... r t t 7 * i ® < u m * 1 k •, ^ ? • « * i ,, » 1 * 1 ’ r a « ■ i {•] n i } . • « . , » ,

t h e t r a g e d y of. P a r t i t i o n as .the f i n e s t hour. Imtiaa

r e t o r t s .that his f a m i l y does, n ot have t.o, learn, to be Indian

f. - " * i ■ - ! - ’ ' 1 < * V '* i 1 !- V aJ- s * 1 i ’ ; ' V i * i i f \ \y ? ' ? :iil - ’ »• {

f r o m b e a r d e d fools,, - t h e y t o o have w o r k e d f o r fr e e d o m and

gone to, jails.*-, , K a m a l a .asks- them'to, be tole r a n t and says

that; ipt wjps, n o t ’e n o u g h .that, the Mu,slim(

s, p b o u l d be loyal,!

t he Hindus, a n d .others should trust, them*, p r a t a p remarks

59
t h a t t h e M u s l i m s m u s t .earn In d i a is confidence. The
•4 i 1 1 ■ , *.■ \ * ■: » i ■ t 1 j i f s ‘ : t 6 f-: ,i;L *:• j ; “ * 1 •>j f »-*?\ .; ,< •
,,
author also, p o i n t s o u t the terrible, British l e g a c y of
< i r 3 • ;i f i ■ in - •} -i ? p t f i . ?,»5 r >,r, < „■* •, - 1

communalism, a n d the g h a s t l y dance of communal, f u r y and

ferocity- at. th e time, o f .partition,. Cynthia#: in. The Dark

H >r< •m - -! !<• u i ?“ •i ■■•. , I f « iii»<-r*!— rrr--'i11
Dancer?#, v o i c e s h e r f eeling of t e r r i f i c 'shock- at. the whole-
~ fTt M ' f i' t i if ‘
i ■,lJ: s!.' . ? ri 4/?-' • f ! > >i - f. ? ! V ; » '•; < f : n •/.
sale, destruction .after. Independence*i - i<rishnan,. enraged,
,-,i : » . •( : f i i ' t l ! i l : s j i f 1 * }( 'l i - k \ t ? b i ! ? : T S ! • 1 | j ? . S ? P . •, v ; ,

r e t o r t s t h a t it has b e en t h e British legacy. T h e y had

t r i e d to separate the Hindus a nd the M u s l i m s in elector­

ates,; r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n civil service a nd even cr i c k e t

m a t e hep *( His i n d i c t m e nt is i n c e n d i a r y : "For a whole

generation, you B r i t i s h have stirred up t h e trouble. It's

you who m a d e the r e l igious divisions t a k e p r i o r i t y o v e r

go
c o m m o n p o l i t i c a l interests." , •-

Khus.hwant Si n g h p r e s e n t s t h e bes t i a l i t y of t h e
 243

communal- holocaust after partition-.'. Huikum Chand and the

sub-inspector of police,* both Hindus, are discussing the

ravages ,of rio ts. Huikum Chand says that there was .a -
massacre of the. Hindus and the Sikhs over there on the,
Pakistani side and the Sikhs had retaliated by slaugh­
tering an entire trainload of the Muslims going to Pakistan.
The sub-inspector comments that the effective creed is -
'Man. for man,! woman for woman, child for child *. The
4he ' _
R.S.S, Boys, he saad, we^teaching a good lesson to the
Muslims, but the Sikhs have not done their job. He

relatjls how the Sikhs at Mano Majra regard the .Muslims

61
there as their brothers# The novelist, brings out the
fact that i t was not possible for any village to be
totally unaffected by the communal rioting. Even at -the
relatively placid Mano, Majra,; the Muslims are apprehensive

of the Sikhs and vice versa. . To ■

the Muslims, .each Sikh
is a stranger now and Pakistan,, 'a haven .of -refuge,! where.

there were no Sikhs ! . 1 The Sikhs also reiterate -. !Never

trust a Mussulman *•'. They ranember how the Muslims have

executed their Gurus, and molested women and recently
massacred Sikhs. Yes#; they have every reason to be angry
60
with the Muslims.- The novelist indicates how communal
fury spreads like wild fire and consumes everything - all
values of culture and humanity. A city-dwelling Sikh h.j
reminds them how a Muslim had stabbed their Guru and asked
them to show even one trustworthy Muslim. '•••,..a Muslim
 244

£ 0
knows no argument, but the sword. *

In Distant Drum. Malgonkar draws a gruesome picture

of partition riots. Kiran recalls how for two full weeks

barbarous instincts had ruled supreme. Man was in frenzy.

Misery was common. Death was cheap. Mad people heaped one

black vice on another on the dunghill called life. The

riots had affected almost the whole upper part of, the

country. Delhi# Lahore, Ludhiana# Rawalpindi#, Patiala

and other cities were burning in communal hate.' There was

a partition of army officers also. Muslim officers were

leaving for Pakistan and were unfortunately destined to

fight not with but against each other from how on. The

novelist expresses the climate of suspicion and shock s

"Both Hindus and Muslims spent themselves in ghoulish

enormities unknown to primitive man#; allegedly in retalia­

tion to each other's doings all in the name of religion#;

- 64 .
even in the name of God l* Padmini Sengupta# in Red

Hibiscus#; refers to the communal fury* The Muslims at

'"" 1 «T¥ " V T '' *> *

Surnagar,; annoyed at the Indians playing their religious

music in the temple beside the mosque# catch hold of the

priest and rush to the college to kill Hindu youths.

prof .' Santosh braves their fury and would have been stabbed

but for the interception of Sita who is mortally wounded.

The attackers#! dazed at this end terror-stricken by the'

• 65
Hindu fury# take to heels. Through Harpal Singh!s eyes

Nayantara Sahgal shows# in Storm in Chandigarh# the

 245

partition savagery in retrospect. Even after two decades

M s anguish was still unassuaged. He did not think of it

as a communal riot* It had nothing to do with religion

which was not a part of the mutual dealings between Hindus

and Muslims* It was a reversion to primitive senseless

ferocity. Power had been the root-cause and religion came
handy as the excuse for revenge. "In retrospect the day

had begun to seem unreal as all great evil seems impossible

and strangely puzzling afterwards. Could it actually have
happened

Malgonkar describes how the jubilation of the sunrise

of freedom was eclipsed by the fact that the Muslims and
the Hindus were both refugees on the two sides of the
border. Debi, in A Bend in the Ganges#] asks Mmself if
terrorism could have won freedom at a cheaper price and
kept the two principal communities together. If might ,

have beep possible or not*, it would have been an honest

and. manly sacrifice and ‘not something that had sneaked

&7
up on them in the garb of non-violence 1. This is the

thinking of an extremist.: perhaps, but it has resulted

from the unnatural holocaust of communal vandalism.

Jhabwala briefly describes the condition of Punjabi
refugees after the Parritition of India in To Whom She
Will. She analyses how and why they heroically put
up with their losses and admires the way they prospered
again. Hari and his family had to leave Lahore for Delhi.
 246

Though it was absolute ruin*; it was not unbearable# because

it happened to many# Punjabis# being practical and bold,
68
came out of the crisis valiantly*

Attia Ho sain explains how fissiparous tendencies were

at work in India after Independence, The House of Hamid,
in Sunlight on a Broken Golumn* is a house divided against
itself#1 awaying under the impact of political cyclone

India had been passing through* Saleem argues that the

Congress has a strong anti-Muslim element. He says that

the Hindus cannot still forget that the Muslims had once
been their rulers and would take their revenge democratica­
lly; it is impossible for the ruled not.to hate the ruler.

Hamid thinks that the two communities can work together

69
on a political level and remain friends.

Khushwant Singh arranges# in Train to Pakistan a

symposium#! as it were# on the meaning of freedom. Igbal

is sorry that the villagers do not understand the meaning

of freedom and believes that the political freedom is a

prologue to the economic freedom* He asks them whether

they want to be slaves. The lambardar says that only

educated people like him would, be benefited and would

get the jobs previously held by the English. The anal­

ysis of the Muslim is stunning s "We were slaves of the

English# now we will be slaves of educated Indians or the
70
Pakistanis." Unless freedom# in its best and truest

spirit#; is taken to every hutment, as was the concept of

Gandhiji *s Ramrajya# the poor peasant and the labourer
 247

would not appreciate freedom only as an abstract ideal.

For them freedom has to have tangible fruits,

Indo^-Anglian novelists contrast the modes of Indian

life in pre-In dependence and post-*Independence times*

They seem to suggest that the previous generation had

the definite goal of achieving independence and this

transformed the Indian masses into one compact unit of

self-abnegating idealists. The present generation stands
divided against itself owing to the working of separatist

forces and multiplicity of petty and personal goals of

self-aggrandisement, Jhabwal a diagnoses the shortcomings

of the modern Indian generation as contrasted with the

preceding one. sudhir*. in A Backward place* feels that

the post-Independence generation is torn with indecision

and uncertainty about where to stafct from in respect of

many and conflicting problems* Jaykar*s pre-Independence
Gandhian generation had only one goal before them - to

oust the British; they could concentrate and succeed.

The present generation is not properly led* guided and

directed. There are many starting points and a great

deal of confusion. Frustration is great and the campaign­

ing*; more or less*! individualistic or sectarian but not
71
national, K, Nagarajan makes one important observation
in respect of pre-Independence national solidarity and

post-Independence disruption, Koni* in Chronicles of

Kedaram* ponders over how formerly there were no linguistic
differences ignited by parochial regionalism!^ Beside the
 248

supreme goal of independence everything paled into insi­

gnificance. Tamil and Telugu fought the battle of inde­

pendence as one united force but after the goal had been

achieved their ambitions leapt up and Tamiland and Andhra

72
bifurcated. This is a sad commentary on India's much

boasted cultural trait <* 'Unity in diversity*. Nayantara

Sahgal reveals, in A Time to be Happy, a subtle distinc­

tion in the attitude of Indians before and after Indepen­

dence* People., who had nothing in common and whose ideals

also were different, could meet as friends before Indepe­

ndence. But now even the people sharing the same ideals
also do not live amicably even though in the past they

had cheerfully borne their burdens together. Now everyone

wants to be the president of the committee he is a member *

of. The novelist aptly sums up the change. "We who were

at one time willing followers must all needs be leaders

73
or wither away with frustration." Bhattacharya touches
on the difference between the pre-Independence campaign

against the foreign rule and the new battle against igno­
rance. backwardness, and selfishness in the post-Indepen­

dence era. Sohanlal. in A Goddess Named Gold., warns

Meera *s grandmother how free India would die many deaths

and they should beware^, that one such death does not

occur at the polling booth of Sonamitti. He thinks of

the lack of self-denying patriotism in the post-Indepen­

dence era* ..freedom *s new battle would be more

difficult in a way than the battle that had been won.
 249

For the great tide of feeling that had carried the people

onward had receded. The drama had ended, ©ne can well

appreciate Bhattachar ya *s prophetic sagacity in the light

of post-Independence drama of selfish grabbing of power,

and money at any cost,

vVThe Indo-Anglian novel analyses the post-Independence

situation in the political and social fields. It brings

out the seise of failure and frustration experienced by

former idealistic freedom - fighters as also by other

people. It shows that not only there is no sense of

dedication in the people but also exposes their shameless

opportunism - as particularly in the case of Congress

upstarts. The socio-political lacuna after Gandhiji *s

assassination is hinted at, as also the change in the

mental make-up of such determined and disciplined men as

military officers, Anita Desai brings out, in a subtle

manner, the post-Independence frustration through Gautam *s

father in Cry, the Peacock, All the rosy dreams of the

welfare state have gone to ashes* HLs mind is in anguish

to see the new epoch with its irritations and failures,;

its red tape and corruption, its small pale hopes and

frustration, EOwever, he cannot also help thinking about

75
its great glory. Freedom with all its failures and

frustration is freedom it may be a dust-covered diamond,

but it is a diamond nevertheless. In To Whom She Mill,

Jhabvala also expresses the sense of frustration thickening

in the post-Independence India. This is naturally very

 250

acute in the case of old-timers who had sacrificed genero­

usly for the country's freedom and the ideal of *Ramrajya*.
They are shocked into ugly realities after independence.
Krishna Sengupta's parents are disillusioned and dejected
and Consequently have withdrawn into the shell of quiet,
and resignations They feel that Congress is no longer
the Congress which had been themselves and those like them. 76
Jhabvala also depicts the post-Independence ironical situ­
ation of freedom-fighters being divided into two groups
of those who could come into power and those who could
not or did not. Ram Nath, in Esmond in India, is a self-
sacrificing idealist and so was his sister Uma's husband,
who had died on the eve of Independence. Una is proud of
them, but Ran Nath's wife Lakshmi#! is full of regrets and
grudges. She dwells at length on the sacrifice made by
Ram Nath, but also regrets that, like Haijfdayal, he could
7*7
*
not make capital out of it* ' bcrgis Raid *s Kina

Nayantara Sahgal shows how the virtue of dedication

is rarely encountered in the post-Independence era. In
Strom in Chandigarh, the Union Hone Minister wants to
send to Hariyana, a top-grade officer who should be truly
patriotic. He comments to himself wryly that the spirit
has ebbed out after Independenee. When he was young
dedication, sacrifice and austerity had been quite common,
but now these words sound hollow and he sparingly uses
them like old coins saved against emergency. He is glad
 251

78
they still have worth. Bhattacharya reveals how the

ugly dance of rank opportunism has mutilated the idol of

freedom. Meera, in A Goddess Mamed GoldUi replies to

Sohanlal that her grandfather, being a minstrel, would

not stay for the battle of election against the Seth.

The minstrel used to say that freedom was the beginning

of the road where there was n© road but it was fraught

with robbers. Sohanlal enumerates these robbers - the

money Seth,, the seth of politics,, the official seth, the

79
seth of religion, the Gandhi-capped seth etc. Bhatta­

charya has,, with the slightest touch, described the marked

faces of selfishness in the post-Independence era, in a

highly sarcastic tone. Malgonkar presents a picture of

the Gongress upstarts trying to assert themselves with a

vengeance in post-Independence times. Col. Kiran, Go, in

Distant Drum.' flatly tells the Chairman of the District

Congress Committee that he cannot just oblige him by

sparing a shamiana on the occasion of a minister *s

unofficial visit. The Chairman,, in his characteristic

style, fumes at him in the 1 ala-brand English; and threatens

•> 80
the CO with dire consequences. This shows how some petty-

minded politicians do not allow the government machinery

to function smoothly and how some officers are bold and

upright in meeting their threats.

Bhattacharya indicates the lacuna in the political

and spiritual sphere in India after Gandhijl's departure.

In Shadow from Ladakh, Satyajit *s peace mission to China

 252

and later, his fast cause a respectful stir. After Gandhiji,

Satyajit is the nearest answer to the void in the realm

of the spirit* He boldly puts into the practice the

Gandhian principle of truth and non-violence, Krishna-

murti reminds them of Romain Rolland's glorious tribute

to India's non-violence s "If the India of non-violence

were to go down in the battle, it is Christ himself who

will be pierced by it, with a supreme lance thrust, on
81
the Cross, And this time there would be no resurrection,"

Through the ruminations of Harpal Singh, in Strom

in Chandigarh, Nayantara Sahgal voices her sentiments
against linguistic division!sm, Harpal is pained to
recall how people have mangled the body of the Punjab
again and, that too, in the interests of the Punjabi
language, which would have flourished even without the
partition* There is something sinister about the parti­

tion mentality which falsifies mankind's journey towards

integration. He wonders at the appalling frenzy of men

possessed, "What possessed men to stamp their name,

their brand, their ego on every bit of God-given soil

82
that came their way ?" Sahgal brings out a very subtle

point of our post-Independence political life. Catholi­

city of vision hankering after the country's larger inter­
ests is thrown out of gear. Fanatical Regionalism is a
key to easy leadership, she has rightly forestalled the

fissiparous tendencies of regional parochialism, Harpal

broods on how Gain has been marching ahead blindfold -
 253

guided by and guiding the fanatical provincialism. The

Punjab has claimed Chandigarh and Bhakra Dam and has

started religious instruction in the schools. Harpal

wonders where this bid for cheap popularity would cry
halt. "What would the next step be. an army and a flag

for the Punjab ? The spectre of states stuffed with power

83
rose before his eyes." Nergis Dalai offers her views
on the relative importance of English and the mother

tongue. Predie# in Minari# remarks that French# instead

of English# should have been their native language. Col.

Rajendra Singh icily points out that English is not

Fredie *s language and that as an Indian he should be
ashamed to so admit. "English may be the language for

politics# commerce and administration. But at home#, every

84
Indian should make it a point to speak his mother tongue.
It is rather easy to be fanatical linguistically - for or
against - and in the context of recent Indian frenzy for

linguistic vivisection# the Colonel*s words assume a new

significance.

K amala Markandaya shows the British attitude «

sympathetic as well as harsh to India after Independe»

nee. Mackendrick," in The Coffer Dams# can understand

Krishnan*s concern for the prestige of the Indian Govern-
ment. India is poor# underdeveloped and backward and so

very eager to feel and transmit pride." .....the pride

of an ancient civilization limping behind in m o d e m era#!
called backward everywhere except to its face and under-
 254

Q C

developed in diplomatic confrontation," The novelist

also indirectly suggests the change Independence has brou­

ght about in Indian thinking. Rawlings recalls his libi­

dinous and sadistic adventures with ebony women who were

also serfs. But freedom has made a radical change,! he

£Bels, and things now can never be the same as before.

This he traces to freedom which, in his opinion,] India

has acquired cheaply and, therefore,, has made Indians

uppity,"86

S. P, Dhanda, in Surgeon Goes to War, shows the

secularmindedness of the Indian soldiers who love and

understand their nation and her policies. Col. Arora,

Col. Diwan, Ahmed and Desmond are discussing the Indian
Foreign policy. Diwan and Arora criticise the American
policy of giving aid of arms to Kustan i,e. Pakistan.
Diwan defends the Indian policy of non-alignment. As
opposed to this, Pakistan is tied to Gento and Seato and
the Chinese because of her policy of alignment and has

ceased to be a nation and has become half a Western

87
Satellite and half a Chinese stooge. Mrs. Jhabvala
makes an obligue reference to India's foreign policy.

In To Whom She Will, Ararita does not like Krishnan *s

intervention when she and her mother are having an
argument. Krishnan tries to establish his bonafides by
saying that he is only a peacemaker. "I am the neutral
* $8
power", Krishna said. "I am India the peacemaker."
 255

The mildly ironical tone regarding India*s role as a

peacemaker cannot be missed,

Nayantara Sahgal criticises the dependence of India

on other nations for the supply of foodgrains through

Kalyan *s thunder# in This Time of Morning^ against

Indians in the presence of foreigh diplomats at the

Foreign Affairs Club ; "As long as we eat other people’s

89
wheat# we are not fit to call ourselves free," Nothing

could be so forthright as this, B, Raj an# in Too hong

in the West# puts into Raman *s mouth highly patriotic

sentiments of self-dependence as opposed to foreign aid,

Raman admits that though Indians are poor# they have

become independent without any outsider’s substantial

help. He declares : "We can build our future without

other people’s c h a r i t y , O f course# this is a froble

sentiment# but Rajan’s words cannot be taken at their
face-value# his artistic intention being mock-heroic

treatment# parodying,

Nayantara Sehgal assesses the democratic values in

India# crippled by centuries-1 ong darkness, Dubey#; in

Storm in Chandigarh# is annoyed at the glacial architecture

of Chandigarh where dust abounds and glass would cruelly

exhibit every particle of dust. Like this architecture#

which does not grow here# democracy#! too# is imported

91
and borrowed from the west and not conceived here.
Democracy, ’superimposed on illiterate masses’#, is based

on election which# in its turn# is based on the political

 256

awareness.of the electorate. How can this succeed, all ,

so suddenly, in a large country like India cramped with

ignorance,: selfishness and even disloyalty ? Mulk 'Raj

Anand brings out the value of economic freedom in Morning
Face. Harihar, influenced by the Russian way of thinking,

says that after the Russian Revolution the idea of servi­

lity to rulers is gone - there might be gratitude but the

concept of money must be changed. Freedom is not the

final goal., There must be a Revolution establishing the

equality of all men® There were Revolutions in France

92
and Russia and there must be one in India also# The
utterances assert tie importance of economic and democr­
atic freedom also. Mere political freedom is just a

first step in the right direction, but it would be fatal

to stop there®

Bhattacharya shows that if political freedom is

important, so is social freedom and progress* Jayadeva,

in Music for Mohini, wishes to make Behula a model village

and seeks Mohini *s active help in it. Behula should lead

the whole Bengal then. He says, "Oub political freedom
93
is worth little without social uplift." h country in
prolonged enslavement has to look to many aspects of

progress after achieving independence. Jayadeva liberates

himself from the age-old shackles of superstition. One

has to get accustomed to freedom after prolonged slavery.

The first short span after freedom would be fraught with

bewilderment. "India free to build up her destiny, was
 257

not yet fully free. She was like a prisoner held too
long in a dark cell. Unchained and released suddenly,
she was bewildered by the light® But the. stupor would

pass, India would renew, herself,"94 Bhattacharya has

beautifully conjured up the picture of the aspirations

of-the late forties in India,

The Indq-Anglian novel reflects different aspects

of communis* s its basis of economic democracy, its role

in 1942, its so-called internationalism, its discipline,
Gyanga in Hungry Hearts by D«G. Home,; asks Ran jit whether

parliamentary democracy can be regarded as the fruit of

revolution, because Britain,1 in spite of its democratic
set-up, is the biggest imperialist power, Ranjit objects

that the system cannot be blamed for the failings of the

persons - Communism cannot be denounced for the failings
of the C,p,iej0Gyan retorts that parliamentary democracy
and Communism are two different things altogether, Ranjit
indicates that political democracy i.e. Parliamentary

democracy exists in capitalist countries, whereas there

is no parliamentary democracy in economic democracy i,e,
95
Communist countries® This is stating the obvious, but
coming as it does from a Communist's mouth, it has a

confessional ring* In the face of fchis avowal,, how shall

we feel about the Russian and the Chinese "democracies"?

Anita Desai suggests that frustration is the mother of

Communism, Jit, in Voices in the City, stamps Nirode as

 258

a Communist to the chagrin of all friends. One of them

points out that the Russian Communism and the Chinese

Communism are different and that they have to deal with
the latter brand. Another says that Russia*, since 1953*

has been trying to imitate the American way of life. The

Congress also is no good* because as compared with Italy*!

France and England, India has remained very poor. Despite

their differences they generally feel that it is better

96
to go Red than anything else. - Gita, in D.C. Home's So

Manvl So GallantI is keen on plunging into the labout

movement and the programme of strike. Comrade *B* explains
to her that the movement would uproot her from her rich

family. She should stick to her work with faith, under**

standing and realism without being carried away by the

desire to do something out of the ordinary. He rounds

up his argument thus : "Marxism is not romanticism, it
97
is dialectical realism....." One may agree or disagree

with Communists about their ideology and methods of work,

one cannot but be impressed by their singleminded, disci­
plined adoration of the party*

D. C. Home,- through Ranjit in Hungry Hearts, tries

to trace the unbalanced internationalism of the C.p.i.

to the preponderance of the wealthy and upper.class

figures in the party leadership, which, Ranjit feels,

is responsible for ‘breeding arrogance, intolerance,'

98
bigotry*. At least certain Communist leaders have
 259

been charged with being the mercenaries of Communist

countries and their consequent lavish living and lip*,

sympathy for the social underdogs. In Hungry Hearts.

Dizzy, a Hindu, writes an article advocating the establi­

shment of Pakistan and Jinn ah makes no mistake in explo-

iting the same,** Some Hindus, especially Communists*>-

posed as men of advanced views by advocating the parti­

tion of India. This,; on one hand, may indicate the

advanced secularism of Hindus and, on the other,: the much-

talked of internationalism or anti-nationalism? - of

Communists. Panikkar, in Hungry Hearts, is a militant

nationalist, impatient of the Congress sluggishness and

inaction as also of the Communist treachery in betraying

the nationalists to the British police. He clearly warns

Ran jit •*» whan Pani considers a 'fellow-traveller ‘ - that

he should not tell his Communist friends anything about

Pani's circle and activities,1 because the Communists are

mean spies of the British p o l i c e . T h i s refers to how

the Communists are alleged to have sided with the British

in the crisis of 1942.

Bhattacharya, in Shadow from Ladakh, throws light

on the Sino-Indian Border delimitation. The Chinese had

launched their aggression with a pretext to right-fully

gain what the British Imperialism had taken away from

them. New Delhi had refuted this Peking move. The

Chinese alleged that the border dispute was a legacy

from the past, but there was never any dispute regarding
 260

the border in the past* In fact# the legacy was the

unbroken friendship between the two countries, The

Chinese had merely dished out a sort of pretext,

Satyajit recapitulates all this# but he does not approve

of New Delhi's legalistic attitude, "Friendship of the

Chinese people was worth more than a bleak wasteland and

1 01
between snow-clad cliffs*" Wasteland or otherwise#:

no country should be allowed to temper with our fixed

frontiers* Internationalism is not always a virtue*

Bhattacharya suggests how India tried to please China
even by sacrificing Tibet, They believed that China
could never attack India and even when she did so# they
preferred to think it was the fault of the Chinese rulers

but not of the people* Satyajit believes that a new

leadership might come up in China and then the spirit of
co-existence would prevail. He recalls Gandhiji *s views

on non-violence. Mot to believe in peace is not to

believe in the divineness of human nature, Gandhiji had
said i “if even one nation were unconditionally to

perform the supreme act of renunciation many of us would

102
see in our life-time visible peace established on earth,"
Gandhism was built on such a lofty self-sacrificing

idealism that it now seems to be out of context in today's

life in India* Bhattacharya faithfully records the moral

shock that was caused by the Chinese to the Indians, It

was worse than the military reverses. In Shadow from

Ladakh# the Minister without portfolio tells Satyajit how

/
 261

India bad not even resisted the Chinese occupation of

Tibet. Ghou-En-Lai had promised that the Tibetan culture

would be respected. It was a sad compromise. Satyajit

comments that it was not the path of truth. The Minister

also points out that China wanted to establish its

supremacy of leadership in Asia and.Africa. China did
not believe in non-alignment and so engineered that India
103
would have no option but to join the Western Bloc.

The story of the Chinese aggression is a new version of

the shameless treachery of a brother against another - a

rude blow to India’s love and trust.

Nayantara sahgal suggests# in Storm in Chandigarh#

that politics has encroached upon all spheres of human

activity including even education. Mara regrets that she

would be compelled to close the school because of strifee.

She is exasperated at politics interfering with everything.

Inder gloomily comments that it is not possible to get
104
away from politics in India. It is a sad thing that
even in a democratic country politics# like a monster#-
is bent on devouring all values of life - old and new

alike, Nayantara sahgal emphatically maintains that

politics and morality are not necessarily divorced.
Kailas# in This Time of Morning# has his own faith and

ideals. He refuses to believe that politics has to be a

dirty game. The cryptic remarks of the author are reveal*

ing i "Any game was a dirty game when dirty people played

it* There were also dishonourable politicians. But he

 262

105
had known honourable ones too.” If to be dirty was a

must# how could Lincoln and Gandhi have flourished into .

a sizeable tribe ?

Indo-Anglian novelists# thus# have surveyed the

political scale in India before and after Independence

from the viewpoint of different parties and interests.

The period of nearly three, decades preceding Independence

in India is marked by the acceleration of the freedom

campaign on account of Gandhiji*s firm hold on the Indian

political situation and his unquestioned#! supreme leader­

ship and the consequent awakening of a very high spirit

of self-abnegating nationalism. Later on# there were

other criss-cross forces like communism, terrorism#

communalism etc. to make the struggle complicated and

Complex. This is faithfully brought out in the Indian

novel in English. The Gandhian principles of truth, non­

violence# spinning#! use of Swadeshi goods and khaddar,j

courting imprisonment# picketting at shops selling foreign

goods - all these are dwelt on with a true understanding

and insight. It also touches on the national movement

e.g. the 1942 Quit India Campaign - and dispassionately

describes the pre-partition flare up of communal riots

and the plight of refugees. It also reflects the post-

Independence scene punctuated by frustration# selfishness#-

parochialism# regionalism and linguistic divisionism. The

Sino-lndian war and its ^repercussions are also commented

 263

upon as also the Indian foreign policy and American aid

to India* Many novels have the political situation of

India before or after Independence as their backdrop and

in quite a few of these novels# the political theme

seems to have been accorded centrality*

"Politics in a work of literature" wrote Stendhal#*

"is like a pistol-shot in the middle of a concert# some­

thing loud and vulgar# and yet a thing to which it is

not possible to refuse one's attention*" A political

novel is not only disturbing but also fascinating. It

must#' however# illuminate a particular area of human life

and envisage a high degree of moral vision* The political

novelist must be cautious# lest the load of his political

opinions should strangle the voice of truth* Any good
writer worth the name has to admit and illustrate that a

moral order is beyond mere political commitment or ideo­

logy, How a political colouring deeper than desirable
can tilt the artistic rhythm of a novel can be seen in

D. C. Hornets Floods along the Ganges* Home writes more

in the vein of a journalist with leftjsh leanings than as

a novelist committed to art alone. The novel has a

topical value - in spite of its ‘progressive* slant, it

adequately conjures up a picture of the volcanic 1942#*
though this is more artistically done in Markandaya!s

Some Inner Fury and Khushwant Singh *s I shall not hear

the nightingale* Gandhi an politics mainly aims at
 264

establishing a moral order also in the sphere of p o litics

and*; therefore* the novelists illu stra tin g Gandhian

p o litic a l ideology - viz.* R. K. Narayan* Bhattacharya#*

Nagarajan in post-Independence times and Venkataramani

and Raja Rao in pre-Independence times - are fortunately

free from the hazards of sheer ' commitmentZeenuth

Futehally and Attia Hosain show how communal and Gandhian

forces reacted to each other and they illu s tr a te the

healthy and charitable outlook of the Nationalist Muslim

on Indian p o litic s before Independence. Khushwant Singh*>

Malgonkar and Rajan do not seem to be obsessed by any

p o litic a l ideology *» they are f a ir ly objective in th e ir

treatment of the problem of communal ism at the time of

Partition - and lay bare the b ru ta litie s of wholesale

massacres of men by men*; destined to live as neighbours*

loving or warring# Khushwant Singh's economy of expression

i s adorned by deftness and detachment. Malgonkar's novel*

A Bend in the Ganges* does not make a powerful impact

owing to i t s problem of focus* Raj an gets lo s t in the

subtle layers of his sophisticated sen sib ility and expre­

ssion. Mulk Raj Anand comments on the post-Independence

p o litic a l situation in a casual and disillusioned vein

and c ritic is e s Government policy in small matters-thereby

exposing his p o litic a l 'commitment'* Anand Lall* ironi­

cally enough, does not seem to have any commitment*

p o litic a l or otherwise*1 and f a il s to impart a veneer of

p o litic a l respectability to his novel* The House at Adamnur.

 265

by merely describing sane political events and activities

to disguise M s real aim in writing that novel,

,Very few novels, with politics in the focus# came to

be written before Independence, Politics then meant winn­

ing the country?s freedom. It was, however, not possible

to challenge the alien government openly, because it would

amount to subversion. Therefore, the Indo-Anglian novel­

ist showed politics incarnated in non-political behaviour,

the struggle of the classes. Raja Rao and Anand brought

in Englishmen,' anglicised Indians or capitalists to repre­

sent the forces of tyranny and thus symbolize the struggle

for Indian freedom against the alien rule, Venkataramani,

in Kandan, the Patriot did it more boldly in the spirit of

a sworn Gandhi an. These repressed artistic urges demanded

that they be given priority in the post-Independence era,

when the novelist concerns himself with such pre-Indepen­

dence political scenes and situations as pre-partition

riots and carnage and the struggle for freedom. It is a

refreshing experience to find that Nayantara Sahgal*s

This Time of Morning and Storm in Chandigarh depict

contemporary political situations viz., the ambassadorial

milieu and linguistic divisionism and its awful impact on

national integration, Markandaya, Anita Desai, Dilip

HLro and a few others seem to stress the love-hate rela­

tionship between India and England by posing the problem

of Indian expatriates.
 266

MOPES AND* REFERENCES

1 Nayantara Sahgal, A Time to be Happy# Jaico

Publishing House* Bombay, 1957, p. 177.

2 S. P. Dhanda, surgeon Goes to.War. Distributors :

Kothari Book Depot,1 Bombay, 1966, p.' 149.

3 B. Rajan, Too Long in the West, Jaico Publishing

House,. Bombay, 1961, p. 118.'

4 Kamala Markandaya, Some Inner Fury, The Harborough

Publishing Co. Ltd., London, First Acebooks Edition,*
I960,; p. 158.

5 Lambert Mascarenhas, Sorrowing Lies M y Land, Hind

Kitabs Ltd., Bombay, 1955,, p. 38.

6 Nayantara Sahgal, This Time of Morning, Victor

Gollancs Ltd.., London,1 1965, p» 39.

7 S. P. Dhanda, surgeon Goes to War, p. 27.

8 Markandaya,* Some Inner Fury,; p, 86.

9 R* K. Narayan, Waiting for the Mahatma. Indian

Though publications, Mysore, 1955, p. 48.

10 Bhabani Bhattacharya, Shadow from Ladakh, p, 66.

11 Sahgal, A Time to be Happy, p. 87.

12 Ibid.,, p. 258.

13 K. Nagarajan. Chronicles of Kedaram, Asia

Publishing House, Bombay, 1961, p. 83.

14 Zeenuth Futehally, Zohra, Hindi Kitabs Ltd,,;

Bombay,1 1961, p» 146.
 267

15 K. A . A bbas# I n g u l l a b # J a i c o P u b l i s h i n g House#
Bombay# 1955# p® 68®

16 N arayan# W a itin g f o r Mahatma* p . 17*'

17 Xbrd*#. p# 20*'

18 K . A* Abbas* I n g u i l a b # p . 1 2 .

19 M ascaren h as# : S o rro w in g L i e s My band* p . 172*

20 F u te h a lly * Z o h ra , p* 252*

21 I b id * # p« 152*'

22 Ib ra * * ; p* 212®

23 Ibid® # p® 233*

24 N a y a n ta r a S a h g a l# sto rm i n C h a n d ig a r h * g h a t t o & ■
H indus# London# 1 9 6 9 , p* 143*

25 N aray an # W a itin g f o r Mahatma* p* 1 6 6 .

26 A am ir A li# C o n f l i c t * N a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n &
P u b l i c a t i o n s L td * * Bombay, 1 9 4 7 , p . 1 1 3 .

27 N a ra y a n , W a itin g f o r M ahatm a,- p . 5 0 .

28 S a h g a l,.n T h is lim e o f M orning* p* 4 8 .

29 I b id .* p® 7 3 .

30 Ib id .# p® 4 8 .

31 A t t i a H o s a in , S u n l i g h t on a B ro k en Colum n, C h a t to
& H indus# London* 1 9 6 1 , p . 102*

32 M ark an d a y a . S an e I n n e r B u ry , p . 7 0 .
 268

33 M anohar M a lg o n k a r, A Bend, i n t h e G anges# Hamish

H am ilton# London# 1964# p i 1 2 .

34 I b i d .# p . 285*

35 I b id .,; p . 286.

36 B. R a ja n , The D ark D an cer# Heinemann# London#

1959# p« 5 0 .
/ '

37 Anand L a l l , House a t Adampur# P e a r l P u b l i c a t i o n s

p r i v a t e L td .# Bombay,. 1956# p . 1 1 .

38 Ibid«#s pp« 7 4 -7 5 .
I

39 M alg o n k ar, A Bend i n t h e Ganges# pp» 2 7 7 -2 7 8 .

40 B. Rajan# The D ark D ancer# p . 3 8 .

41 Abbas# In g u ila b # p . 7 1 .

42 Sahgal# T h is Time o f M orning# p* 4 4 .

43 M algonkar, A Bend i n th e Ganges# p p . 8 6 -8 7 .

44 B habani B h a tta c h a ry a # . a Goddess Named Gold# Hind

P o c k e t Books L td .# I96 0 ,: p . 1 9 3 .

45 Mulk Raj An and# M orning F a c e # K u tab-popular#?

Bombay#. 1968#, p« 7 2 .

ib id .,: 518.

47 B habani B h a tta c h a ry a # So Many H un g ers# J a ic o

p u b li s h i n g House# Bombay# 1947# p . 4 1 .

48 N a ra y a n , W a itin g f o r th e Mahatma# p . 6 8 .

49 ' D. C. Home# Hungry Hearts# Kathashilpa#1Calcutta#

1965# p . 3 8 .
 269

50 B h a t ta c h a r y a , So Many H u n g e rs, p* 7 3 .

51 I b i d . , p . 212*

52 K hushw ant S in g h , I s h a l l n o t h e a r t h e n i g h t i n g a l e .
Jo h n C a l d e r , L o n d o n , 1959,* p . 6 .

53 M a lg o n k a r, A B end i n t h e G an g es, p p . 1 0 - 1 1 .

54 A b b as, I n q u i l a b , p* 1 8 7 .

53 D. C. Horae, F lo o d s A lo n g t h e G an g es, P o p u la r
P u b l i s h i n g H ouse.i Bombay, 1 9 5 3 , p . 3 2 .

56 A t t i a Ho s a i n . S u n l i g h t on a B ro k en C olum n, p . 1 2 4 .

57 D. C . Home, F lo o d s A lo n g t h e G a n g e s, p . 1 5 2 .

58 P ad rain i S e n g u p ta , Red H i b i s c u s , A s ia p u b l i s h i n g
H o u se , Bombay, 1 9 6 2 , p . 1 6 0 .

59 B. R a j a n . T he D ark D a n c e r,, p p . 1 1 4 -1 1 5 .

60 I b id ., p . 163.

61 K h u sh w an t S in g h , T r a i n t o P a k g c is ta n , F o u r S q u a re
B ook, L o n d o n , 1 9 6 l ,‘ p* 2 1 .

62 I b i d . , .1 0 8 .

63 Ib id ., 132.

64 M anohar M a lg o n k a r, D i s t a n t Crura, A s ia p u b l i s h i n g
H ouse,; Bombay, I9 6 0 ,, p . 2 0 7 .

65 S e n g u p ta , Red H i b i s c u s , p . 1 5 7 .

66 S a h g a l, S torm i n C h a n d ig a r h , p . 3 6 ,

67 M a lg o n k a r, A Bend i n t h e G a n g e s , p p . 3 4 8 - 3 4 9 .
 270

68 R. P ra w e r J h a b v a l a , To Whom She W ill* G eo rg e A lle n

& Unwin L t d . , London# 1955# pp® 4 3 -4 4 *

69 A t t i a H osain # S u n l i g h t on a B ro k en Colum n* p p ,
323—234®

70 K hushw ant S in g h , T r a i n t o P a k is ta n * p p . 4 7 -4 8 ,

71 R, p r a w e r J h a b v a l a , A B ackw ard P l a c e * J a i c o
P u b l i s h i n g H o u se , Bombay#! 1 9 6 5 , p , 13 0*

72 N a g r a j a n , C h r o n i c l e s o f K ed aram , p . 9 4 .

73 S a h g a l, A Tim e t o b e Happy* p . 26*

74 B h a t t a c h a r y a , A G oddess Named' G o ld * p . 123*

75 A n ita D e s a i, G ry # t h e P e a c o c k * Rupa P a p e r b a c k ,
Bombay,, p* 57*

76 J h a b v a l a , To Whom She W ill* p . 2 5 7 .

77 R® P ra w e r J h a b v a l a , Esmond i n I n d i a * G eo rg e A lle n
& Unwin L t d . , London# 1958# p p . 23 7 - 2 3 8 .

78 S a h g a l, S torm i n C h a n d ig a r h . p« 2 1 .

79 B h a tta c h a r y a # A G oddess Named G old#1 p . 1 1 9 .

80 M alg o n k ar# D i s t a n t Drum, p . 5 3 .

81 B h a tta c h a ry a , shadow fro m Ladakh# p p . 5 9 - 6 0 .

82 S a h g a l, S torm i n C h a n d ig a r h , p» 3 4 .

83 I b id ., p . 151. ' ‘

84 ■ N e r g is D a l a i , M i n a r i , P e a r l P u b l i c a t i o n s P v t . L t d .,.
Bombay, 195 7 , p . 5 0 .
85 Kam a l a M a rk a n d a y a , The C o f f e r Dams# • H am ish
H a m ilto n , L o n d o n, 1 9 6 9 , p . 1 8 ,

86 I b i d . , , p* 1 9 2 ,

87 D handa, s u rg e o n G oes t o Was, p p . 1 4 5 -1 4 6 ,

88 ~ J h a b v a l a , To Whom She W i l l , i p , 2 7 ,

89 S a h g a l, T h is Tim e o f M o rn in g ,1 p , 1 3 1 ,

90 B, R a ja n . Too Long i n t h e W est, p . 1 2 1 ,

r
91 S a h g a l, s to r m i n C h a n d ig a r h , p , 1 6 5 ,

92 A nand, M o rn in g F a c e , p , 4 5 7 ,

93 B h a b a n i B h a t ta c h a r y a , M u sic f o r M o h in i, J a i c o
P u b l i s h i n g House#; Bombay, 1 9 5 2 , p , 156®

94 I b id ., p . 223.

95 D. G0 Home, H ungry H e a r t s , p , 4 2 .

96 A n ita D e s a i, V o ic e s i n t h e C i t y , P e t e r Owen,
L o n d o n , 1 9 6 5 , p* 3 4 ,

97 D. C . Home, So M anvt So G a l l a n t ! C u r r e n t Book

H o u se, Bombay, 1951,, p , 7 4 ,

98 D, C . Home, H ungry H e a r t s , p* 6 1 .

99 I b id ., p , 60.

100 I b id ,,, p , 42,

101 B h a t t a c h a r y a , Shadow fro m L a d a k h , p , 7 2 ,

102 I b id .,; p . 82.

 272

103 Ib id ® # pp® 1 9 0 - 1 9 1 .

104 S a h g a l, s to rm i n C h a n d ig a r h # p® 175®

105 S ah g al# T h is li m e o f M o rn in g # p® 1 8 S .
 273

CHAPTER VII

THE PRINCELY ORDER

The bloodless ©vent of the total transfer of power

from princes to people is such on absorbing phenomenon

as cannot pass unnoticed by writers seeking to project

the image of our country on the international screen.

Several Indo-Anglian novelists have devoted their attent­

ion to the analysis of the ways of life of princes and

their fortunes# They have also dealt with the great

political metamorphosis of our contemporary times viz.#

the process of the merging of Princely States like tribu­

tary rivers into the vast ocean of the Indian Union,

Their attitudes are different. Manohar Malgonkar, Mulk
Raj An and and Huthi Singh devote one full novel -jc.uh,
each, which indicates the measure of importance they
attach to this aspect of Indian life. Santha Rama Rau,
Kamala Markandaya# Attia Hosain and Anand Lall use the
theme of princely life to serve, more or less# as backgr­

ound only to support their main purpose. They chiefly

depict the plight of princes in the post-Independence era.

Mulk Raj Anand and Manohar Molgonkar suggest that

very few princes could have had pure affection and solic­

itous care from their parents as commoners* children

usually get. In Anand*s Private Life of an Indian Prince,
the Maharaja, Victor, allows his first tika to die by
 274

wilfully withholding the necessary medical treatment

from his ailing child at the instance of his mistress
Ganga Dasi *1 Victor himself could not get the love of
his parents in his childhood. Dr, Shankar, while tracing
his obsession for Gangi, ventures a guess s "I don't know
if you were loved enough in your childhood, Victor's
reply was « "Not much,"2 Much of the tyranny and obse­
ssion that had once rctged in Princely States could perhaps
be thus explained, Victor could not give love to his son
Indrajit. Not only that but he felt priviledged to hector
the boy whenever he so wished. 3 Malgonkar*s Abhay, in
The Princes, also could not get the love of his parents.
He had to do 'mujara* in their presence. There was always
the living but opaque curtain of a medley of.servants
between a prince and his parents, Abhay does not feel
that his childhood was the happiest time of his life#
Abhay remarks t "Perhaps i t is not given to any child
brought up by a hoard of ayahs and slipervised by a grim
Anglo-Indian nanny to look back upon a happy childhood," 4
There is a rigid time-table for visiting his royal parents
and he often feels an 'intruder' even in the life of his
C _
parents, Abhay is not allowed to select his own friends.
This shows that childhood bereft of parental love was often
the lot of some princes#

Pew princes had the right tjpe of tutors who would

 275

boldly mould the characters of th e ir royal pupils with

true insight, understanding and sympathy, but Malgonkar

shows, in the Princes, how fortunate Abhay was in this

respect, Mr, Moreton alone treates Abhay as a child, not

merely as the Yuvaraj as a ll others do, Ms attitude is ,

psychologically speaking, healthy and honest and consequ-®

ently his i s a soothing and normalising influence <*• 'the

greatest single influence* as Abhay*s companion, guide,

7
mentor. However,1 Anand's Victor in Private Life of an

Indian Prince,1 shows scant respect for his tutor, Munshi

Mithan Lai,' who la te r on,becomes his private secretary*

To Victor, he i s 'a court fool in disguise* and he nick*-

8
names him 'Mian Mithu '* How can princes grow into fine,*

normal,' healthy rulers, in such circumstances ?_ Thus,1

Anand and Malongkar indicate how princes had to b attl^

against the hampering influences af th e ir unwise,1 reaction-?

ary and insular environment of their early l i f e . HUthi

Singh also points out how princes,' instead ©f being brought

up under sunny, paternal solicitous care, came under the

fata l influence of palace servants. In Maura, Maura, wh©

i s violently perturbed over the gulf between Derry's

sexuality and his sexlessness,' thinks of making Derry a

eunuch, but he realises i t is f u tile to give his from to

Derry, because their destinies are different* "Come, le t

me clasp you tm my heart. I , who all but destroyed you I

Let me mother you, hug you* Be my child J Por one brief

 276

moment know me as your mother.....". 9 This shows how

baby princes use* to be weaned away from their royal

mothers and some hired ayahs and governesses had to fill

the bill# and who, sometimes,- came t© have full control -

over the royal infants and their possessive instinct

sometimes played havoc.

The I ndo-Anglian novel generally reflects the failure

©f the marriages of some princes and the great amount of

misery and wretchedness emanating from their sexual obse­

ssions and aberrations. Malgonkar shows that marriage, to

princes,- is a means for asserting or elevating their socio­

political status. Though Hiroji# in The princes,1 does not

like to marry the girl with the white foot, he has to give
in to duty, A -prince had to sacrifice private desires in

to duty. A prince had to sacrifice private desires in the

interest of the welfare of the State. He tells Abhay that
marriage for them means a sacred thing * it is not a private,
10
purely personal matter at all, it is a duty, an obligation.
Abhay's parents have reached the same conclusion that marr­
iage is an obligation » of course, from different angles.

His mother tells him,’ "Marriage does not have to have love*
not our kind of marriage. Our marriages are not personal
11
affairs but matters of duty."

Malgonkar suggests how not to be lurgd into the

illicit embraces of alluring concubines was wellnigh imp©-

ssible for most princes, whose sex-life was marked by jerky

 277

whimsicality and spasmodic - sentimentality. Abhay# in

The Princes, accepts Zarina as mistress and respects her

wished but insults Kama!a in so doing. His conscience is

enmeshed in the morass of sensuality toy forming the segre*.
12
gated compartments of sex (Zarina) and family (Kam ala)•
However# he realises the inc comparability of Kamala*s love
and# 1 in a supreme moment of fulfilment# they float on the

waves of conjugal communion and angelic harmony. Kamala#'

usually docile# firmly tells him that she wants to be by

his side. Heyl/ords “I want to remain here. X am your
wife. It is my duty to remain by your side. It is also
13
my right." - remind us ©f Shakespeare's Portia insisting
on her wifely rights before a perplexed Brutus. These
also reflect the typical Indian conviction that a wife
should not leave her husband in times of difficulty and

stress.

Mulk Raj Anand shows how unhappy the married life of

princes sometimes is. In Private Life of an Indian Prince.'

Victor has a wicked marital and sexual life <• despite his

three marriages and numberless amorous exploits. This

reflects the general situation that prevailed in the
States marriages were royally# but not suitable, arranged.
Victor hits upon the source of this malaise when he wistful
\
II y refers to his brief attachment for Indira s "But
unfortunately# she was too good for me# because I was s©
14
bad." Huthi Singh als© depicts a similar situation. In
 278

Maura# Shevanti *s carnal c'Vavings# repressed and frust­

rated# are so aflame that she does not care even if Hanut
15
thinks her a prostitute# “After all she was his wife."

This shows that the inflammable spirit of princes# nouri­

shed on the lecherous atmosphere of the zenana and the

court# could hardly tee satiated by artless#- hotele#< proud,

puritanical princesses# Sant ha Rama Rau# too# depicts

the failure of royal marriages# because considerations

other than human love constitute their hollow basis# In

Remember the House# the Maharaja of Kalipur and his

Maharani are an ill-matched couple# Jay*s own married

life is all a mess# It has to end in a divorce as it

does# This indicates that domestic happiness is a

special boon which was mostly denied to princes. It is a

sad commentary on their life that the royal couples could

not gain happiness together in the intimacy of matrimony#

though both#- as individuals# would have deserved happiness.

Mulk Raj Anand points out how some princes learn

their lesson of true love at great cost and belatedly and

realise the difference between a concubine*s physical

attraction and a wife's faithful^ all-sacrificing love#

In private Life of an Indian prince# Victor is Compelled

to accept this when Gangi treacherously leaves him for

good i "Oh# it is a mad# black torture to think of this

faithless woman whom I love i Why couldn't I love Indira?

17
Why did I have to fall in love with a whore ?"
 279

Companions of weal leave princes in their time of woe.

Even Dr. Shankar leaves Victor in the asylum 1 The
tender picture of Indira going to Poona to look after her
mad husband reflects the best Indian tradition of exempl-
ary womanhood.

Huthi Singh shows that sometimes love works miracles

in the lif e of even a profligate prince pampered by prost­

itu tes. The butterfly of Hanut *s heart rests on the flower

of Ritha's love and i t transfigures his base self. Marri­

age. to Hanut and Ritha. is a perfect union of minds and

bodies. Ritha*s heart is hurt by the fact that not Hanut

but his sword is sent for the wedding ceremony. Princes

used to send their swords when they married'commoners.

18
Huthi Singh touches on this custom faithfully.

Malgonkar indicates that i t was a time-honoured

custom to present concubines to princes - even in their

early adolescence. Hiroji, in The Princes, was offered
his f ir s t concubine when he was only 15. He keeps away
from his wife and enjoys the company of his concubines -

Bibibai. Amina and Sherawathy. The size of the harem and

the gun-salute had come to be regarded as status-symbols

in many States. Abhay is fortunate to escape the eMl

custom of concubinage, which once had i t s advantages but,

to a modern mind, i t appears highly immoral and objection-

able. 19
 280

Quite a few Maharajas# as the Imio-Anglian writers

show#- considered i t th e ir privilege to have affairs -

adventures in the jungle of sex l Mulk Raj4s Victor#

after having enjoyed the most intimate company ©f Mrs.■

Russell# boldly creates a scandal by his affair with

Miss Bunti Russell. Dr. Shankar sarcastically comments

that the only conquests l e f t to these princelings were

the conquests over women in a hopeless country lik e India'

where the place of women i s s t i l l governed by 'Manu

20
Srariti* and the Hindu Mitakshra Law*. Anand shows

th a t the lechery of a prince could create a veritable helll

The existence of many Ranis and concubines in a princely

harem posed the problem of succession and the air was

thick with poison# bloodshed, adultery# bastardy# change­

lings# revenge# murder and what not 1 In Private Life of

an Indian Prince# Ganga Dasi *s conspiracies against Rani

21
Indira and her sons can be cited as an instance in point.

The sex-obsession of weak-willed 'angelic * princes# as

suggested by Anand, invariably landed them on the dunghills

of garbage i During intervals of separation from Ganga#

j

Victor always seeks substitutes. Pratap Singh has to

rescue him from a washerman who has caught Victor red-

handed with his (the washerman's) wife i In order to

wreak revenge on Ganga# he indulges in wild sexual orgies

and not -a virgin.or a rupee is safe. At the mere hint

that Victor i s approaching village women flee immediately

 281

23
because of his notoriety as a woman**hunter. Malgonkarl

princes are monogamists an# their affairs are also restr­

ict©# to a small number* Nergis Dalai *s Tejpore# in

Minari# Shirks marriage to enjoy full freedom in woman**

hunt, Huthi Singh's Hamit is more adventurous - he auda­

ciously maintains a very large harm i

Huthi Singh indicates that maintenance of a harem

was almost a common feature in some big Indian States,
Ihe queer world of an outsize# harem is graphically pres­
ented in Maura - concubines and their petty quarrels#

their acceptance of bribes# their jealousy and snobbery

even in this abysmal world# their affectionate tenderness

for Maura under the garb of casualness and gay banter,

Anand and Huthi Singh show how clever and attractive

concubiness hold the hearts of their princely owners in

th ra ll. Victor's Ganga Dasi and Hamit's Ritha illu strate

the point. In Maura Ritha is every inch a princess# but
Panchi grudgingly admits Ritha*s superiority by comment­

ing that she is not an educated woman like Ritha, She

says s “I hadn't a home or parents, I was brought up in
- 24
a harm." Some princes were tragic victims of their
fate inasmuch as their wild sex-life sent even their daug­
hters - of course# illegitimate ones - to harms. Shevan-
t i is discarded by Hamit and Panchi - his illegitimate
daughter - is relegated to a cell in Hanut's harm i
Harm girls are like caged birds - unable to relish the
 282

idea of freedom wfeio-h which# to wingless b£:Ms# spells

fatality. Huthi Singh describes how concubines felt
shocked ifi they had to quit.; the harem. Their existence
was batty - loveless# lightless# meaninglessa The girls
in Banut's harem celebrate their last day in the harem by
singing and dancing with amity and jollity * trul## a
25
touching scene# their swan-song 1

Huthi Singh hints at man‘s sexuality as a source of

sorrows# Maura# being sexless# has no attachments s n®
ties# no sorrows. He feels that being a eunuch is not
such a great misfortune - sex is not all. He is sure
people will have to realise the futility of sex some day.
Huthi Singh has aptly shown, through Maura's words, the
inter-relation of sex and mind : "The mind is powerless
against sex. i t is.moulded by sex. And what hope can
there even tee of the moulded moulding the moulder ?"26

Indo-Anglian novelists show how princesses and others

connived at the love-affairs of princes# who have to have
comparatively tough and wild women to work off their
passions upon. Thus concubinage had come to be regarded
as a must by all concerned. Shevanti, in Huthi Singh*s
Maura# defends her keeping pretty women in the palace.
"Prom our earliest days we are told that men like a littfe
fun# and that we shouldn't really mind if they have an
affair now and again. It helps to keep their poison
down....." 27 Not only Shevanti but Indira# in Private
 283

Life of an Indian Prince#, and Abhay*s mother an# Kamala,

in The Princes# connive at the affairs of their respective

husbands. Anand Lall describes the sexual exploits of a

royal dotard in The House at Adampur. Raja Muzaffar Khan,
a well preserve# rogue of sixty five# is wretchedly brazen
in his wornan-*hunting. He indulges in gorging the body of
Ranu# a woman young enough to be his youngest child l The

height of banality is reached when he asks Ranu to sleep

with Ram Hath,- for he wishes to enjoy the company of Ranu *s
, , , 28
fra end.

Santha Rama Rau suggests how feought women redeem

themselves with supreme loyalty Mid self~effopement. In

Remember the House# Jay’s hollow married lif e has crumbled

and he is drawn to whisky and woman. His mistress# .Sund-

aribai# a simple# sturdy# sweet-voiced# religious-minded#

self-effacing Gujarati woman, serves as an anchor in Jay’s

' 29
shaken lif e and stands by him in his crisis# These
Sundaribais# Aminas and Zohras conjure up touching p»artraits

in the treacherous world around them. Courtesans were

regarded important items of cultural paraphernalia in the
bygone Lucknow-life of Nawabs# In Attia Hosain’s Sunlight
on a Broken Column# Laila tries in vaiii to ape her father’s
courtly salutation to Mushtari Bai to whom her father pays
glowing compliments. "An English governess cannot'teach
30
her as you taught Us lessons in etiquette and courtesy.“
Mushtari Bai is not a cruel# sensual money-sucker. She
 284

is otherwordly and charitable. She represents the best

in the tradition of the courtesan’s world - nobility in

depravity6

Malgonkar indicates how princes contributed to the

complex tribe of bastards by consorting with countless

concubines. In The Princes* Charudatt‘s character poses

the question of bastardy in Indian States. Bastards

often took to treachery as their legitimate tool# almost

shamelessly# to redress their wrongs. Though Hiroji *s

first-born, Charudatt is subjected to social stigma and

even Kanak Chand# a chamar can yell the word 'Bastard*

31
into his ears. The oceans of anger bottled within him

made him seek .revenge in an unsportsmanlike manner - the

revenge of sheep# indeed 1 The world does not forget

that Charudatt is a bastard and he also does not forget

32
that he is one and unfortunately behaves like one.

Malgonkar stresses that princes almost desperately

struggled to achieve some speciality to monopolise the

attention and interest of white rulers. In the case of

HLroji and Begwad# in The Princes# it is the tiger-hunt.

He has evolved an elaborate# fool-proof, clockwork feand-

33
obast for it. Malgonkar# himself a Keen hunter, given

a stirring account of hunting in artistic terms and the

bygone princely world with all its bravado# sportsman-

spirit, reckless courage# astute cunning and imp ee© able

mastery and above all# ’simple old world dignity* and

 285

code of ^honour - all this passes vividly before our mind's

eye. Malgohkar and Anand show how hunting afforded faci­
lities for carrying favour with white sahibs. It increased
their royal dignity and decreased their funds - but. then#’
princes were never worried about it and borrowed blindly
and levied illegal taxes of all descriptions like Nazarana*
Motorana* Elephantana etc. 3 4 The finances of Begwad «• as
also of Shampur-were in an irretrievably messy condition. 35
Anand suggests that hunting orgies were often sexual orgies.
princes and their guests were only superficially interested
in hunting. A Hiroji, of course* would be an exception.
In private Life of an Indian Prince* Anand gives a satirical
account of the pseudo-hunt, popatlal and Kurt Landauer are
vying with each other* to the chagrin of Bool Chand to win
Gangi *s favour. Victor is laying a bait for the more-than-
willing Mrs. bane* enraging Mr. bane* despite his deformity,
Watkins and the Bells are practising self-deception that
they are keen hunters® Only But a* the real hunter*1 is
really engaged in staging a panther-shoot. 36 Anand
describes the machan rather at length. One might suspect
that it is probably meant for a Western audience. Indians
do not need such an elaborately worded explanation for stfch
an ordinary thing as a machan.37

Indo-Anglian novelists stress the insane extravagance

of princes. Santha Ram Rau's Renember the House* hints at
the fate ©f the princes other than the crown princes in
Indian States* especially after Independence® Jay* the
 286

younger prince of Kalipur# is an amiable wastrel# whose

party on the New Year's Eve in 1947 is his Swan song. As

Baba feels# such parties seemed to tee out of place in the

context of changing circumstances. Owing to Independence
38
being around the corner. The novelist brings out the
senselessness of the extravagance of royalty. Jay spends
excessively after races and parties and drinks. His New
Year party and the hang-over party are lavishly thrown.
She describes# quite a few times# Daulat Sing stiffly
39
hovering behind Jay with a bottle of champagne. Jay#

a confirmed drunkard, regards whisky as more reliable t

than friends. He is a staunch opponent of Prohibition.

He comments s "It *s absurd - and cheeky - this policing

40
of morals." The Maharani of Kalipur has her saris made

for her in Paris which, indeed# as Pria and Baba think# is

41
'unpatriotic and in poor taste*. Kamala Mark an aya also

depicts how Prince Jumbo# in Possession# wallows in the

siikan mire of luxury. He# like Jay# rocks himself

constantly in the opulent whirligig. The emptiness of
life does not come in the way of his buoyancy 'that had

not deserted him during the long sad ritual of divestment

42
that had been his lot*. The figure of Jamteo, moving
from one gallery of art to another without understanding
a thing about art and artist# just to be uptodate and
fashionable# is a sad comment on those living on the

surface. His own words are full ©f unconscious irony :

"Must move with the times# Midear. Even if one does not
 287

43
understand 'em." Even i f i t is granted th at princes

had a right to squander th e ir money as they did# i t has

to fee admitted that in a country of teeming millions

and starving thousands# th e ir extravagance was an unpaf*

«?donafele moral crime# No wonder people treated such

extravagant princes with scant sympathy when they fe ll

on evil days#

The Indo-Anglian novel reflects the prejudices of

princes which indicate th e ir narrowmindedness and lack

of a sense of justice# Princes were a class apart and

lived in voluntary segregation and tight-lipped insulat-

t

ity . Dazzlingly forbidding# they were practically cut

off from all real contact with commoners. As members

of the top-most stratum of the Indian social hierarchy#

they imprisoned themselves in the shell of parochialism

and harboured deep prejudices against the ways of simple

people# commoners# castes# breeding# dress# nationalists

and th e ir p o litic al agitation and movement.

Malgonkar depicts how Hiroji# in the Princes# hates

nationalists the most. To him# they are the near enemies

trying to subvert the loyalty of the people towards th e ir

rulers and keen on grabbing whatever was le f t by the

British. "The Nationalists i " My father said with a

sneer. ’Goondas led by traders and lawyers l 1,44 He

derives satisfaction from the grim struggle between the

nationalists and the British. His prejudices against

 283,

the British come to be diluted. The novelist illustra­

tes how princes reduced the national movement t© sordid

personal levels and believed that the movement for self-

rule was motivated fey' a desire to pay back personal insu­

lts. In The Princes, Hiroji traces its origin to the

insults heaped upon congress-leaders as individuals fey

the British e.g. Gandhiji was thrown out of a railway

carriage reserved for the whites and Motilal Nehru was

45
black-balled in the club at Allahabad. Malgonkar and

Anand show that Hiroji and Victor love those who protect

and respect their heritage and hate those who are bent

upon destroying it. They cannot brook opposition and-

have no patience for upstarts like Kanak Chand, Pandit

Gofeind Das and the like who, after Independence, represent

their new rulers1 raal-administration. They brush aside

the hint that they should give some sort of representation

to the people in the administration of their States.

They do not care even if persons like Kanak Chand and

Gofeind Das do a lot of harm to them. They are not prep-

ared to win them over or suffer them. Their attitudes

to congressmen in power are representative.of those of

many princes.

Markandaya*s JUmfeo, in Possession, also has preju­

dices against the people of low birth and the rise of

- I

the upstart. He regrets that the princes had to fight

for posts against congresswallas — the 'riff-raff1 -

47
and stake their status. He bemoans that the upstarts
 289

7 48
are suddenly coming in to moneyed p o sitio n s* . After the

Accession of Sham Pur* GokLnd Das* the p raja Mandal ■

Boss* in Private Life of an Indian prince* becomes the

ta rg e t of V ictor's venom s "The ass i How can he rule ?

Brother-in-law* sprung up from nowhere i " In the same

novel* the Raj Mata, shut out from c iv iliz e d life* expr­

esses her feudal contempt for mere commoners, now the

ru lers of Independent India, toy saying th a t they are

•not as kind as Angrezi Sarkar'* and are 'mean, low

50
people* sprung up from nowhere l" I n d ir a 's veneration

for Sardar Patel enrages the Raj Mata t "This Sardar -

of which State was he a Sardar ? He looks lik e an angry

b u ll from the pictures of him* And his dhoti i s much

51
too short fo r h is legs 1" In A ttia Hosain*s Sunlight

on a Broken Column* Saira expresses her hatred for the

new ru le rs . "What can you expect," she would jib e,

"Where a government i s run by people who wear dhoti t©

52
partxes and put th e ir d irty fe e t upon sofas ?" The

Maharani of Kalipur* in Santha Rama Rau *s Remember the

House* i s also a prey to such prejudices. She says

proudly : "We w ill t e l l these congresswallahs, these

53
dhoti-wallas what our people think. They tr u s t u s . . . "

The simple dress of the congressmen has come in fo r

brutal and blind criticism from princes and th e ir fami­

lies* Anand shows how princes could il l- d ig e s t th e ir

loss and were prejudiced against the new ru le rs . Victor

taunts Popatlal with the breakdown of the administration

 290

in Shampur since the Aecession. Popatlal reto rts that ■

i t i s the direct result of the past misrule of the

Maharaja, Victor expresses his scorn for the Praja

Mandal and deals a personal Mow to popatlal * "...The

54
Banias are in power*'* The personal 'dig* is *the most

unkindest cut of a l l." I t i s not cricket. This indie a-*

tes how princes and th e ir families could not stomach

th e ir defeat and th e ir scorn for the commoner was aggra­

vated, This is what most of the royal families must

have f e lt lik e.

Though an important aspect of Indian l i f e , religion

seems to have keen l e f t well-nigh untouched ley the Indo-

Anglian novelists dealing with the Princely Order,

Malgonkar shows how princes turned to religion for

social stamp and for solace, Hiroji, in The Princes,

spends much to establish his right to wear the sacred

thread and offer prayers in th e temples lik e high caste

Hindus, Religion i s a tangiMe, living matter of faith

with Hiroji - 'Matant, noisy and almost an orgiastic

55
affair*. Abhay*s mother i s deeply religious. Her

religion i s a simple and almost personal affair. She

has tears of humility in her eyes while at prayers, and

55
then, even Abhay feels lik e an intruder. Princes

surrender to religion desperately, probably because not

many princes are good husbands. Hiroji offers, now and

then, a Mahapooja for one reason or another e.g. the

 291

failure of the Cripps Mission, for a baby boy when Kamala

expected, for the naming ceremony of the boy, 5.7 In his
last days# he has been engaged either in hunting ©r in
pooja - a surprising combination# indeed i Religion is#
thus# practised by princely families either for propitat-
ing the deities or for seeking solace in times of sorrow,

Malgonkar has described# in detail, the Bedar

family treasure - Jamdarkhana - and its guards in The
princes# because the family treasure constitutes an imp­
ortant feature of princely life. It was hoarded in the
patalpat fort# where their family gods als© were still
there, Patalpat was like 'the chessboard in the nether
58
world*. The Bedar prince could go there three times
in his life - as yawaraj# as ruler and in an emergency.
It had been faithfully guarded by a handful of the Ramo­
shi s for the last 200 years. The procedure of access te
it was such as even the prince might not remember its
route and exact location. It constituted the plunder
of the five Bedar generations - loaded with the groan
of the victims. It was like a 'Mausoleum* and Abhay
59
felt nausea and claustrophobia. The Ramoshi guards#
loyal and ignorant# still lived in the 18th century, T©
them the Sarkar either meant the white Badshah from Bila-
yat or the Mughal Badshah 1 It left the Ramoshi leader-
blinking that there would be no more Bedar King and
that Abhay was the last. Yes# they were not worried
about their maintenance. They had implicit faith that
60
the Bedar would never forsake than. This unflinching.
 292

child-like loyal faith in the Bedars endears them to us

- a tender Malgonkar touch i

Huthi Singh describes the fabulous treasure of the

House of Savah at Anjala. The family god was there and

the treasure was guarded by the Minas - savage# loyal#

brave and formidable. Anjala was a labyrinth on a soli-

tary peak. Hanut used to visit it once a year and

bring back with him precious diamonds giving him ten

times more than the annual State Revenue, The Minas

were brave and their exercises were manly. They did not

marry but stole away small boys to keep their tradition

alive. They were married to the *Rock * at the age of 12

and visited it# one night every year. They were origi­

nally Rajputs and desired to be restored to Chitor as

rulers. Hanut defeated them and made them accept

63
their new life. The Minas# like the Ramoshis in The

Princes# mark their exodus from the primitive world

under the princes and join the commoners in the new#

strange world t.

In Attia Hosain's Sunlight on a Broken Column#

Ramona told her schoolmates about the State treasure-

house situated in the heart of a hill and its ‘secret

approach through' a maze was known only to its hereditary

guardians. Giant Negroes# bearing on their cheeks stra­

nge, secret, branded signs*. There was in it a strange

neckldee of a concubine who had been walled alive many

centuries ago by a jealous ruler. Its large central

64
ruby was said to drip blood on her death anniversary.
 293

Thus* strange legends and brave tribal clans lend a

mysterious and attractive charm to the princely treasure-

housesa

Malgonkar# Hunthi Singh and Santha Rama Rau, incid­

entally# analyse the relations between princes and their

heirs - indicating the' generation gap. In The princes#

Hiroji belongs to the lost world and Abhay to the world

to come* In the critical age of transition# they often

find each other in the opposite camps. Abhay says# "I

was youth# progressive# righteous; he wgs age# reaction-?*

ary# tlabooridden. ... . he was a giant caught in the snare

of contemporary Values but trying to be true to the val&es

65
of a lost world." Abhay1s is the voice of sanity and

realism# but .it does not have the convincing ring. It

is hesistant# tentative# impulsive. It belongs to a

period of transition. It very often reflects only the

sceptical attitude of an intellectual passive# indiff­

erent# listless. Abhay Sals that the treaties guaranteed

by Queen Victoria are not sacrosanct. But* to Hiroji

and his like# the treaties are 'the gods of the Indian
•i
princes". With the passage of time Abhay eagerly

leans fatherward - becomes more of a Bedar - with unfli­

nching devotion and intimate understanding. It is a

happy coincidence that both have brought# between them­

selves# the duelling pistols# which shows how like each

67
other they basically are. Huthi Singh throws light on
 294

the relative efficiency of the older and younger genera­

tions of princes as administrators. He seems to indicate

that the older generation was more competent in adminis-

j t rati on than the younger one. In Maura* Hanut feels that

he has not managed well since his father's death. Not

even one department is functioning honestly or effeciently.
He thinks he has to rule with an iron hand, otherwise he
must give up. “I think my father was not a wise man, hut
68
he was a very wise ruler."

indo-Anglian novelists examine the nature of the

relationship between princes and their entourages from

different angles. Mulk Raj Anand shows the last years

of the rule of a decadent prince whose personal servants

were down-right flatteres. In Private Life of an Indian

Prince, Victor's Secretary, Munshi Mithanlal, bears an

assload of humiliations for money and leads his former

pupil to the door of a courtesan. Pratap Singh also

humours the Prince. Dr. Shankar is different but not

effective. HLs conscience i s not dead but somnolent.

The members of Victor's entourage represent the most

ugly bygone tradition of fawning courtiers. This is so,

especially because Anand is a purposeful writer. The
members of the entourage do not come into their own.
The State astrologer does not even care to cover his
servile flattery under any coating. "The hour and the
moment is ever auspicious for you. Anftnd your path's
69
strewn, with flowers all the way®'* Dikker Rao *s tame
 295

v i s i t to Shevanti and id le promises to help her,' in Hut hi

70
Singh's Maura, support th e point* Anand reveals how-

some princes indulge in open love-making in th e presence

of th e ir superior servants even. Dr. Shankar, in

Private Life of an Indian prince, has to play a compul­

sory witness to the amorous embraces of Victor and Gangi.

Though educated in England, Dr. Shankar has not conquered

the demure p art of his nature which i s In d ia 's and feefes

71
embarrassed. This shows how self-resp ect could not be

preserved fey anyone serving an Indian prince. We often

find princes in Indian fic tio n directing a l l th e ir anger

against th e ir servants, Victor almost b ru ta lly asked

Bool Chand to c lea r out and abused him as 'Mr, Snorter-

donkey Bool Chand* and 'f o o l' when Bool Chand fa ile d in
- 72
his mission with India and popatlal. Ik}and points out

how a c o u r tie r 's l i f e i s cursed with f u t i l i t y . Dr.

Shankar regrets his years spent in the service of Victor.

He had cloaked his desire for power and leisu rb ly l i f e

under the excuse of paying off th e Maharaja's debts

incurred fo r his B ritish education. He couid have served

73 -
the v illa g e s.a s a doctor, instead. HLs penetrating

analysis underlines the meaningless existence of toadies

and s e tt e lite s around the Indian princes. Huthi Singh

suggests th a t royal palaces were breweries of vagaries,

veintskte Bedlams, where behaving lik e a mad-cap was a way to win

social respect. In Maura, Rani Shevanti *s maid servant

thinks th a t rudeness i s s ta te c ra ft. She remembers her

 296

fath e r’s advice. "If you want the world to call you sane
74
and respect you, act as though you were mad.“ The

novelist also stresses the insecurity of service of the

personal staff of princes. When Dikker R®o is asked by

Ritha to produce the pimp who had brought her into Savah,

he expresses his righteous indignation. “These people

would drive anyone mad. I don't think I have spent a

single day here free from anxiety and f e a r . . . . . I t is

impossible to know what i s going to happen to ©ne in

75
the next moment."

Mulk Raj Anand suggests how villagers were tixed

of forced labour and poverty. In Private Life of an

Indian prince, whenever there was a hunt, any servant of

the Maharaja called thousand of them away from th e ir

fields for forced labour to work as beaters and camp-

followers. They, therefore, join the Communists in armed

76
revolt against the Maharaja. Again, in Shampur, Somnath

and his friends lead a procession of villagers for the

abolition of the ille g a l taxes like Elephant ana and

77
Motrana. Malgonkar brings out the climactic reaction

of the down-trodden against the mad oppression and forced

labour. Buta releases words lik e bullets and answeres

78
Victor back. "No more beqar, Maharaja." This defiance

was spurred on by ‘the s p irit of the new times’. The

Mahatma had made men out of faceless clumps of clay.

Indo-Anglian novelists have looked at Englishmen in

 297

princely states from different angles, ' Malgonkar's

Moreton, in The princes# i s a noble person who exercises

a healthy influence on Abhay.- He i s sensitive and has

79
deep regard for Indian sentiments. He can understand

In d ia's poverty and has real compassion for the down-

- 80
’
trodden. The novelist also -shows how some Englishmen

indulged in nefarious activ ities such as smuggling,

exploiting their position as members of the ruling race.

Farren (Punch), Watson and others worked as 'respectable'

smugglers and took away the jewels and money of the Indian

princes out of India and deposited in 'numberless accounts*.

Hiroji i s eager to have a deal with punch. He does not

bother whether or not i t i s moral or legal to do so.

81
Abhay dislikes i t . Anand shows how from generation to

generation the fear of the Englishman is drilled into the

minds of Indians through insults and in ju ries. In the

pre-19 42 period, he was an ft$k**wa quantity - silen t,

unpredictable, remote, non-human, hot-tempered and auth­

o ritativ e and the symbol of the unlimited powers of the

Sarkar. Dr. Shankar, in Private Life of an Indian Prince,

i s , therefore, afraid of meeting Col. Jevons, when Victor's

82
scandalous affair with Bunti is exposed. Anand illu s ­

tra te s how English officers were given to bribes. Col*

Burton of the p o litical Department does not in s is t on

Ganga Dasi *s exile, afte r Mrs. Burton has received a

precious necklace as a present from'Victor. He points

out that some white men, owing to weakness or wickedness,

 298

allowed their wives to be treated as playthings by black

princes. In The Princes* Minnie is spreading her wiles

on Snappy to lure him into a big 'business-deal* of jewels

' Q A

- not without Punch's knowledge,

Malgonkar suggests how most of the Indian princes

were well ahead of British India in adopting repressive

measures to nip the nationalist movement in the bud.

Hiroji# in The Princes* is no exception. He prohibits
the sale of photographs of Tilak and Gandhi# dismisses
the white-capped students from school and publicly flogs
persons for shouting nationalist slogans. People were
suppressed because they were backward and 'had not acqu­

ired the political consciousness of th e ir brethren in the

85
rest of the country'. The novelist also points out how

even after Independence some villagers - particularly in

trib al areas (e.g. Ramoshis) - do not know that the

country is free. Some others s t i l l regret that old times

cannot return l According to Abhay's analysis# the old

rule meant# to them# ready justice# many holidays# pomp

and festivals# drink and dance and absence of income-taxi

The present rule means joylessness, dearness# prohibition

and income-tax l Many people look back upon the princely
86
rule with a sentimental longing.

Mulk Raj Anand shows how the commoner in princely

states was living at a sub-human level - that he.was
allowed to exist was regarded in its e lf a great concession
granted by the ruling class. But the advent of Independ-
 299

ence awakened in his heart the -sense of self-confidence

and self-respect# Anand has delineated the f i r s t signs

oF> th is important change :in the attitude of the commoner

who had grown aware of his newly achieved freedom# Buta#

in Private Life of an Indian Prince, defies Victor and

87
refuses to work without being adequately paid# Sardar

Vallabhbhai Patel brings hone to Victor the change in

the p o litical climate of the country through the instance

of Dhebarbhai who was insultingly driven out of Jamnagar

by the Jam Sahib and who had la te r on risen to be the

Chief Minister of a State ten times larger than the

- 88
kingdom of the Jam Sahib# This shows the triumph of

the commoner over the blind forces of opposition. Mulk

Raj Anand shows how people could raise th e ir voices boldly

against the tyranny of princes* In private Life of an

Indian Prince* the people of Shampur are boldly dananding

the release of the Praja Mandal Leaders and shouting the

" 89
slogans of 'Quit Sham Pur* against the Maharaja,

Obviously, th is situation was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi

and other leaders. Also, in Santha Rama Rau*s Ronember

the House, the people pressing for Independence cause

a lo t of embarrassment to the Maharaja of Kalipur whom

they yell down by roaring slogans - 'Mahatma Gandhi ki

Jai i " 'Jawaharlal Nehru ki jfai i * This indicated the

direction of the wind, but the Maharaja had drugged him­

self into believing that the people were loyal to him

and that they would, support him in a political' crisis#

 300

Praja Mandais made important contributions in

hastening the process of Accession of th e ir States te

the Indian Union. These were not always led by foolish

people lik e Kanak Chand or Gobind Das. Such names as

Dhebarbhai# Balvantrai and others ris e before our mind's

eye# when we think of praja Mandals in princely States,

But neither Anand bor Malgonkar does fu ll, justice to

Praja Mandals# who# according to them# were fortunate but

faceless masses of humanity led by people lik e Kanak

Ghand or Gobind Das# who were either foolish or mean or

both® This i s not true. Their treatment i s not satis*

fying, Gobind Das and Kanak Ghand are caricatures only.

Apart from this# th e ir description of praja Mandals is

based on historical facts and they sympathise with the

people# on the whole# in th e ir suffering,

Malgonkar shows how some of the headstrong princes

were once striving to form a third force, in The Princes#

Hiroji informs Abhay that they have been busy forming a

th ird force which i s intended to be a counter*weight t®

the I.N.Congress and the Muslim League. There were

rumours that the p o litic al Department was at the back

of a ll th is. Abhay knows that no such thing as the

th ird force can oorae up because of the internal rival*

ries and bickerings of the Indian princes. Hiroji#

however# has fu ll faith in i t s emergence, in January#

1946, the Chamber of Princes was given an anaesthetic

assurance th at the rights and tre a tie s of the princes

 301

would not toe violated. This put wind into their sails.

They started dreaming of a force *far more powerful than

either the whit e-capwallas ©r the dhatiwall as *.91 Hiroji

has a new lease of hope, "We shall have a separate India#

the India of the Princes", he explains, "Powerful, solid,

deep-rooted in tradition; six hundred independent states

merging together to form a princely India,,..,"92

Malgorikar, through Abhay, points out that this was the

attitude of the majority of the princes. Even at the
cost of civil war, they were determined to oppose the
nationalists. It was a pathetic illusion, an impractical
idea.

The princes started bewailing like orphaned children,

when the British Cabinet Mission declared that there

would toe no relationship between the princes and the

British Crown after the transfer of power. The communal

conflict in the country side-tracked the people’s atten­

tion and the princes were simply ignored, Hiroji appears

like a general fighting *a back-to-wall campaign* for the

third force ‘doomed for failure," Abhay advise$him fc©

join the Assembly but Hiroji is adamant. As Maigonkar

rightly observes s "Theirs was merely the anguished cry

of the last-ditchers in the face of progress,"9^ The
third force was not born-it died its embryonic death.
As described by Malgonkar, the government had prepared

a formula for the acceptance of the States. It was known

as the Instrument of Accession under which the government
 302

would take over the control of only defence, foreign

affairs and communications from the princes within their

States® The British had controlled these and the succe­

ssors did not demand anything more* Many princes did not

value the assurances of the Congress leaders. HLroji says,

95
"The vengeance of sheep can be terrible. “ The Viceroy

had called a meeting of their Chamber' on 25th July, because

many princes had not accepted the Instrument. They were

plunged in gloom and were making cruel jokes about their

own end. To one, it was like the oysters at the tea-

party of the walrus and the carp•*%•». Another styjpd

96
the Instrument as *the instrument of destruction *.

Hiroji signs it reluctantly and is cynical, indifferent

and reckless ever afterwards. His grief is palpable. In

the words of Abhay : "I was aware that I was in the

presence of sorrow; a grief deeper than when his brother

had died, a humiliation far more wounding than when his

97
Maharani had taken a lover®'1

Mulk Raj Anand*s Victor represents those princes

who wanted to set themselves up as independent, after

the departure of the British, and did not sign the Inst­

rument. He was thrown in an incalculable state of mind,

because the Sardar*s threatening image had been preying

upon his weakening nerves® Later on, Diwan Popatlal

vainly advised Victor - who believed that because Sham

Pur bordered on Tibet and touched Kashmir, it should be

treated like Nepal and Bhutan, a buffer State - to accede

98
to the Union. This shows the attitude of some princes
 303

who unwisely bragged of declaring their independence

without any real argument or ability to support the

privilege which they had never enjoyed. Malgonkar shows

how the news of the merger of Chhatisgarh and Orissa

States into their neighbouring provinces and that the,

princes concerned had been pensioned off dealt a rude

shock to the princes® After the big piles of guarantees

from Viceroys/ Ministers and nationalist leaders# the
princes wondered how it could have happened® This caused

misgivings in their hearts about the existence of the

remaining princely States also. Hiroji had become extr­

emely cynical# apathetic and resigned to his fate® With

his uncanny judgement he could clearly see the end of all.
The Begwad State was practically compelled to accept the

merger. Hiroji was dejected but also determined not to

sign the Instrument of Merger. The dramatic irony of his

uttersance deserves notice t “I shall never put my name

to that paper. I shall remain true to the salt of my
99
ancestors®“ He allowed himself to be killed by the

Kolras giant tiger and averted the ignominy of signing

the death-warrant of the whole princely dynasty®

Malgonkar shows how some narrow-minded fanatical

Congress bosses meanly wreaked 'the vengeance of sheep*
on the dethroned princes by adding insult to injury.

Their sense of boastful self-importance was inflamed by

their unexpected and ill-digested success and they could
 304

not placate the disgruntled princes to win them over to

their side. In The Princes* Kan ah Chand, in his speech

at the school function, makes some 'false and disparaging

remarks - "the man who wielded the .whip is no more. All

that stood for is gone" - concerning Hiroji.*0^ Beside

himself with rage, Abhay beats Kanafc Chand publicly and

fulfils his oath and then abdicates his title.

The epilogue of The Princes tells us that the Bulwara

Dam is erected in 1958. It is the third largest dam in
Indian. The Patalpat Port, the stronghold of the pinda-
101
ries 200 years ago, is 200 feet under water. There
is a quiet irony impressing upon us the tragedy that is
enacted. The matter-of-fact epilogue indicates, as it
were, the cumbrous movement of the monstrous machinery
of democracy handled by people, who crush the aspirations

of the Ramoshis and the Bhils of Bulwara who assume a

hauntingly pathetic shape. The author's sympathy -
expressed with great restraint - lends tragic grandeur

to the tale, ,

In Attia Hosain's Sunlight on a Broken Column, Laila,

while recalling the picture of Romana and her princely

husband - comments on the plight of princes in changing

times. After the Intergration, the princes had their

privy purses only. They 'were left with titles, no
■ 102
states, reduced incomes and unchanged habits and tasted*.
An adequate degree of co-operation between the wealthy
 305

and the titled was necessary *to play polo-entertain,

race, drink, flirt or fornicate with the proper air of

103
aristocratic nonchalanc

Anand describes how after the Accession of Sham Pur,

the dyarchy of Popatlal, the administrator and Goblnd

Das, the Chief Ministec faces a fatal discord and contr­

oversies, gossips, intrigues, contempt, corruption, nep­

otism and black market has gripped the whole of sham Pur,
On the top of everything, the guns of the Communist gue­
rillas rend the atmosphere® The process of the transfo­

rmation of values is the natural outcome of the transfo­

rmation of power, Anand deftly indicates that the old
values are reversed and nothing very new is evolved.
The Inspector of Police, for instance, is more honoured
than the Inspector of Schools. The rich black-marketeer
is boosted by the validity of money values and *a new
kind of barbarism emerged and held sway',^^ The tragedy

of the lonely intellectual, such as Dr. Shankar, can well

be gauged in such a socio-political set-up®

Anand brings out how the malady of rootlessness had

swayed many persons (e.g.Victor) in the age of transition.

Dr. Shankar was acutely aware of ‘the cruelty and uglin­

ess of Indian life1 which was responsible for the insa­

nity of many persons. The conflict between the new

possibilities of life and the old reactionary forces

like poverty, prejudices, inhibitions and traditional

 306

repressions tore the emotional life of the people and

drove them to neurosis or lunacy, while waging the war

against feudalist!® Dr® Shankar feels that India - in

fact, the whole world is a kind of lunatic asylum in

which only those' who struggle against the status cruo and

authority ‘seemed to find some balance through the elab-

105
oration of a new sense of values*® Anand regpets that

very few persons bother themselves about the meaning of

human existence®

Indo-Anglian novelists point out that those of the

princes who had no individuality and no spirit of service

or sacrifice rushed to luxurious, metropolitan foreign

cities# where they could live in their westernized lavish

style. Markandays shows# in Possession, how Jumbo loves

•to dine well, to drink and to dance and, therefore, he

flew to London where he 'became metamorphosed into a

representative of civilized man*. Nergis Dalai's

Tejpore in Minari and the Maharani of Kalipur in Sant ha

Rama Rau's Remember the House and Anand's Victor in

Private Life of an Indian Prince all flock to foreign

capitals®

Kama!a Markandaya points out that the advent of

Independence necessarily brings in its wake changes in

the social hierarchy of India, which leave a bitter

taste in Jumbo's mouth when he observes how the not-

very-rich of yesterday give themselves airs upon their

 307

107
coming into sudden moneyed positions. Jumbo# a

representative of the fallen princes feels disconcerted

over the chspjes. He can-mot stand the ‘r if f - r a f f *

elbowing themselves about and ousting the princes l He

is f ille d with rage over the hopeless but inevitable

'situation. He ironically says that the power and the

influence now l i e among the representatives of the

people.

Malgonkar indicates how princes were blind to th e ir

own fate and how they clung to one pathetic illusion or

another® Hiroji# in The Princes# fondly hugs the impr­

actical idea of the Union of Princely States® Their

States were not contiguous geographically and they them­

selves were not united emotionally® Their downfall was

a foregone conclusion, who could stem the tidal# tr iu ­

mphal wave of a people advancing with tight-lipped dete­

rmination ? - Abhay# lik e a modem ‘Sahdev1 bemoans th e ir

impending f a ll and th eir paralysed sensibility® He feels

that they were lik e mangoes in la te May# ready to f a ll

and i f some one gave the tree a shaking all-good and

109
rotten alike would drop off® According to Abhay# the

time was over for champagne and dreaming. But his was a

lone and unheeded cry® The princes rushed to th e ir doom

with th e ir usual bravado 1 Malgonkar ponders over the

plight of the princes in India after Independence® They

were not destined to exist as princes and they did not®

 308

Their fate was evident* How could they defy the forces

of destruction unleashed in the country ? After Indepe­

ndence, unseen chaos was raging in the States. In the

wild dance of anarchy, the administrators had no time to

lament the fate of ‘oysters', however, docile they had

now become. People were thirsting for universal libera­

tion and regarded princes as the virtual relics of British

Imperialism in the land of the free. Abhay says that

they were a jest of history and they had outlived their

time owing to British protection without which their
110
extinction was inevitable.

Mulk Raj Anand artistically brings out the insurm­

ountability of the forces of disruption before a new

socio-political order could come into existence through

the gnawing foreboding in the heart of Dr. Shankar when

he witnesses the tug-of-war of opposing wills in Victor

and Ganga who are in a mood of flirting, respectively

with Mrs® Lane and Kurt Landauer. This produces in him

*a repeated sense of the doom that was imminent in it

111
all“» The people of Sham Pur, the powerful -actors in
the drama, are determined to vanquish the decadent prince

and all he stoods for. when Buta defied him, the Maharaja
feels highly indignant against the fates which are 'anni­

hilating the very roots of his personality, his kingship..

11 ?
... ~ Anand indicates that all the Furies of Hell are
relentlessly pursuing the spoilt, ever— erring child that
is the Maharaja with all his wallowings in lethargy.
 I
309

luxury and lechery; lif e has marked him out as a hollow

man. The most powerful man of Sham Pur is also the most

weakened. He is bewildered to think of persons in the

opposite camp. Dr. Shankar clearly senses Victor's

allround defeat and anticipates his complete collapse

and feels that 'not all the Machiavellianism of Victor

113
could ward off the nemesis that was approaching *.

Anand illustrates how princes, affected by the malady of

rootlessness in the age of transition# feel like lost

children. Shorn of th eir vainglorious power# they find'

themselves naked and neglected. To escape this ignominy

one has to have the true desire to serve the people and
to ascend the throne of the people's hearts J Victor
(
represents those who have found themselves hollow. His
frantic cries# however# histrionic these might sound#

depict the agony of a doomed man# doomed to fu tility and

oblivion in his own lif e time : "I am afraid 1 I dread

the future 1 I feel a terrible sense of foreboding i

114
I t is all darkness# darkness# darkness around me i M,

Anand suggests how fate drives Victor to an actual lunatic

asylum in Poona - a f i t finale for the prince who indulged

in every wild orgy of sex and tyranny. Sham Pur was full
of everything sham about i t in the 'glorious * regime of

Victor who carried a veritable Bedlam with him wherever

he went I The wild# rash# ridiculous sex- 'exploit' sets
the tone of the novel. I t is a proper prologue to the
Poona asylum epilogue i Savah# in Huthi Singh's Maura
 310

represents an Indian State undisturbed by the political

consciousness of the people,, It is baffling in its

scheme of time, or rather, timelessness l -It is medieval

in tone and yet it is equipped with modern amenities of

life® In a mystifying environment such as this, it is

quite fitting that the ruler should parade as almost

Omnipotent - and Hanut does feel like that, "He was

lord of life®.see" he thought® "Even God could not be

115 -
feared more®" Huthi Singh also indicates the Omnipo­

tence of fate in Maura. There were some irrational mom­

ents for the inmates of the royal harem and even for
its owner, Hanut, ‘in which anything could happen, moments
, 116
of destiny, moments when Pate played strange tricks
Santha Rama Rau shows, in Remember the House, how the
Kalipurs are also as unheeding to the warning as the
persons marching to their doom® The Maharani is sorry

they are unable to go to Europe for a holiday in summer

because of the agitations in the State® "All these

dreadful little political types are going to be deciding

117
our fate and we must wait and see what happens."

/ Thus, Indo-Angli an novelists have dealt with the

princely Order, bringing out the psychological problems

and complications and the political aspirations and

intrigues which marked their life® They have aptly

brought out the peculiarities of their childhood, educa­

tion, upkeep, marriage, sex-life, palace-life, harems,

 311

entourage, hunting tr ip s and excursions, wild and whim­

sical extravagance, senseless tyranny, prejudices and

predilections, p®wer~mania and vanities," (SCGejatricities

and oddities as also th eir relations with the British

Crown, Britishers and Americans. The two major novelists

- Anand and Malgonkar - have described at length the

p o litic al situation at the time of Independence - the

represeive measures of the princes to curb the nationalist

movement and th e ir resistance against the Integration of

States, th e ir efforts fo r raising a th ird po litical force

viz. Princely India, th e ir helplessness and consequent

acceptance of the Merger and th e ir pathetic plight in the

post-Independence era,

Malgonkar deserves our gratitude for giving us a

satisfying, a rtis tic novel on the princely theme which

i s no mere sociological account. His attitude is , of

course, sympathetic and sometimes even nostalgic, but fee

i s too great a sto ry -teller to broadcast i t . He presents

a romantic picture of the glory and greatness of princes,

not fanatically but with a rare understanding and insight

resulting in a rtis tic objectivity,. The novelist showst

through the character of Abhay his awareness of the chang­

ing times and the imperative 'must * to adapt oneself to

the just demands of modernity.

When a novelist of Mulk Raj Anand*s calibre prefers

to write fully on the princely l i f e , one would not have

 312

expected the words ‘private* and 'an'® He has circumsc­

ribed his observation to the sexual exploits of a lawless*
neurotic prince® The journey through the novel is not
easy and leaves one exhausted and even exasperated®
Anand's anonymous predecessor had done the job quite
frankly, unhindered by psychological pretensions in his
The Memoirs of a Maharaja's Mistress® However* Anand's
clinical method and cathartic objective cannot be lost
sight of®

Huthi Singh delineates the portrait of the philoso­

phical enunch Maura in his Maura which also deals with
the sex-exploits of a prince who ultimately redeems him­
self through his love for a commoner® The novel, except
for Maura's portrait and a few cynical witticisms of
Hanut, does not go much beyond a sociological account of
a princely harem®

Santha Rama Rau uses the princely theme as a back

drop and keeps on reverting to it, now and then, and
succeeds in enlisting our sympathy for the quizzical and
pathetic second prince and showing the trepidations of
a degenerated princely household after Independence*
Kamala Markandaya also brings in a prince, Jumbo, in
Possession, to give colour to the high society she
intends to portray® Jumbo is a caricature® Attia Hosain
describes a Muslim family which is not exactly royal as
there is no State; the head of the family is a feudal
 313

lord. She shows the post-Partition age of transition from

slavery to independence. Anand Lall also depicts a feudal
lord - in all his degeneration and decay* underlining the
fact that most of the princes led lawlessly sensual lives.
On the whole* The Princes by Malgonkar is the only satis­
fying picture of the ruler community who controlled the
destinies of many human beings.

In pre-Independence times# S. C. Ghosh* S. K. Ghose#

S, M. Mitra and Jogendra Singh wrote novels about the
princes# but they aimed at presenting the luxurious las­
civious and craftly environment of the princely court.
They incidentally showed a prince's ambition and even
his patriotism but dwelt on his love affairs# sexual
exploits and tyrannical rule. The story would run in the
old off-repeated rut having stock characters and situat­
ions; sometimes* political or philosophical discussions
would be thrown in to give the novel a facade of purpose
«fulness# as seen in The Prince of Destiny by S. K. Ghose
and Hindupore by S. M. Mitra. Hardly would there be a
fully realised character. The novelist's attitude to his
subject lacked gravity and* therefore* he could not go
bpyond presenting a romantic* improbable fantasy. However*
it should be noted that despite his alien sensibility,
Ackerley could bring out the basic humanity of the super­
stitious and eccentric old Maharaja in Hindoo Holiday.
The Indo-Anglian novel after Independence assumed a more
 314

vital role than in the pre-Independence era - of faithfu­

lly representing the new socio-political attitudes* app­
roaches and aspirations in terms of fictional art. Inde­
pendence brought in its wake an upheaval in the princely
fairyland and this was a thematic god-send for the serious
novelist. The post-Independence Indo-Anglian novel on
the theme* apart from its technical virtuosity and exce­
llence* depicts the princely world in all its gamut -
the personal as well as the public concerns of the Indian
Princes. It shows how these princes reluctantly accepted
the Merger of the native States into the Indian Union and
it also shows their predicament after their being divested
of power. It conjures up their past glory and magnific­
ence and also reveals their neurotic* atrocious and
megalomaniac behaviour. These writers are* to a large
extent* objective and realistic in their treatment and
psycho-analytical - almost clinical - in their method.
Malgonkar*s involvement with his princely heroes is so
complete that he shares even their prejudices against
the Gongress upstarts with whom Mulk Raj Anand also does
not seem to show sympathy. Santha Ram Rau's picture of
the ruling prince's younger brother as an amiable wastrel*
faced with a grave personal crisis after Independence,
reveals her perceptive art. Huthi Singh's inside-story
of a ruler's harem bears the true stamp of authenticity.
Thus* there is a vital difference between the concerns
of the Indo-Anglian novelist in pre-Independence and
 315

p o s t-in d e p e n d e n c e tim e s .

MOTES AND REFERENCES

1 M ulk R a i An a n d . p r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r in c e *
---------------- -------- -
----------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------“

H u tc h in s o n # L ondon# 1963# p . 4 1 .

2 I b id .* p. 299. ’

3 I b id .# p» 1 1 4 .

4 , M a n o h ar M a lg o n k a r# T h e P r i n c e s # :H am ish N a m ilto n *
L o n d o n # 1963*. S e c o n d I m p r e s s i o n # 1944* p . 3 8 .

5 I b id .# p . 39.

6 I b id .# p. 40.

7 I b id . # p . 42.

8 An and* P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d i a n P r i n c e # p. 11.

9 H u th i S in g h , M aura# C o n s t a b l e , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 1 , p . 3 4 1 .

10 M a lq o n k a r* T h e P r i n c e s * p. 175. -

11 I b i cl# ^ p . 1 7 1 .

12 I b id .* p . 275.

13 I b id .* p . 33 0 .

14 An a n d , P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e * p . 122.

-
15 H u th i S in g h * M aura* p® 3 5 .

16 S a n t h a Rama Rao* Rem em ber t h e H o u se * V i c t o r

G o l l a h c z L t d .# L ondon# 1956# p p . 2 3 8 -2 3 9 .
 316

17 An and# p r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n p r i n c e # p® 2 4 9 .

18 H u th i s in g h # M a u ra # p® 117®

19 M a lg o rik a r# T h e P r i n c e s # p® 5 9 .

20 Anand# P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e # p a 13®

21 I b x d® # pp® 4G»* 4 3 .

22 Ib id ® # p . 17®

23 Ib id ® # p® 1 5 7 .

24 H u th i S in g h # M a u ra # p . 141®

25 Ib id ® # p . 183.

26 I b id ,# p . 246®

27
Ib id ® # p s 2 6 5 .

28 A nand L a l l # H o u s e a t A dam pur# P e a r l P u b l i c a t i o n s

Ltd®# Bombay# 1956# p . 6 2 ,

29 S a n t h a Rama Rao# R em em ber t h e H ouse# p® 251®

30 A t t i a H o sa in # S u n l i g h t on a B ro k e n C o lu m n # C h a t t o
& W indus# L ondon# 1961# p , 64®

31 M a lg o n k a r# T h e p r i n c e s # p. 48®

32 I b id .# p® 29 7®

33 Ib id ® # p . 297®

34 Ib id ® # p . 116.

35 Ib id ® # p. 128®

36 I b id .# p. 129.

36 Anand# p r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e # p» 1 6 6 .

37 Ib id ® # p , 167®
 317

38 S a n th a Rama Rao, Remember t h e H ouse, p» 9 .

39 I b i d . , p . 43.

40 I b i d . , p . 243.

41 I b i d . , p» 44.

42 Kama!a M arkandaya, P o s s e s s io n , Putnam & Go. L t d . ,

London, 1963, p . 94®

43 I b i d . , p . 134.
44 I b i d .* p . 16.

45 I b i d . , p p . 2 0 -2 1 .

46. Anan d . P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d ia n P r in c e , p . 251.

47 M arkandaya, P o s s e s s io n , p . 165.

48 I b i d . , p . 163.

49 Anand, P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d ia n p r i n c e , p . 239.

50 I b i d . , p . 115.

51 I b i d . , p . 115.

52 A t t i a H o sa in , S u n lig h t on a Broken Column, p . 282.

53 S a n th a Rama Rao, Remember t h e H ouse, p . 119.

54 Anand, P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d i a n P r in c e , p» 2 6 9 .

55 M alq o n k ar, The P r i n c e s , p., 24.

56 I b i d . , p p . 2 3 -2 4 .

57 I b i d . , p . 284.

58 I b i d . , p . 97.
 318

59 I b id e, p . 264.

60 I b i d * , p» 3 2 9 ,

61 H u th i S in g h * M a u ra * p . 282®

62 I b id ., p 8 283.

63 I b i d ® , p® 29 7 .

64 A t t a i n B a s a i n , S u n l i g h t on a B ro k e n C o lu m n ,
pp® 127—128®

65 M a lg o n k a r , T h e p r i n c e s , p s 57®

66 I b i d ® , p® 23 2 .

67 Ib id ® , p . 2 73®

68 H u th i S in g h , M a u ra , p® 277®

69 An a n d . P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e , p« 5 4®

70 H u th i S i n g h , M a u ra , p . 147.

71 An a n d , P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e , p® 7 6 .

72 I b id ., p. 101.

73 I b i d ® , p® 234®

74 H u th i S in g h , M a u ra , pp® 26-27®

75 I b id ® , p® 2 7 0 .

76 An a n d . P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e , p* 134®

77 I b id ., p s 147.

78 I b id ® , p e 198®

79 M a lg o n k a r , T h e P r i n c e s , p . 45®
 319

80 Ib id .,? p® 49®

81 Ibid® ? pp. 26 1 -2 6 2 .

82 An and? P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d ia n P r in c e , P* 23®

83 Ibid® ? p . 44.

84 M alqonkar? The P r in c e s ? p . 348®

85 I b i d . ? p® 66.

86 Ib x $ p® 67.

87 Anand? P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d ia n P rin c e ? p . 198.

88 I b i d . ? . p . 228,.

89 I b i d . ? p® 200®

90 S a n th a Rama Rao? Remember t h e House? p® 135®

91 M algonkar? The P r in c e s , p . 250.

92 I b i d . ? p . 25 6,

93 Ib x (3.®g p® .270®

94 Ibid® ? p® 272.

95 I b i d . ? p . 276.

96 I b i d . ? p . 277.

97 Ibid® ? p® 279®

98 An and? P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d ia n P r in c e . P* 72.
y

99 M alqonkar, The P r in c e s ? p 3 312®

100 Ibid® ? p . 359®

101 I b i d . ? p . 362.
 320

102 A t t i a H o s a in . S u n l i g h t o n a B ro k e n C o lu m n , p . 307.

103 I b i d ® , p® 3 0 7 .

104 A n a n d , P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e , p« 251*

105 I b i d * , p 9 324*

106 M a rk a n d a y a , P o s s e s s i o n , p® 1 2 8 .

107 Ib id * , p , 163.

108 Ib id ® , p . 165.

109 M a lg o n k a r , T h e P r i n c e s , p® 2 5 7 .

110 I b i d * , p® 343®

111 A n a n d , P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n p r i n c e , p« 188®

112 I b i d ® , p® 198®

113 I b i d ® , p® 202®

114 I b i d ® , p® 261*

115 H u th i S in g h , M a u ra , p® 3 5 .

116 I b i d * , p® 82®

117 S a n t h a Rama R ao, Rem em ber t h e H o u s e , p® 118

 321

CHAPTER : VIII

THE FOREIGNER

Indo-Anglian novelists have dealt with the English­

man as individual, administrator, teacher, journalist,
doctor, author, missionary® During the pre-Independence
era, especially since the twenties, the struggle for
freedom had provided the focus for life to the whole
generation and, as such, the Indo-British encounter had
meant a conflict between two races, the white ruler and
the black ruled® The novels depicting the situation of
the times treated the English as a group, a community, a
race of imperialists who were determined not to let go
Itheir 'possession' of India and the Indian equally-dete-
l
I
| rmined to shake off the yoke of slavery® It is, there-
i
i fore, understandable that the Englishman as an individual
!
t

\ came to be depicted more truly in the post-Independence

/

i situation®

Indo-Anglian novels published after 1947, and some

of these dealing with pre-Independence times, present
glimpses of the Englishman as an individual® Indo-Anglian
novelists have drawn sympathetic portraits of Englishmen
who were sweet, gentle, scholarly and not arrogant at
all like the members of the ruling race® Mr. Moreton,
in The Princes by Malgonkar, loves Indian life and
manners. He respects Indian sentiments; has given up
 322

eating beef. He even puts oh Indian dress for HLroji *s

durbars. This endearing image reminds one of E.M.Forst­

er *s stay at an Indian court. Kamala Markandaya also

shows how an Englishman adjusts himself to the Indian
mode of life. In Some Inner Fury# Richard barrows
a dhoti and chappals from a servant and wears these
smugly. Mira's father;-however* feels that the English
being 'somewhat conservative* would not like Richard's
2
unconventionality. Later* Richard is not uncomfortable
even in a Brahmin Restaurant* where he sits cross-legged
3
as if he has been doing so all along. In flttia Hosain's
Sunlight on a Broken Column* Mr. Freeman* a lawyer and a
scholar of Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic, is quite uncon­

ventional and loves Mushairas in Urdu and Persian and*

4
at times* wears Indian clothes. He reminds us of
Forster for his pro-Indian ways and of William Jones

and Max Muller for his scholarship in Sanskrit.

Apart from adopting some external ways of Indian

life or studying Sanskrit, some Englishmen, even during

the heyday of the British regime in India, befriended

India and Indians and tried to help than earnestly in
the solution of problems® Such men were noble, humane
and cosmopolitan® They were not at all proud of belong-
ing to the race and had no anti-Indian bias.

They quickly endeared themselves to Indians. Col.

Jones, 'Girgut'* in Malgonkar's Distant Drum, is a kind

 323

5
man, absolutely without racial prejudice,* Rajan indic­
ates how certain Englishmen themselvps inspire Indians
to dispel their ignorance about India - as does Cynthia
in the case of Krishnan in The Dark Dancer by her symp­
athetic comment that she can never forgive her country­
men for Jalianwala, about which Krishnan does not know
a thing.® Kamala Markandaya brings out how Englishmen
who were sympathetic had no barriers in getting to know
Indians and their problems intimately. In The Coffer
Dams, to Clinton all his Indian labourers are alike -
like a huge, dark wave of humanity, but Helen thinks
lightly: "I expect it *s something to do with being born
in Indian in my previous life." 7 Anand Lall illustrates
how some Englishmen did not like the British to be present
in India as rulers, but they must stay in India only as
friends. In Seasons of Jupiter, Gyas fe®lls Jennifer that
his family has been under the shadow of disgrace and
suspicion under the British regime. He says that those
who cannot submit should better keep out of the way of
the Government. Jennifer expresses her liberal opinion
regarding India® She hates the presence of Englishmen
in India as rulers® They should be 'friends from England
who are visiting friends in India® 8 These feelings of
sympathy and goodwill were reciprocated by even some
highly patriotic - but not fanatical - Indians who did
not hesitate to have friendship with the Englishman as
individual. Their protest was against the Englishman's
 324

government of India# Roshan, in Markandaya's Some Inner

Fury, does not worry about Govind's reactions and outhr­

u sts and goes on retaining her English friends# "She

did not agree with th e ir government of t h e i r country, fe

they were, she proclaimed more than once, insufferable

as lords, but as individuals, she in s is te d , they were

9
pleasing, humane, c iv iliz e d , charming,"

Indo-Anglian novelists have brought out the most

prominent t r a i t of the B ritish temperament - reserve,

coldness, moderation# HLeky, in some Inner Fury by

Markandaya, deserves a l l the c re d it for the foundation

of the school and orphanage, but he chooses to curb his

excitement and preserves the facade of reserve# He

speaks casually and coldly about his own achievements,

10
muffling up his eagerness in a cloak of re s tra in ,

Khushwant Singh also brings out how the English are

reserved, cool-headed and moderate# In pre-Independence

times, as Buta Singh, in I shall not hear the nightingale#

thinks, the English are habituated to understatement#

Buta Singh has suffered h e ll, but Taylor describes i t as

■trying'. Buta Singh at heart i s impatient at Taylor's

11
underst at orient# Malgonkar also shows how the B ritish

can keep ta c itu rn r e s tr a in t even in c r i t i c a l circumstan­

ces# In The Princes, ‘Punch* does not betray his dejec­

tio n over Minnie's being snatched away by Abhay and

preserves his unruffled exterior# Abhay dislikes the

 325

British imperturbability. He says# "I was getting a

12
little fed up with the stiff upper lip of the Britisha"

Markandaya brings out the contrast between the court­

eous restraint of the Englishman and the impetuosity of

the Indian through how Annabel and Val part for good in
Possession. Val cannot manage to bid good-bye in a decent,
13
formal manner, but Annabel does so quite admirably.

v\> The realistic approach of the English mind as

contrasted with the impracticality of some Indians is
suggested by Jhabvala, in A Backward Place, when Judy
does not uphold Bal's plan to go to Bombay with nowhere
to go to or nothing to go for and Bhuaji wishes to acco­
mpany them i Judy cannot behave impulsively and reckle-
14
ssly like her Indian relatives. The spirit of democr­

atic independence enjoyed by the English even in their

domestic sphere is remarkable. Even the English girl

is trained by her parents to be self-supporting and

independent® In Jhabvala *s short story, "A Spiritual

Call", when her mother knows that Daphne is determined,

despite the hurdles to go to India, she helps her, for

she is tolerant in the best English way. ^ Judy, in A

Backward Place by Jhabvala, has been taught by her

parents not to trust anyone and not be under obligation
to anyone. She has the conviction that the world does

not own her a living, though her nature is frank and

trusting. In India, a couple of decades age, the idea
 -326

of a woman as bread-earner was unacceptable to many* but

the English girl found it quite common in her society

and her mental make-up® [ A "

The image of the Englishman as individual and member

of the ruling race is brought out from different angles.

His activities and abilities are analysed. The English

were conscious of their status as rulers and of what was
expected of them® They were awe-inspiring and held as
infallible. They struck terror in the hearts of the
ruled - especially the poor, backward Indians. They
managed to hold their fort by resorting to their usual
'divide and rule' tactics and some of thou, who were quite

unnoticeable in England, come to India and hectored their

more intelligent and talented Indian subordinates about.

Indians were not likely to forget the insult of slavery

and inwardly resented their superciliousness; they hated

their exclusive ways. Sometimes, for Indians it was a

case of raided feelings. Indo-Anglian fictionwriters

faithfully and impartially present the picture of the

Englishman in India before 1947.

The Englishman in India had been held in esteem,

awe and love, to a large extent, before Independence at

least. This is suggested by Markandaya in Possession.

Anasuya is sure of Caroline’s welcome at Val's village.
She, however, cannot but feel that as the whole of the
 327

East knows 'the British live on the fat of the land,

17
wherever they go, though they might not be aware of i t 1.

Mulk Raj Anand shows how the British in India, before

Independence, struck terror into the hearts of Indians.

In Private Life of an Indian Prince, Dr. Hari Shankar

analyses his fear of the Englishman - while he waits for

Col. Jevons - who has, through generations of insults and

injuries, remained 'an unknown quantity* to Indians.
Bound up in his reserve, taciturnity and hauteur of

authority, he is 'for sc^Long the symbol of the unlimited

3.8
power of the S-arkar'. Malgonkar suggests that the
British roused a sense of hero-worship in their subordi­
nates, probably because they filled their hearts with
terror and owe. Perhaps, Indian officers and servants

were the victims of a feeling of inferiority due to their

long service under the British. Kiran, in Distant Drum,

cannot help thinking in emergencies what a British CO

19
would have done in his place® The Britisher's infall­
ibility was a myth, but it was also their destiny. They

had to live up to the image they had so elaborately

striven to creates In Malgonkar's Combat of Shadows,
Winton wants to back out from his bid to shoot the mad

elephant® Cookburn points out that it will finish him,

for cowardice from" the ruling class is unthinkable.
Winton broods : "There was no room in India for Sahibs
who failed, that was the over-riding truth j They were
20
despised even more by their own class than by the Indians."
 328

The Englishmen who had recently arrived in India were

scrupulous in maintaining their status $s 'rulers*i
some few of those who had long been in India treated
Indian servants sympathetically. Winton, in Combat of
Shadows* is astounded at Cockburn's kindly attitude to
the railway restaurant *boy' at Tinapur* whom he calls
by his first name and even smiles at him. 21 To most
- -

English officers it appeared undesirable to speak polit­

ely to their Indian servants. Later* Winton himself
thinks that he should not have thanked Pasupati; neither
should he have conversed with him. 22 Nayantara Sahgal
points out how most of the Britishers who came to India
to hold good posts in Government and British firms and
lorded over more talented and capable Indians were just
Ordinary. Once the magic of power was lost* there was
nothing to distinguish them from many of their country­
men. This, transition was a great psychological hurdle
to some® In A Time to be Happy* the narrator comments
that Tom Grange* after his retirement, would be content
to become an ordinary Englishmen but Dora 'would have to
make a greater adjustment*© 23 Attia Hosain indicates
how Indians could not forget the insult of slavery. In
Sunlight on a Broken Column* Laila resents Cowley's
superciliousness. Once, when witnessing a film about
Clive and hearing Englishmen's applause, she had thought*
"These ordinary British soldiers are my rulers." 2 4 In
the thirties and the forties* the thinking of the younger
 329

generation in Indian had been in a muddle: there was a

queer paradox regarding their attitude to the British -

they loved and also hated them. Nayantara Sahgal brings

out this# in This Time of Morning# when Rakesh remembers

what Jevon had pointed out# "There we were cursing British
25
rule and learning English literature." Attia Hosain

suggests the almost infallible - also immoral - policy

of 'Divide and Rule* associated with the then British

Statecraft, In Sunlight on a Broken Column# Zahid thinks

that it is sacrilegious to celebrate the Muharram and

says that the Shias curse the Sunnis. Laila comments

that they alone do not have 'a monopoly of hate and
righteousness1® "He has learned the lesson the English
teach us#" said Asad# "Hate each other - love us."
Markandaya also hints at this British policy, in Posse­

ssion# Anasuya tells Caroline that she has left Val in

India in peace. .Caroline scornfully asks - whether it

is- for her peace or his® Anasuya realises that Caroline

could 'position a splinter even between a man and the

conscience with which he had lately been at peace.

27
Divide and rule. It was a formidable inherited skill."

The, Englishman used to flaunt his superiority in India

in a number of ways. Exclusive European clubs# in pre-

Independence times# were like live wounds in the very

heart of India# the perpetual reminders of racial segre­

gation. in Sahgal 's A Tims to be Happy# Marion tells
Sanad that they will dine at the club. He says he will
 330

not go there on sufferance* He is reminded that no amount

of Anglicisation can transform an Indian into an English-

28
man«

V^lndo-Anglian novelists have depicted the changes

brought about by the advent of Independence in the atti­

tude of Indians vis-a-vis Englishmen, They have shed

their fawning, apologetic and diffident attitude and are

caning into their own. They assert their equality and

independence® Englishmen also have realised the changed

position and some of them seem to have got rid of their

bossy and patronising ways® Some Indians are now dispa­
ssionate enough to evaluate the gratitude they own to
the British, Many avenues of progress have opened out.
Owing to ecc^pHfitical considerations many foreign experts

- under various schemes - come to India. The authors

seem to have cast aside their prejudices, sense of infe­

riority and self-consciousness®

Khushwant Singh brings out how the change in the

attitudes of the old and the new generations of English­

men in India had been afoot since the early ’forties®

Most Indian officers tried to curry favour with their

English bosses who kept their distance to make than feel

the difference between the ruler and the ruled® The new
brand of English officers had shaken the faith of fawning
Indians® Taylor, in I shall not bear the nightingale,

treats his Indian subordinates as equals and sympathises

 331

29
with Gandhi and Nehru* Nayantara Sahgal# in This

Time of Morning# estimates the Indian obligation to the

British. Rakesh evaluates the British gifts to India «

the I.C.S.# the Army# the parliamentary system and the

30
English language® This is no mean contribution because

it covers the vast area of administration# legislation#

defence and communication. Rajan points out that manym

more foreigners visit India now than before 1947 on

account of embassies# consulates# cultural exchanges#

technical expertise# tourism and internationalism.'
Murugesan, in Too Long in the West# makes this important
31
discovery. R.Prawer Jhabvala shows how some Indians#
after Independence# have begun to dislike the English •
attitude of superiority and patronage# and how difficult
it is for them not to regard every English person as the
symbol of the cursed British Raj. In A Backward Place#

when Clarissa tells Sudhir not to lose all sense of true

values# he resents it and momentarily regards her as

•the pseudo-paternal hand of the British Raj.*# but then

he realises that it is only poor lonely Clarissa# thirsty

32
for young company. Markandaya shows how# in post-Inde­

pendence times# Indians have begun to insist on equal

treatment in their dealings with the British. Krishnan#

in The Coffer Dams# argues about recovering the dead

bodies of the two Indian workers for their funeral rites

and points out that if these are not performed# the dead
would suffer spiritual torment and adds that even the
 332

Christians also attach importance to the burial ceremony.

“I t i s a simple matter of equality#*' rejoined Krishnan,

"the same done to us as to you. Whether in l i f e or

death*

Jhabvala suggests# in a Stronger Climate# that

after Independence some Englishmen are hypocritical in

th e ir admiration for Indian l i f e and culture owing to

th e ir policy of personal aggrandizement® They have some

selected friends# occasionally serve Indian food at th e ir

parties but that is about a l l. They speak Ml of Indian

weather# servants and of character even# when Indians

34
are away. In Esmond in India# Esmond flaunts his Indo-

logical fascination# but at heart really hankers after

British life® In an Indological fit# he has married

Gulab, heavily and insufferably Indian and yearns for

Betty*s intimacy. He i s thoroughly disillusioned and

35
feels 'there was no romance about l i f e in India...«• *

Deep-rooted prejudices formed in the course of deca­

des of forced Indo-British encounter came to the surface

a fte r 1947. The phenomenon of the transfer of power#

lik e a major operation, could not be expected to be

without bitterness altogether. The reversal of roles

between the rulers and the ruled could not be a ll so

smooth. The British could not bear to be shorn of power#

ju st as the Indian could not contain-Xiis self-confidense-

'X
and sometimes vanity-on account of coming into unlimited
 333

P o w er. In d o -A n g lia n f i c t i o n w r i t e r s c o u ld n o t re m a in u n a f f ­
e c te d by t h i s m e ta m o rp h o s is. M arkandaya i n d i c a t e s th e
a b se n c e o f d ia lo g u e in th e I n d o - B r i4 is h e n c o u n te r . E n g li­
shmen c re e k jo k e s a t th e e x p e n se o f t h e i r I n d ia n s u b o r d i­
n a te s to c o v e r up t h e i r s t r i c t u r e s b a se d on t h e i r p r e ju d ic e
a g a in s t In d ia n s , M ac k e n d ric k , in The C o f f e r Dams, m ockingly
rem ark s t h a t th e y a r e w a itin g to s e e w h e th e r th e bungalow s
b u i l t by Subram aniam w i l l f a l l down. The I n d ia n c o n t r a c t o r
c a n n o t p o c k e t th e s o - c a l l e d jo k e and s e l f - r e s p e c t i n g l y
t e a r s up th e f r e s h c o n t r a c t . 36 N a y a n ta ra S a h g a l show s, in
A Time to be H appy, t h a t th e y e a r 1947 w itn e s s e d th e mome­
n to u s t r a n s f e r o f pow er, b u t t h i s was n o t w ith o u t i t s
b itte rn e s s . Tom G range was p r e j u d i c e d a g a i n s t ’ th e anonymous
man in K h a d i. th e much m a lig n e d d h o tiw a la * who "now s to o d
l i k e a C o lo ssu s a s t r i d e I n d i a . He was th e K oi H ai and
37
a l l o u r f a t e s r e s t e d w ith h im ." She a ls o h i n t s a t how
some E nglishm en s a y t h a t th e w h ite -c a p p e d d h o tiw a la r u l e r s
wet® e x tre m e ly p o o r b e f o r e 1 9 4 7 . W eatherby s c o f f s a t th e
s a c r i f i c e s and p r i v a t i o n s o f t h e n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s .
" C o u ld n 't make good a n y w h e re ," so t h e y lo a f e d a ro u n d in
ja il. C a l l them p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s i f you l i k e , b u t
th e f a c t re m a in s th e y h av e n e v e r done an h o n e s t d a y 's
33
w ork. And now th e y t e l l us to ru n o u r sh o w ." G iving
away a w hole e m p ire would n e c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l a few s a c r i ­
f i c e s and some c o n s e r v a tiv e E nglishm en w ould f e e l th e
p in c h . M arkandaya p o in ts o u t how E n g lish m en , a f t e r
1947, f e e l p a r t i c u l a r l y . . .
 334

uneasy when they nostalgically recall their past stay in

Indian before 19 47® Mackendrick# in The Coffer Dams#
dislikes the new socio-political climate in India® Now*
for them# there is no sense of belonging in India. There
is no special place for them# because they are no longer
rulers. 39 Malgonkar shows how the prejudices of some
Indians easily overshadow those of some Englishmen.
Kamala Kant# in Distant Drum# resents Ropey Booker’s
being the Guest of Honour at the Satpura Officers* party.
"To me no Britisher is all right; they are all bastards#"
he said# "You remember how in the old days we used to say
that there were only two kinds of Englishmen; swine and
40
bloody swine?" ' This sort of vulgar ’patriotism* is
sometimes to be seen in India# after Independence. R.K*
Narayan satirises the misplaced enthusiasm of fanatical
Indians incited by prejudices. In "Lawley Road"# the
Malgudi Municipality decides to remove the status of Sir
Lawley thinking him to be a tyrannical imperialist. In
fact# Lawley# a benevolent Governor# was reported to have
declared: "Britain must quit India some day for her own
good." 41 Nergis Dalai shows a similar situation in Minari.
The new leaders at Minari wish to remove the statues of
Englishmen and change the English names of roads and
houses. A few old-timers resent it.^

Indo-Anglian novelists have appreciated the national

spirit of the English. It is natural for them to be
 335

united in a crisis. They hold their country's interests

as supreme and are ready to make sacrifices for their

national solidarity, prosperity and glory* It was owing

to unflinching national discipline - based on nation

before self ' - that the British Empire had such a long

life. On coming to India, Tom Grange# in Sahgal's A

Time to be Happy# accepts the dictates from his experie­

nced countrymen about his behaviour in India* Every

Englishman thinks .that his presence in India is in itself

a mission* He follows the traditional pattern evolved
43
by their generations* Later in the nbvel# Weatherby
also expresses how he is happy to follow the smooth#

traditional path. Every Englishman in India scrupulously

sees that he does not let his side down* Sudden# in
Malgonkar *s Combat of Shadows# resents Winton*s scandal
about Gauri. He reminds Win ton of their great duty to
the Empire# which depends so much on them. 44 Kamala

Markandaya indicates how even an English missionary is

an Englishman for whom his national interest are paramo­
unt. In Some Inner Fury# Hickey has lied# perhaps in the

interest of his nation or of his mission to prove Govind

guilty* The angry Indian crowd surges into the court#

and a determined handful of Englishmen forms a protective

ring about Hickey. However# HLckey's robes may proclaim

45
that he is not one of them# anyone can see that he is.

Nergis Dalai also shows# in Minari# that during the British

 336

regime Englishmen in India form a tlaut group by themsel­

ves on the basis of nationality, though in England they
would not have cared to develop their mutual acquaintance. 46
Markandaya shows the unity and oneness of the English in
a crisis and their quifefc, efficient, practical approach.
In Some Inner Fury, the English, without betraying their
opinion about Govind*s being guilty, quietly set about
47
collecting a big fund for Hickey for his defence.
Even those among the British who are most sympathetic
cannot ignore the bonds of nationality as is indicated
by B. Rajan. Krishnan, in The Dark Dancer, blames the
British for the partition massacre and for communalising
everything in India. Cynthia retorts that ihat the Indians
have done in the post-freedom twenty days is much worse.
He realises that Cynthia, in spite of her anti-colonial
views, cannot efface her Englishness. 48 How national
differences make one's dear one a foreigner is revealed
by Markandaya in Some Inner Fury. After Govind’s release,
the ways of Mira and Richard' bifurcate, in spite of their
redent merger into each other. Strangers become 'my
people* to Mira and she has to part from her dearest as
from a stranger. "For us there was no other way, the
forces that pulled us apart were too strong".^ Even an
ordinary English maid^servant is proud of her national
and racial superiority. Mrs. Peabody, in Possession,
thinks that it is an honour for anyone who is not English
(viz.val) to be invited to dinner by anyone who is (viz.
 337
S'

Mrs» Peabody) - the decline would be a personal as well

as national insult® when Val declines i t , she i s appa—

lied® S:he knew ’she was B ritish and th a t being B ritish

was best,

Indo-Anglian n ovelists depict the en tire gamut of

Indian l i f e which also includes in te r-a c tio n between

India and Britia^n on each other. They are b e tte r

equipped to inquire in to the nature and scope of th e

Indo-British encounter, a t close quarters and from

d ifferen t angles, than th e ir Indian contemporaries

writing in Indian languages. In pre-Independence times,

they are inclined to depict the in te r - r a c ia l relatio n

between B ritish ers and Indians as the ru le r and the

ruled. Those writing a f te r Independence but dealing

with pre-1947 situ atio n s also concentrate on In d ia's

struggle fo r independence and the B ritish a ttitu d e towa­

rds i t and the terrorism and tyranny which often re su lt

from such an encounter. The novelists seem to think

th at th ere has been no appreciable dialogue between the

Indians and the B ritish despite th e ir century-old r e la t­

ions. There does not seem to have grown much understan­

ding and compassion between them. The B ritish feel sup­

erio r and the Indians abject and serv ile in pre-Indepen­

dence times and in post—

Independence times the one expr—

essjihe past—
r u l e r 's nostalgia, grudge and sometimes even

malice as the other feel cockily and th e a tric a lly

 338

over-confident and prone to taunt or look down upon their

erstwhile rulers® The encounter on the spiritual/ arti­

stic and individual planes also seems to have been warped
with acerbity, acrimony and asperity, A peaceful coexi­
stence between the two seems to be father than ever®
Love, sympathy and understanding a far ory, but even

tolerance does not enlighten their lone association.

Raja Rao indicates, in The Serpent and the Rope,

that the British mind does not understand India very well

- the best interpreters of India have been mostly French

and a few Germans® He concedes that there were brilliant
51
exceptions like Sir William Jones and Sir John Woodroffe.
Raja Rao also reveals how the Englishman is loved in
India, because Indians are tolerantly forgetful® Madel­

eine asks Rama if he had hated the Europeans very much

when he was in India® Rama replies : “Hate them? You
know the Englishman is more loved in India than a forei­
gner has ever been® We forget evil easily® Naturally
52
we love the good." How the possessive avarice of
England marks and mars the Indo-British relations,
vividly comes off in a crisp, pithy utterance in Markan-

daya's Possession® Anasuya points out that Annabel and

Val would not be together for long, because Caroline,

symbolising the British possessiveness, thinks that Val

belongs to her and would not let go her hold on him.

“People don't easily give up what they think are their

possessions® The English never have® Markandaya
 339

represents the individual love—hate relationship between

an Indian, (Val), and a Brition, Caroline, as symbolic

of the Indo-British relationship. Caroline, in Possession,
states regarding her relationship with Val that their
going together is necessary but not smooth. "It's a

sort of love-hate relationship - don't you think ? Like

the kind Britain and India used to have."54 Markandaya

suggests the fierceness of extreme patriotism born of

Indians* frustrated hid for freedom. Govind, in Some

Inner Fury, makes Mira feel guilty about her love for

Richard. His dislike of Richard is nothing personal.

It is based on principles s her hates all who are British

• • 55
- quite impartially. Anand Lall distributes equally

between the English and the Indian the blame for mutual

misunderstanding. Rai Gyan Chand, in Seasons of Jupiter,

found in England that only a few Englishmen who did not

know about Indian life were arrogant and empire-conscious.

He criticises the Indian attitude of remembering only
the arrogance and aloofness of the ruling imperialists *
and not forging family-friendship with Englishmen.

Naturally, therefore, some foreigners resent the close­

ness of Gyan Chand's relationship with English families.56

The foundation of Indo—Anglian relationship was shakv

and uncertain. Indians could not but suspect and English­

men tended to criticise. In Raj an 1s The Dark Dancer,

when Cynthia remarks that the club is a 'sociological

cauldron*, Krishnan suspects the overtones of criticism

 340

and condenscension. But she is sincere® She points out

that it is mingling and flowing, the promise and strength

57
of the country* Rajan shows the difference between the
Western and the Eastern way of thinking and living. In

The Dark Dancer, Cynthia, an English woman, cannot under­

stand why Krishnan married Kamala under the pressure of .

ancestral customs, which were often more profound than
58
modern civilization. Markandaya, in The Coffer Dams,

shows how the white colonists register different reactions

to India and Indians. People like Clinton are totally

unconcerned, those like Helen soon identify themselves

with the Indians around them? the others are unsure of

themselves, nevertheless feeling superior. People such

as Lefevre of the new generation, unschooled in imperia­
listic prejudice, offer friendship - which is mistaken

for condescension - and their ardour quickly cools off.

The hearts of some are drained of human kindness - such
a one was Millie Rawlings who used to say; "Never trust
59
the blacks." The prolonged slavery has crippled
Indians' self-confidence and led them to seek their
refuge in emulation and precedents l In Markandaya's

Possess!on, when Jumbo assures Anasuya that he will

give a reception in Val *s honour, she retorts : "I

dare say..... The West hav^ing taken him up, the East
finds it safe to join in the rush."

Indo-Anglian novels reflect Indians* attitude

 341

towards Englishmen as administrators. The novelists

generally seem to appreciate their different virtues,
such as, efficiency, regularity, integrity, sterness,

imperturbability in emergency, sagacity and fearlessness.

The British administration has always been marked by

great solidarity and competence, in pre-Independenee

times, the Englishman as administrator was more or less

shown as peremptory, relentless, vain, unreasonable and

even tyrannical as reflected, for instance, in Venkatara-

raani 's Kandan the Patriot. The Post-Independence attitude
seems to be charitable and generous towards the erstwhile

rulers. The picture is quite unbiassed and dispassionate.

Markandayas shows that the English as administrators

are circumspect and vigilant. Sometimes, the lesser
lights may be prejudiced, impatient and rough. In The
Goffer Dams, when the complaint of the Indians that the
British planning regarding the dams has not been made in
proper Indian context is brushed aside by Mackendrick and

Rowlings, Krishnan feels that the insolent British experts

ingore the Indian beginners® He, however, had forgotten

Clinton who was listening. "He always listened? it was

61
the final decision that he reserved for himself."
Malgonkar indicates how the Englishaman as officer was

reserved and a stickler® Abhay, in The Princes, wonders

whether Tony could be firiends with the non-commissioned
Indians - for Sykes and Jemadar Dongrey were quite
 342

intimate, perhaps out of their mutual respect for

62
professional ability, courage and character® R.K.

Narayan and Anand show how some Englishmen were efficient

and stern officers® In Mr® Sampath, Mr® Shilling politely

showed him the door, when S;rinivas became unbearable, in

his plea for Ravi, despite his warning not to make a scene

- the facade of his self-p'ossession not betraying even a

63
crack. In Anand's short story, "The Gold Watch", Mr.

Acton dismisses Sharma, very politely but ruthlessly,

feigning sympathy but not relaxing, in the interest of

efficiency, but he appreciates Sharma*s loyalty and

presents him a gold watch®64 The British administrators

are astute and always mindful of the goal before them and
employed all means to convince their subordinates of their
superior logic and assert themselves and wield power with
ease® Sanad, in Sahgal*s A Time to be Happy, refuses to
go to England and tells Trent that he sees no wrong in
learning Hindi and spinning® He remarks that some of the

firm's traditions must also change with the changing

pattern of India® Trent thinks Sanad has gone nuts and

coolly points out that one should stick to decorum,
65
always® Rajan appreciates the sincerity and the sense

of duty of the Englishman as administrator and juxtaposes

)

the same with the indifference of the Indian® Krishnan,

in The Dark Dancer, is refused casual leave by Robertson®

The country's independence was round the corner and the

Delhi Secretariat was agog® Robertson, who would not be

 343

long in India# is working very hard* He tells Krishnam

astringently that nothing can be more important than the

66
country's destiny. Markandaya shows how the British
as administrators are fearless even in a crisis. In Some

Inner Bury# in the time of crisis at the Government House

Party# the group of Englishmen - rulers - exude astonish­

ing equanimity. Mira is struck with their bold approach

to impending emergency.^ In Mrs. Sahgal*s A lime to be

be Happy# when riots were forestalled because of the

arrests of Gandhiji and other leaders in connection with

the Quit India Movement, Weather&y prefers to retain his

tie despite the inching neck. The British must show# he
68
feels# how unruffled they are by hooliganisfa. Khushwant

Singh delineates a similar situation in I shall not hear

the nightingale. The nationalist leaders are arrested -
and Taylor has expected trouble dn the city and has
summoned the magistrates to allot them special duty, it

is a crisis# but Taylor does not betray tension. "He was

smoking his pipe and looked completely unruffleds he was
*
keeping up the tradition of the British Civil Service of
69
appearing calm in times of crisis." Mulk Raj Anand and
Malgonkar indicate that the British administration was

efficient but not always ethical, in Private Life of an

Indian Prince# Col. Burton of the Political Department

is led to cancel the proposed exile of Ganga Dasi under

the pressure of a royal 'present * and grand hospitality. ^
The high-ranking English officers# sometimes# instead of
 344

dispensing justice# dispensed with it altogether, Malgon-

kar suggests that the British could also give bribes® In

Combat of Shadows# Winton is appalled to know that Jugal

Kishore has been bribed. Sudden frankly tells him that

they do not grow morals. People dangerous as enemies can

be bought off® Arkell also says about Indians* "Beat
71 Malg-
than up only if you cannot buy them off cheaply. "
onkar shows how a few conservative Englishmen were unrea­
sonable and harsh and used to hector Indians about. In

Distant Drum, Manners, CO, has no manners, for he is used

to abuse India and Indians and goes to thie extent of say­
ing; "Gandhi is a quack and Nehru an utter charlatan, and
the only thing to do with all sedition-mongers is to put

then against a wall."72

Nayantara Sahgal and B. Rajan point out that the

British as rulers are better than other rulers, Mrs. Sah­

gal appreciates the demoCratic-mindedness of the English,

who as rulers might be better than the Portuguese and

their ilk - the fanatical imperialists. Kail ash, in Thrs

Time of Morning, feels that the British also would not
be impervious to the mass appeal of non-violence and had
to respond one day, some day,.,., for the British people
'were not bred in tyranny and were better equipped than
most men to heed the cry for freedom*.
73 B« Rajan indic­

ates that the British had done all they could to linger
on in India, but had cleared out, if not nobly, wisely.
In The Dark Dancer, the M.O. at Santihour says he hates
 345

the white man and his legend. He had kept the-communal

cauldron perpetually boiling with black hate and had
left only when they were going downhill, Krishnan points
out that every country does not have that virtue, 74

\>>‘Indian novelists in English have observed the missi-

t

onary activities with grave concern as far as the problem

of conversion is concerned, This* however* does not come
in the way of their sympathetic delineation of their dev­
otion to duty* spirit of social service and* in some cases*
adoption of Indian ways of life, Kenny, in Markandaya's
Nectar in a Sieve* is a sympathetic portrait. He does
not like to show off and would not mind sitting cross-
legged on the poor mat of a loving household, Rukmani is
pained to see his discomfort, 75 Kenny's unsuitable marr­
iage, has* perhaps* driven him to India, Rukmani cannot
understand why a woman should not follow her husband.
She tells him that he could not belong to India, though
he stayed here all his life, Kenny also feels like a man
76
belonging nowhere. The missionary doctor* in The Little
Black Box by Shakuntala Shrinagesh, too, has grown cynical
and embittered consequent upon a crumbled marriage and
though he loves his mission* he hates his patient, Mark-
andaya suggests how the sympathetic missionary feels for.
the suffering Indians but cannot understand their foolish
fatalism when Kenny asks Rukmani whether they are starv­
ing* she replies that they have a little rice which will
last them until times are better, He is exasperated at
 3 46

77
their easy Micawberianisms. Poverty is not an accident

but a phenomenon.in India and one who does not understand

it cannot understand India. Kenny wishes to serve them

as he pleases and leaves them for a time/ now and then*

when he grows tired of their “follies and stupidities*

and their 'eternal/ shameful poverty's "I can only take
78
you people/" he said/ "in small doses." Markandaya
leaves as in no doubt about the Indian attitude to missi­
onaries. In Some Inner Fury/ Kit dislikes Hickey because/
to him# missionaries are queer specimens of humanity.
Govind's dislike is that of an aggressively patriotic
Indian - deeper and more dangerous. It is more of a pol­

itical than religious character. Mira# however, is more

sympathetic to Hickey than them.
79 Though, the novelist

depicts Kenny quite sympathetically, Hickey's is not such

a portrait at all. It is more complex. Arun Joshi points

out the missionary craze for conversion. Sindi, in The

Foreigner, refers to a Catholic priest in Scotland; "Ini­

tially he had wanted t o ’convert me - as they try to conv^-.

ert every Indian - but when he found that the questions

bothering me were much bigger than that, he sincerely

began to help me in my exploration."®® Attia Hosain also

refers to this unholy craze in Sunlight on a Broken Column.
She satirises Mrs. Martin's friend,' a padre's sister -
'and she was so thin it seemed her zeal for conversion
81
had consumed her flesh*. This suggests the Indian sus­
ceptibility to the pseudo-religious activities of the
 347

missionary* This is a sentiment markedly post-Gandhian

in the political context and post-independence in the
literary one* The English or American missionary in
India should be thanked for his spirit of service? unfor­
tunately, his inspiration is not always quite altruistic
- it is sometimes the zeal of a zealot.

Malgonkar, in The princes, presents the portraits of

Englishmen as teachers in India. He shows how Englishmen
would be more truly democratic and normal in their appro­
ach, not victims of inferiority complex, Mr. Moreton,
Abhay's tutor, is a glaring contrast to Vicky's Indian
tutor in Anand's private Life of an Indian prince. He
is a healthy influence on Abhay. He treates the boy as
an equal, feels his curiosity and is a safe deposit vault
for his confidences. He is a companion, guide and mentar.
Thus, he wins Abhay's permanent regard. 82 He also encou­
rages his pupil in his charitable and kind inclinations
and deeds. This humanitarian philosopher is gratified
to know that Abhay has given away his books to a poor
83
boy. Mr. Ludlow also makes all princes live almost
equally. He snubs any kind of snobbery except, of course,
that of sports - proficiency! He regards no prince too
high for preservation of honour. "I don't care as much
about whether you play your cards well or badly as about
whether you play them honourably." 84 During a boxing
match Abhay's nose is broken but Abhay takes it fairly
stoically, Ludlow tells him that a boxing scar is an
 3 48

honourable scar* His inscription on a book presented by

him to Abhay endears him to uss "The way a man takes a loss
85
is the measure of his Manliness." D.C. Home delineates

the Englishman as journalist, independent, kindly, human­

itarian. In So Many 1 So Gallant i» Mr. Mewmann shows

independent judgement and is not led away fey stooges. He

is not niggerdly in appreciating his Indian subordinates.

Even when his subordinate have not worked up to his expe­

ctations# he tries to wash out his despair with benign

86
playfulness and with fatherly tokengifts of money.
This sympathetic portrait is reminiscent of such pro-
Indian British journalists as Kingsley Martin. D.G. Home
revives Newman's portrait, in Hungry-Hearts, as a pro-
Indian courageous editor. He, a» Englishmen, 'had incur­
red the wrath of the British Sarkar by writing a devasta­
ting exposure of the Jalianwala Bagh Massacre*. Gandhiji,-
87
Jinnah and Sarojini Naidu appreciated his services.

Indo-Anglian novelists have taken to the Irish kindly

and affectionately, because.of being the common victims

of the same political tyranny of the English. Mulk Raj

Anand raises a fine image of an Irishman who sympathises

with Indians® In Morning Face, Ajitan Sahib, Captain

Terence 0 Sullivan, treats Krishnan and his friends as
young guests - with sincere affection. He says that the

Irish and the Indians; both are victims of the British Raj
and that with the Irish part of him he is fighting the
 349

English part. He has all sympathy for the Indian strugg­

ling for freedom. He satirically eommentss “The British

have now reached the hight of civilization® , They know

go
how to kill those who love freedoms" Anita Desai also

draws a lovable picture of an Irishman in Voices in the

City. Nirode tells Monisha that David is versatile - he

is a ceramist# linguist# Vina-player# true friend and
89
guide and - 'a seeker after God*® These lovable port®

raits one would not like to let slip from one’s memory.
This shows that Indo-Anglian novelists are not prejudiced
against all Britishers. In fact# they hold the Irish in
fraternal regard.

Nayantara Sahgal suggests how in the vast network of

British administration and influence# British firms also
had made their own contribution by grooming Indians t’
o be

nearly English. As seen in A Time to be Happy# before

Independence# the stocks of Anglicised Indian had risen

high. “The Englishness 1 had been a matter for pride and

90
prejudice." This British influence# however# was rarely

integrated into the fabric of Indian life® Anita Desai

severely criticises the British firms in Indian and their

money-grabbing methods. In Voices in the City# Nirode

says that Jit has an enviable position in a reputable
foreign firm. Jit retorts that the great firm is engaged
in the disreputable job of amassing money at all costs -

even robbing ‘our government# our people'® These British

 350

influence, however, was rarely integrated into the fabric

of Indian life. Anita Desai severely criticises the Bri­

tish firms in India and their money-grabbing methods. In

Voices in the City, Nirode says that Jit has an enviable

position in a reputable foreign firm. Jit retorts that

the great firm is engaged in the disreputable job of

amassing money at all costs - even robbing ’our government,

our people’. These British ’are here to make money, money,

money.... * *91

There are two pictures of indo-British confrontation

in tea-gardens and plantations in Assam. Anand's Two
Leaves and a Bud and Malgonkar's Combat of Shadows sh»w
how the English planters in Assam treated the native
women as their toys. Anand's Raggie goes to the extent
of raping and Malgonkar *s Cockburn and Winton are not

less crazy and sex-obsessed but they manage their affairs

less wildly. Indian Independence has not had much impact

on the British slave-driving mentality. This shows clea­

rly how the English planters treat the Santhal and other
92
Adivasis as playthings.

^ The French are eager to redress the wrongs heaped

by their cousins on India - as indicated by Raja Rao,
Rama, in The Serpent and the Rope, explains how Madelein­
e's love for him has its roots in her compression for
93
India and her reaction against the British. Their

marriage was thus symbolic of the synthesis between the

 351

East and the West* Raja Rao also indicates that the
Indian's nature can adapt itself to an environment of
restraint# abstention# continency more affably and natur­
ally than the European nature® Georges lauds Rama's
frugality of food# generosity and his relationship with
Madeleine,# He says he has never seen so innocent a
European couple and indicates that Rama and Madeleine
are free of the sin of concupiscence#*
9*^ This shows the
*
measure of respect in which the Indian is held by the
European#

^ Jhahvala analyses the German attitude towards Indian

life and culture# She indicates that Indians need not
import the soul of culture# but it would be vain complac­
ency not to borrow the body of it# In A Backward Place#
Dr® Hochstadt told Etta that they could advise Indians
regarding the organisational part of Indian cultural
programmes but not regarding the cultural content in
which Indians are superior to Westerners®95 MrSi Jhabvala
satirises the set belief of Europeans that every Indian
is a born yogi or at least yoga-oriented. In The House
to Kitty and Hans# Mohammed All and Prem both
appeared deeply spiritual# Prem was dazed to know of
Hans interest in spiritual matters# 'for he had always
thought that Europeans were very materialistic in their
96
outlook'® she also satirises the popular Western
belief that all Indians are spiritualminded and the
Westerners are materialistic® Hans states that the flesh
 352

should be mortified to control the thoughts. When Prem

says that it is a common hurdle, Hans is flabbergasted

to discover that prem*s mind also is fixed on the mundane.

97
Hans wishes to conquer himself.

Nayantara Sahgal comments on the European irrespon­

sibility. Bensen, in This Time of Morning, observes that

he is against labels, slogans, nationality. Rakesh thinks

it is a typical remark,?, of a foreigner who has no roots,

ties or allegiance; "The Scandinavians were pagans of
98
modern times, complacent prosperous and studiedly amoral."
v. * - ' '
The Indo-Americ an encounter has become so close only
after Independence® Until 1947 our contact with the for­
eigner was largely confined to the British, but after 1947

new horizons have opened out and Indians have started gre­

eting foreigners on the basis of equality. This post**

Independence Indo-West confrontation is not of a political

character but it is founded on the cosmopolitan concept

of cultural exchange and inter-national citizenship. More

and more Indians go to the States for higher studies and

for settling down there. Indo-Anglian writers draw a

faithful picture of how Indians and Americans look at

each other. There is no political bias to hinder their

assessment of these two ways of life and their inter­

action. These are the bonds and contacts of friendship

and fraternity and the stress is more on human angle and

approach than on inter-racial groupism.
 353

R.K. Narayan illustrates how Americans are casual,

modern, informal, active, inquisitive and ready to pay

any price to get their work done. They brief themselves

on Indian manners and do not mind joining palms to bid

'Nameste1 and to squat on the floor in the Indian fashion.

In The Guide, Malone illustrates all this when he comes

99
to televise the event of the Swami *s fast. Americans

are eager and inquisitive, scrupulously methodical and

even mechanical about absorbing information and they

dislike -feeling involved or committed* The American fad

for statistics might mean calculativeness of materialistic

origin as also the tendency to take things at their face
value. Nicky, in Remember the House, is glad to gather
the facts and figures about Hari *s sugar mill and the
country. The practical-minded Karan likes Nicky who also
likes the sensible and active man like Hari. This gladd­

ens Alix also* Baba imagines Karan thinking - "You see?

Get them on to a good praeticil s*bje*%, deal with them

on neutral ground and they are just like you or me.

Arun Joshi satirises the materialistic craze of Americans

in Jhe Foreigner. Sindi explains to June why America is

not congenial to him. "It is much too sterilized for me.

Much too clean and optimistic and empty. “ A little later,

he remarks: "America' is a place for well-fed automatons

101
rushing about in automatic cars®...*" In Rajan's Too

Long in the West, Raman hates American triviality and

brings out the superfluity of the materialistic way of
 354

l i f e - showy and empty® He even says th a t a ll foreigners

102
remind him of pigs. This i s a harsh and exaggerated

view of American life® Arun Joshi shows how fresh immig­

rants find in America th a t they are ignored by Americans.

Baton, in The Foreigner, complains th a t the Indians, who

fuss quite a lo t ever foreigners, are given such a cold

shoulder. Sindi explains th a t Americans are busy people

103
and th a t, on the whole, they are quite good. Santha

Rama Rau indicates how Americans do not lik e to express

th e ir opinions about India and Indians and answer vaguely.

In Remember the House, Baba asks Alix whether Nicky like3

India. Alix re p lie s, "You don’t lik e India. You get bew­

itched by i t " . He w ill be fin e, she adds, as soon as he

104
fee ls a t home and makes friends. Rajan presents an

estimate of American l i f e as seen by th e Indian and i l l u ­

s tra te s the lib e ra l living of American and i t s most demo­

c ra tisin g influence which helps man r is e to his f u ll

sta tu re . Nalini, in Too Long in the West, i s not impres­

sed by the material prosperity of the people of America,

fond of popularity and happiness and not governing,

America makes her fe e l re a l, self-confident and unpreten­

tio u s. And she has the w ill to be herself which i s of

105
supreme value. Santha Rama Rau expresses how Indians

as well as Americans react to an American dressed in

Indian clothes and style® In Remember the House, when

Alix puts on a s a ri, Nicky reproves her about 'going

native*. Baba t e l l s Alix th a t Indians will consider i t .

 355

las a form of condescension’.^®6 Some American tourists

have a callous interest in recording Indian misery. In

The Foreigner,? Sindhi feels that Mrs. Blyth's film of the

slums near Sealdah in India is not a healthy picture from

107
an honest angle. Indians are touchy, about national
pride and would resent even an American friend deriding

their countrymen. One had to be an Indian to abuse or to

ridicule Indians. Baba, in Remember the House, indicates

her disapproval of Nicky‘s imitation of a Marwari busine­

ssman* Alix says Indians are touchy. When Baba asks her
not to generalise, Alix says that Indians can be very
?

cold and self-contained. Baba interrupts: "But we're i

the most emotional people in the world". It is then
(IP?
Alix*s turn to warn Baba not to generalise about Indians*
1ot
This illustrates how Indians, after Independence,
have become self-critical but self-respecting® some for­
eigners have an exaggerated and idealised concept of Ind­

ian life - as shown by Nergis Dalai in Minari. Mrs. Dalf-

ont feels that all Indians should live in the villages

and give up the artificial city life. She dislikes

Westernised Indians® Rula retorts: "But Mrs. Delfont,

this is as much a part of Indian as villages. After all,

we don *t expect all Americans to be cowboys, although

u
that is certainly the popular image of an American here."

Independence has revitalised Indian life and released

it from the prison of Western slavery and imitation.

Kalyan Sundaram tells Nalini, in Rajan *s Too Long in the

 356
/

West# that they are Indians# 'not mimics of the whiteman*.

An Americanised Indian# if shorn of Indianness# is an
outsider# 'a self-created' foreigner# a refugee from your-
110
self '* Rajan also suggests that if Indians respect
and practise their customs and ways of life# other cou­
ntries also might honour them, Nalini salutes her adored
American teacher in the typical Indian style - 'a gesture
which touched' him first by its artlessness and then made
HI
him feel like a religious institution*. Malgonkar
comments on the American import on Indian opulent life
in big cities. Kir an# in Distant Drum# discovers how
in posh parties of the affluent there is a heavy American
influence on the well-to-do# educated and fashionable
Indians. Man Singh explains it as the contribution of
Life of Reader's Digest and the American films which
these Indians witness with religious scrupulosity. ^
Santha Rama Rau 'shows how the differences in their ways
of life affect the friendship between an Indian and an
American. In Remember the House# Pria tells Baba that
Americans should take the initiative for friendship# not
the Indians? moreover# they break away from you on flimsy
113
grounds to seek their own kind. Arun Joshi referst
to the spread of mental ills in the States as also their
uninhibited life, when June# in The Foreigner# traces
Sindi *s disease to some psychosomatic problem# Sindi
gets irritated? "You Americans! Every illness is a
mental disorder like every song is rock- fn-roll." He
 357

t e l l s June bluntly th a t American g ir ls ’behaved so much

114
lik e boys'# with th e ir hair and dress lik e boys. E.K.

Narayan brings out the difference between American and

Indian ways of l i f e . Mali# in The Vendor of Sweets#

grumbles about th e scorching sun and nose-poking neigh­

bours® He does not lik e the people to stare at him#

because he believes in the rig h t to personal privacy.

He i s sorry things are so differen t from what they are

115
in America. K.S.Nayak expresses the tra d itio n a l

views of Indo-American comparison in Campus in F ire.

Mr. Appleton t e l l s Prof.- Vidyasagar th a t he cannot b e li­

eve in l i f e transcendental. The Professor rejoins th a t

i t i s because they are fo r mechanisation and materialism

and consequently quite an few of them are neurotics and

psychotics and addicted to dopes# stimulants and tranq-

116
u illis e rs . The American view of Indians# in This

Time of Morning# i s presented by Nayantara SahgaJU The

American Ambassador has resented Kalyan’s outburst rega­

rding the American wheat Loan# because they have to be

very careful about Indians® "Asians had to be handled

with care and Indians were even more touchy than the

rest# a prickly mixture of arrogance and inferiority®

They must not be spoken too loudly or harshly. They

117
must be cajoled# soothed# persuaded."

;*The Indo-Anglian novel presents the foreigner#

especially the Englishman# in his m ultiple roles as

 358

individual, administrator, teacher, journalist, missio­

nary. The tendency to conceive of him as symbolic or

typical of the values of Western culture and civilizat­
ion is too evident to pass unnoticed. This has resulted

in maiming the fictional technique because the novelist,

wittingly or unwittingly, seems to pitch his characters

into two pronounced sets representing the Western and

the Eastern-or to be precise, the English and the Indian

- socio-cultural values® To juxtapose two distinct and

disparate types of social ethos is a grave artistic cha­

llenge, because the characters then have to be both -

types and individuals. It is more often the former than

the latter. Apart from the deficiency of linguistic
resources and talent to suitably and convincingly expres
the inter-action between two entirely different sensi­

bilities, these novelists are also further handicapped

by their self-imposed messianic role to uphold their
national cultural values® They sometimes succeed in
depicting how the native sensibility differs from the
alien sensibility and thus pose the dileramatic situati­

on born of the forced confrontation but seem to be gene-

/
rally unable to w®rk out the harmonisation, coalescence,
stereoscoping of these two different codes of behaviour

and modes of lifeV'" The breakdown of communication in

individual relationship seems to be almost inevitable

as illustrated by these lovers and couples who part or

feel alienated from each other before death parts them;

 359

Madeleine-Ramaswamy in Raja Rao *s The Serpent and the

Rojse, Cynthia-Krishnan in B» Rajan's The Dark Dancer,

Mira—Richard in Kamala Markandaya *s Some Inner Fury,

Gulab-Esmond and Shakuntala-Esmond in Mrs* Jhabvala's

Caroline-Val in Markandaya !s Possession

Jennifer-Gyan Chand in Anand Lall5s Seasons of Jupiter,
Nalini-Ernest in B. Rajan's Too Long in the West, Sarah-

Adit in Anita Desai fs Bye-Bye Black Bird, Grace-Mali in

R.K. Marayan's The Vendor of Sweets. The crumbling of

the friendship between Alix and Baba, in Santha Rama

JRaU's thg_Hpuse, indicates this inter-cultural

gap and failure* R»K» Narayan *s short story, "a Horse

and Two Goats", ironically and symbolically depicts the

absence of understanding and harmony in Indo-American

relationship through the criss-cross communication betw­

een Muni and the foreigner® The dejection of the black­

birds — the Indian expatriates — who are either homesick

or rejected by England, shows a peculiar Indo-British
love-hate relationship - this is illustrated by Adit
and Dev in Anita Desai *s Bye-Bye Blackbird. Tony, Arjun
and Dev in Dilip Hire's The,Triangular View and Srinivas
in Markandaya *s The Nowhere Man„ Thus, the treatment of

the theme of the Indo-West encounter emphasises the point

of separation and brings out two rather irreconcilable

levels of socio-cultural consciousness and ethos®

The depiction of the foreigner in Indo-Anglian

 360

fiction acquires validity and authenticity for the reason

that the novelist is supposed to have such intimate -kno­

wledge of Western culture as would enable him to evaluate
his heritage of indianness. Of course, this might also
be due to his awareness of a foreign audience* This
\makes him hover between two worlds, tradition and mode-
I
lenity, and he either consciously strives for asserting
1
the Indian values or degenerates into tirades against
Indian traditions and customs. In either case his stance

would be deficient in the essential strength of conviction

and rationale and the whole thing would lapse into a sort

of marionette trickery.

It was not possible in pre- In dependence times to

directly portray the Englishman as the villain and, the­

refore, it had to be done under some cover which would

enable the novelist to castigate the product of Western

values. The Englishman was then an uncertain, unpredi­
ctable proposition and filled the hearts of most Indians
with terror and a sense of inferiority and servility.
This irremediable situation bred an unnatural attitude
in the writers. There has been a reversal of the situ­
ation in post-Independence times® The ruler-ruled rela-
i tionship has been wiped out, but not all its bitter

)traces. The Indians seem to be striving, with a venge-

(
.ance, to compel the English to accept them as their
>
; equals. This often results in self-consciousness, self-
complacency and the superiority complex on the part of
 361

the Indians as pre-eminently illustrated in the treatment

of the Indo-British relationship in Markandaya's The
Goffer Dams. This, too, is an extreme, unnatural atti­
tude, Raja Rao is burdened by his palpable Brahminical
heritage, Bs Rajan is hesitant, uncertain and tentative
in his sophistication, Markandaya seems to have assumed
a pose of self-consciousness, Malgonkar, with his pred­
ilections for British life and code of honour seems to
recreate the pre-Independence glory of the British rulers
and the post-Independence cravenness of their Indian cou­
nterparts, Mulk Raj Anand errs on the side of idolary on
account of his deep-rooted political notions, Nayantara
Sahgal expresses the agonised conflict in the mind of
her westernised hero, San^, in A Time to be Happy,
struggling to rehabilitate himself by acquiring a sense
of belonging in Indian, Anita Desai a champion of indi­
vidualism, is constrained to draw the incompatibility
and mal-adjustment in the Indo-English relationship
through the failure of Indian immigrants in England to
get adjusted in their adopted but alien environment.
In the midst of this luminous void in Indo-Anglian
fiction spring up the unperturbed and unagitated-but not
j unconcerned - figures of R, K, Narayan and Ks Nagarajan
\
| whose objective dispassionateness saves them from forming
!
I unnatural attitudes®
 362

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1 M an o h ar M a lg o n k a r, T h e P r i n c e s , H a m is h H a m i l t o n ,
London, 1963, S econd Im p re s s io n , 1964, p . 45.

2 K a m a la M a r k a n d a y a , Sem e I n n e r F u r y , The H o rb o ro u g h
P u b l i s h i n g C o . , L td ® , L o n d o n , F i r s t A cabocks E d itio n ,
1 9 6 0 , p® 9 .

3 I b id ,, p. 89.

4 A ttia H o s a in , S u n l i g h t o n a B r o k e n C o lu m n , C h a t t o
& W in d u s , L o n d o n , 1961, p 8 34.

5 M an o h ar M a lg o n k a r, D i s t a n t D rum , A sia P u b lis h in g

H o u se, B om bay, 19 6 0 , p. 49.

6 B„ R a j a n . T h e D a rk D a n c e r , H e in e m a n n , L o n d o n , 1959,
p 9 69®

7 K a m a la M a r k a n d a y a , T h e C o f f e r D am s, H a m is h H L m i lto n ,
L o n d o n , 19 6 9 . p . 12®

8 An a n d L a l l , S easons of J u p ite r, J o n a th a n C ap e,
London, 1958, p s 51®

9 K a m a la M a r k a n d a y a , Som e I n n e r F u r y , p® 9 6 .

10 I b id ., p® 8 3 .

11 K h u sh w an t S in g h , I s h a ll n o t h e a r th e n ig h tin g a le ,
Jo h n C a ld e r , London, 1959, p„ 2 4 1 .

12 M ah o h ar M a lg o n k a r, T h e P r i n c e s , p. 162.

13 K a m a la M a r k a n d a y a , P o s s e s s i o n , P u tn a m & C o . , L t d . ,
London, 1963, p® 202®
 363

14 R. P raw er J h a b v a la , A Backw ard p l a c e . O r ie n t

P ap erb ack s, D e lh i, 1965, p. 219.

15 R® P ra w er J h a b v a la , "A S p i r i t u a l Cal l ' ' i n A

S t r o n g e r C l i m a t e , Hohn M urry, L on d on , 1968,
p . 93 ®

16 R» P ra w er J h a b v a la , A Backw ard P l a c e , p® 1 6 .

17 Kamala M arkandaya, P o s s e s s i o n , p® 1 9 .

18 Mulk R a j, An a n d . P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d ia n
P r i n c e , H u tc h in s o n , L on don, 1 9 5 3 , p . 2 3 .

19 M anohar M a lg a n k a r, D i s t a n t Drum, p . 5 2 .

20 M anohar M a lg o n k a r , Combat o f S had ow s, Hamish

H a m ilto n , L on d on , 1 9 6 2 , p® 8 6 .

21 Ib rd ® , p® 9 ,

22 I b i d . , p® 283®

23 N a y a n ta r a S a h g a l, A Tim e t o b e Happy, J a ic d
P u b li s h in g H o u se, Bom bay, 195 7 , p . 222®

24 A t t i a H o s a in , S u n li g h t on a B ro k en Colum n, p . 259.

25 N a y a n ta r a s a h g a l , T h is Tim e o f M o rn in g , V i c t o r
G o lla n c z L t d . , L on d on , 1 9 6 5 , p® 1 2 1 .

26 A t t i a H o s a in , S u n li g h t on a B roken Colum n, p . 5 6 .

27 K am ala M arkandaya, P o s s e s s i o n , p . 2 1 8 .

28 N a y a n ta r a S a h g a l, A Tim e t o b e H appy, p p . 1 2 2 -1 2 3 .

29 K hushw ant S in g h , I s h a ll not hear th e

n i g h t i n g a l e , p® 2 4 .

30 N a y a n ta r a S a h g a l, T h is Tim e o f M o r n in g , p . 6.
 364

31 8. R a j a n . Too L ong I n t h e W e s t, J a ic o p u b lis h in g

H o u s e , Bombay# 1961# p . 1 3 0 .

32 R* P r a w e r J h a b v a la # A B a c k w a rd P l a c e # p . 114.

33 K a m ala M a rk a n d a y a # T h e C o f f e r Dams# p . 197®

34 R. P r a w e r J h a b v a la # " In Love w ith a B e a u tif u l

G i r l " i n A S t r o n g e r C l i m a t e # p® 11®

35 R» P r a w e r J h a b v a la # Esm ond i n I n d i a ,- G e o rg e A l l e n
a n d U nw in L td ® , L ondon# 1958# p® 2 5 2 .

36 K a m a la M a rk a n d a y a # T h e C o f f e r Dams# pp® 1 3 -1 4 *

37 N a y a n t a r a S a h g a l# A T im e t o b e H appy# p . 215.

38 I b id .# p, 227.

39 K a m a la M a rk a n d a y a # T h e C o f f e r Dams# p® 62®

40 M a n o h a r M a lg o n k a r# D i s t a n t Drum, p . 243®

41 R .K . N a ra y a n # L a w le y R oad# O r i e n t P a p e r b a c k s #
D e lh i# (Y ear o f p u b l i c a t i o n i s n o t m e n tio n e d ),
P® 1 2 a

42 N e r g i s D a la i# M i n a r i # P e a r l P u b l i c a t i o n s P v t .#
L t d .# Bombay# 1967# p p . 1 5 9 -1 6 2 .

43 N a y a n t a r a S a h g a l# A T im e t o h e H appy# p® 9 =,

44 M a n o h a r M a lg o n k a r# C om bat o f S h a d o w s# p . 30®

45 K a m a la M a rk a n d a y a # som e i n n e r F u r y # p . 15 7 .

46 N e r g i s D a la i# M i n a r i # p p . 8 8 -8 9 .

47 K a m a la M a rk a n d a y a # Some I n n e r F u r y # p® 1 4 8 .

48 B . R ajan # T he D a rk D a n c e r # p . 163®
 365

49 K am a !a M ark a n d a y a # Some I n n e r F u r y # p* 1 5 8 .

50 K a m a la M a rk a n d a y a , P o s s e s s i o n / p . 8 0 .

51 R a ja Ra O/ T h e S e r p e n t a n d t h e R o p e/ J o h n M u rra y /
L o n d o n , I 9 6 0 , -pp. 3 5 6 - 3 5 7 .

52 I b id ./ p. 64.

53 M a rk a n d a y a , P o s s e s s i o n / p . 1 9 2 .

54 I b id ,, p. 69.

55 M a rk a n d a y a . Some I n n e r F u r y , p® 9 9 .

56 An a n d L a l l # S easons o f J u p it e r , p. 26.

57 B . R a j a n , T h e D a rk D a n c e r , p . 72.

58 I b id ., p. 81.

59 M a rk a n d a y a . T h e G o f f e r Dams, p . 37®

60 M a rk a n d a y a , P o s s e s s i o n , p® 1 6 4 .

61 M a rk a n d a y a , T h e C o f f e r Dams, p . 1 9 .

62 M a lg o n k a r , T h e P r i n c e s , p. 211®

63 R .K .N a r g y a n , Mr® S a m p a th , I n d i a n T h o u g h t
P u b l i c a t i o n s , M y s o re , (19 4 9 ) , 19 6 6 , p . 207.

64 M ulk R a j A n a n d , "T h e G o ld W a tc h " i n T h e P o w e r o f

D a rk n e ss, J a i c o p u b l i s h i n g H o u se , Bom bay, 1 9 5 8 ,
p. 46.

65 S a h g a l , A T im e t o b e H appy, p p . 2 6 7 - 2 6 8 .

66 B . R a j a n , T h e D a rk D a n c e r , p . 1 2 4 ,

67 M a rk a n d a y a , Some I n n e r F u r y , p® 1 2 8 . -

68 S a h g a l , A T im e t o b e H ap p y , p . 108.
 366

69 K h u sh w a n t S in g h , I s h a ll n o t h e a r th e n ig h tin g a le ,
p . 157.

70 M. R. An a n d . P r i v a t e L i f e o f a n I n d i a n P r i n c e ,
p. 44*

71 M a lg o n k a r , C om bat o f S h a d o w s, p® 2 2 7 .

72 M a lg o n k a r , D i s t a n t Drum, p . 16.

73 S a h g a l , T h i s T im e o f M o r n in g , p p . 4 8 -4 9 .

74 B. -R a ja n , T h e D ark Da n c e r , p . 2 20.

75 K a m a la , M a rk a n d a y a , H e c t o r i n a S ie v e , J a ic o
P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , Bom bay, 1 9 5 5 , p . 32.

76 I b id ., p. 1 0 8 -1 0 9 .

77 I b i d . , pp® 43-44®

78 I b id ® , p . 71.

79 M a rk a n d a y a , Some I n n e r F u r y , p® 92*

80 A ru n J o s h i , T h e..F o r e i g n e r , A s i a P u b l i s h i n g
H o u se , Bom bay, 1 9 6 8 , p . 170.

81 A t t i a H o s a in , S u n l i g h t on a B ro k e n C o lu m n , p . 49.

82 M a lg o n k a r , T h e P r i n c e , p . 42.

83 I b id ., p. 49.

84 I b id ., pp. 8 1 -8 2 .

85 I b i d . , p a 107.

86 D*C. Home, So M any < So G a l l a n t i C u r r e n t Book

H o u se , Bom bay, 1 9 5 1 , p . 2 3 .
 367

87 D .C . Home, H u n g ry H e a r t s , K a th a S h i l p a , C a l c u t t a ,
1 9 6 5 , p® 153*

88 M ulk R aj An a n d . M o rn in g P a c e , K u tu b - P o p u l a r ,
Bom bay, 1 9 6 8 , p . 562*

89 A n i t a D e s a i , V o ic e s i n t h e C i t y , P e t e r Owen,
L o n d o n , 1 9 6 5 , p„ 140*

90 S a h g a l , A T im e t o b e H ap p y , p® 1 .

91 A n ita D e s a i, V o ic e s i n th e C i t y , p p e 1 0 6 -1 0 7 .

92 M a lg o n k a r , C o m b at o f s h a d o w s , p® 1 2 8 .

93 R a ja R ao, T h e S e r p e n t a n d t h e R o p e, p . 2 0 .

94 I b id ® , p . 83.

95 R .P . J h a b v a l a , A B a c k w a rd P l a c e , p® 104®

96 R. P r a w e r J h a b v a l a , T h e H o u s e h o l d e r , Jo h n M u rra y ,
L o n d o n , 1 9 6 0 , p , 62®

97 I b id ® , pp® 122-123®

98 S a h g a l , T h i s T im e o f M o r n in g , p B 109*

99 R.K» N a ra y a m , T h e G u id e , I n d i a n T h o u g h t p u b l i c -
t i o n s , M y s o re , 1 9 5 8 , p p . 2 1 7 - 2 1 8 .

100 S a n t h a Rama R au , Rem em ber t h e H o u se , V i c t o r

G a l l a n c z L td ® , L o n d o n , 1 9 5 6 , p . 1 0 5 .

101 A ru n J o s h i , T h e F o r e i g n e r , p , 88®

102 B. R a j a n , T oo d L o n g i n t h e W e s t, p p . 1 5 4 -1 5 6 .

103 A ru n J o s h i , The F o r e ig n e r . p s 1 8 .

104 S a n th a Rama R au , Rememb e r t h e H o u s e , p® 6 4 .

 368

105 B. R a j a n , Too L o n g I n t h e W e st, p . 52*

106 S a n t h a Rama R au, Rem em ber t h e H o u se # p . 90*

107 A ru n J o s h i , T h e F o r e i g n e r / p . 68*

108 S a n t h a Rama R au, Rem em ber t h e H o u se , p® 123*

109 N e r g i s D a l a i , M i n a r l , p„ 1 6 8 ,

110 B. R a ja n . Too L ong i n t h e W e st, p. 55.

111 I b id ., p. 50.

112 M a lg o n k a r , D i s t a n t D rum , p p . 8 7 -8 9 *

113 S a n t h a Rama R an, Rem em ber t h e H o u se , pp* 8 5 - 8 6 .

114 A run J o s h i , T h e F o r e i g n e r , p p . 3 3 -3 4 .

115 R»K. N a r a y a n , T h e V e n d o r o f S w e e ts , I n d i a n
T h o u g h t P u b l i c a t i o n s , M y s o re , 1967, p . 151.

116 K .S .N a y a k , Cam pus o n F i r e , C u r r e n t Book 'H o u se,

Bom bay, (Y ear o f p u b l i c a t i o n n o t m e n tio n e d ),
P® 8 2 .

117 S a h g a l , T h i s T im e o f M o rn in g , p® 1 3 4 .
 369

CHAPTER IX

RELIGION AMD PHILOSOPHY

/
/

v> Religion and philosophy constitute the very bedrock

on which Indian life is founded. The Indian concept of

religion has evolved in the course of thousands of years

and is based on the salient values of the Vedic culture.

It comprises the four stages (ashramas) of Brahmachary-

ashrama, Grihasthashrama# Vanprasthashraroa and Sanyasa-

shrama# pursuing the goals of Artha, Kama# Pharma#

Moksha. Satya was accepted as the highest fundamental

value of righteous life. Dedication and self-mastery

were ancillary to the pursuit of truth. Action without
Yajna resulted in unhappy involvement and, therefore,
the elimination of the eg© was imperative for a spiritual
life. Yajna meant sacrificing of untruth and self-in dil­
igence. Tapas meant a process of purifying body and mind

for the worship of God# through the sublimating influence

of Scriptures. This sort of spiritual discipline would

unfailingly ensure the integration of human personality

and the realisation of Self.

The law of Karma and Resurrection is a distinctive

contribution of Indian philosophy. Karma is not fatalism

as.id misunderstood by an average Westerner. This

principle is founded on the belief that the accumulated

merit of actions performed in earlier lives is carried
 370

forward in the account of our next life. Man cannot

completely abandon action but he can abandon his involv­
ement in desires and actions to be spared from the
consequences. This is much easier preached than practi­
sed. In a modern, materialistic, complex world such as
ours, this idealistic way of thinking and living very
often leads to the confusion of perspectives, A mere
observance of certain rites and rituals, traditions and
customs would degenerate into hollowness, hypocrisy,
mechanical and soulless worship and prayers and sometimes
also into blind fatalism, suicidal indifference, list­
lessness and inertia, criminal otherworldliness,
material insufficiency, handicap and abjectness, and
masochistic repressions of desires. The average modern
Indian hovers between faith and faithlessness owing ta
the criss-cross currents of ancient Indian traditions
and the materialistic modernity. She illiterate cling
to the dogmatic creed and the highly educated, especially
the foreign-returned, are preyed upon by scepticism and
even atheism. This aspect of Indian life should naturally
be regarded by the indo-Anglian novelist as full of
absorbing interest in view of the modern complexities
of human life caused by the relentless grip of material­
ism, the spirit of questioning within, the sense of
inescapable isolation and doom and the crisis of faith
and character.
 371

Indian novelists in English have commented on the

nature# need and scope of faith in Indian life. Faithful
i devotion is an important aspect - just as spiritual
knowledge and righteous action are - of the triple -
columned super-structure of men's religious life. Faith

sublimated by sacrifice becomes an eternal beacon-light

to guide the wavering. Khushwant Singh draws a picture

of the brave faith of the last warrior Guru# who had

sacrificed everything but his sense of self-respect and

justice. Even the valiant Sabhrai, in I shall not hear

the nightingale# feeling shaken at the grim possibility

of sacrificing her son Sher on the altar of faith and

justice, struggles to sustain her faith by meditating

constantly on Guru Govind Singh. "There was a man. He

had lost all his four sons and refused to give in to

injustice,.... she was a Sikh; so was her son. Why did

1
she ever have any doubts ?" Khushwant Singh also
depicts the anguish of a soul in doubt in an hour of
crisis. Sabhrai's mind is vexed about the suggestion -
which is accepted by the other members of her family -

that Sher should give the names of his accomplices to

the police and get the King's pardon. She doubts whether
2
her faith is lost. in fact, she tells sher that the
Guru wishes that he should not give the names of his

friends. This shows how the devout regards duty to be

greater than love and how faith fortifies them with a

superhuman endurance. Shakuntala Shrinagesh also
 372

expresses the agony of a moribund woman realising the

need of faith in life® In The Little Black Box, Sarala
regrets that she does not have the simple faith of her
mother - it would have been her spiritual prop when
Death is about to lay his icy hand on her*" I am ^
creature with a mind but without a soul s would to God
3
that I had an iota of her faith now 1" This reminds
us of Marlowe's Paustus and his agonised lament over
'Paradise Lost'® Kamala Markandaya illustrates how a
man's faith returns to him under the impact of a dramatic
experience. Dandekar, in A Silence of Desire* is deterred
from smuggling away the silver lampions placed before the
tulasi due to his compunctious conscience* When he
explains to his daughter Lakshmi that he has tripped
over the lampions, she apologises to the tulasi®
Dandekar's conscience is relit by this innocent holy
sight® "The tree is not God, he whispered, but it is a
symbol of God. with shaking hands he trimmed the wicks
and lit the tiny flames*“4 K. A. Abbas dramatises the
snapping of the thread of faith in the heart of a tender
boy* In Inquilab, Anwar, fortified with faith that God
grants innocent children's prayers promptly, prays t®
God soulfully in JUma Masjid for his sister Anjum's
recovery* That night be goes to bed consoled, to be
awakened before dawn to find Anjum dead® He feels that
prayers are futile® "As those bitter thoughts came
 373

rushing to his mind, something snapped within him® It

5
was faith“a

Kamala Markandaya asserts the faith of the saintly

souls that no person's service would be unwanted by God*
In Possession, when Anasuya tells the Swamy that with

his family, country and the life he leads, he would bea

misfit in the religious environs® The flame of the

Swamy's faith is undimmed "One can never be," he said,

"a misfit in the service of God." Khushwant Singh

tenderly shows how a true worshipper ultimately rises

to the stature of being the worshipped. Sabhrai, in I

shall not hear the nightingale, collapses - under the

tension of the conflict regarding Sher - never to recover,

after instilling into her people a new strength of faith®

The wavering Buta Singh says that they should live up

to Sabharai's ideals of truth® Their way of life must

7
be such as hers - guided by the Guru's words, Man can

invest his life with such a profound significance that

his journey would be from mortality to eternity®

Markandaya shows how this religious training helps man

in tiding over evil temptations in life® Mrs® Peabody,
4
m Possession, apprehends that Val*s growing attration
for the Americans would cause his spiritual degradation,
were he to raise his creations above himself® But Anasuya

is sure that Val, with his religious background, would

8
never do that*
 3?4

In lnd~ia, religion is .^regarded as '!&he last

refuge of the hopeless and hapless who ferve-n-tly wor­

ship God and offer prayers® R-ukmani and Nath-an, in

Markandaya 's Nectar in a Sieve# desires^to have more

children and, therefore, her mother and Rukmani pray
earnestly and long, but Rukmani's fortitude is shaken
and she bitterly feels that the Gods had no time to
Q

listen to all complaints. The picture of a man lying

prostrate before his deity, in repentance or gratefulness,

is a touching-but not unusual - scene in India. The

narrator, in S. Y. Krishnaswamy *s Kalyani *s Husband, is

moved to see Kalyani, - who feels humble, because

despite her vanity, the goddess has graciously awarded

Shekhar as husband to her - prostrate, ‘without any rest­

raint, before the Mother®*0 In S® P. Dhanda*s surgeon

Oa es to War, Diwan, who has emerged triumphant in the

epic struggle with Pakistan and has lost Usha and gained
11
Mumtaz, expresses his profound gratitude to the Almighty.
In D. Surya Rao *s The Two Visions, when Jagadish returns

to her boson, Kamala's first thought is her gratefulness

12
to God® The impact of religiousmindednesS of the
devout even on those who are indifferent to religion is
indicated by R. K« Narayan and Chaman Nahal. Raju, in
The Guide, cannot help regretting how he would not see
again his mother sitting before the pictures of God and
13
lost in meditation in the corner reserved for worship®

Arun, in Chaman Nahal®s Azadi, conjures up a very moving

 375

p i c t u r e o f h i s f a t h e r L a l a K a n sh i flam's s t e a d f a s t f a i t h
i n Lo r d K r i s h n a , When a l l t h i n g s a ro und him seem t o be
' f a l l i n g a p a r t in th e c y clo n ic weather of p o s t-in d e p e n ­
dence communal h o l o c a u s t . His d a u g h t e r Madhu*s s l a u ­
g h t e r s h a t t e r e d Ka nsh i Ram's p s y c h e . He shuns a l l s o c i a l
c o n t a c t b u t does n o t g i v e up one t h i n g - h i s p r a y e r .
A f t e r t h e c h a n t i n g of hymns, he would g e t e n g r o s s e d in
' s i l e n t ' p r a y e r , vjhen Arun, s c e p t i c and b o r e d , w i t h e s s e s
"on h i s f a c e , l i k e a c a r a v a n p a s s i n g , a whole f l e e t of
em o tio n s".^ Khushwant S ing h s t r e e s e s one s i g n i f i c a n t
s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s man must p r a y to God f o r h i m s e l f ,
t h e r e can b e no prox y i n p r a y e r s 1. Sabhrai, in I s h a ll
n o t h e a r t h e n i g h t i n g a l e , r e s e n t s Buta S i n g h ’ s s u g g e s t i o n
t o engage a p r o f e s s i o n a l r e a d e r f o r a c o m p le te r e a d i n g
o f t h e G ra n th a S a h i b , She s a y s s h e would do i t on h e r
15
own,

vMost I n d i a n s a r e l a r g e - h e a r t e d and c a t h o l i c - m i n d e d
i n a f f o r d i n g t h e maximum l i b e r t y t o o t h e r s t o f o l l o w
t h e i r own r e l i g i o n s , , They show u n i v e r s a l t o l e r a n c e and
understanding. I n d i a a b s o r b s any f o r e i g n r e l i g i o n and
b eliev es t h a t a l l re lig io n s are equal. The r u r a l f o l k
a r e g e n e r a l l y o r t h o d o x and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e y m i g h t behave
f a n a t i c a l l y b u t , by and l a r g e , t h e y t o l e r a n t l y r e s p e c t
a ll religions. I n d o - A n g l i a n n o v e l i s t s have b r o u g h t o u t
t h i s Indian sense of reg ard f o r a l l r e l i g i o n s . Nayantara
S a h g a l o f f e r s p e r t i n e n t o b s e r v a t i o n s on H in duis m , i t s ,
 376

all-absorbing catholicity and yet its permanence, in

This Time of Morning. Kailas ruminates about the cont­

raries - or the paradoxes ? - of Hinduism s it has

metaphysical depth, but it also has the blots of untou-

chability, ignorance and superstition® India has been

the home also of Jews, Christians and Muslims and has

let them practise and propagate their respective relig­

ions® Sarat Mitxra, who is drawn to the new learning,

does not even think of conversion® Macaulay had fore­

cast the disappearance of Hinduism, but it is never to

be® Hinduism is nourished on subterranean, perennial
springs of omnipotent hereditary faith® "..... they,
(the Hindus) honoured the gospel of Christ as they had
3.S
that of the Buddha before him, and remained Hindus."
Nayantara Sahgal evokes a good image of the naive but
devoted pilgrims and their respect for all religions.
The narrator, in A Time to be Happy, asks Behari if

Behari*s mother would like to have a necklace blessed

by the Pope of Rome® Behari, with the characteristic

religious tolerance of the simple folk, asserts i "In

17
the eyes of God, all faiths are one®" in Khushwant

Singh's Train to Pakistan, Iqbal asks Bhai Meet Singh

whether they like the American missionaries preaching

Christianity in their village® The Bhai replies calmly

1.8
that everyone is allowed to follow his religion* It

is painful to think how these placid crystal lakes of

religious catholicity were dirtied by beastly communalism

 377

at the time of the Partition® Khushwant Singh, again,

brings out the religious generosity of the orthodox®
Shunno in, I shall not bear the nightingale, goes to
Hindu temples just as she goes to the Gurudwara. She
respects Brahmins and cows as also the Muslim fakirs
and gives alms to all beggars, irrespective of their
creed or community® ,0---

f Indians are generally tolerant, but politicians

and priests ignite the fire of fanaticism in them and
then there is no stopping. Mascarenhas explains that
' all religions are equally good and advocates mutual
tolerance and understanding® In Sorrowing Lies Mv Land.
when Tab solaces Babush that God may take Vasant and
Bagoo to Heaven, Babush asks how they, being Hindus,
can go to Heaven. Tab replies that Heaven is not the
monopoly of any one religion. 20 Zeenuth Futehally poses
the crisis of a broadminded person besieged by fanaticism.
In 2ohra, whenever Zohra cannot echo Bashir's vehement
tirades on other religions, he believes that Zohra's
Muslimness is diluted® Zohra disowns her Muslimness,
if to be a Muslim is necessarily to be fanatic. 21

, \'-The Gita is the treasure-house of philosophic

wisdom of Hinduism at its best® The teachings of the
‘ Gita have been absorbed into the very fibre of all Hindus
- the literate and the illiterate® Anita Desai quotes
profusely from the Gita to unfold the churning in Mayafe
 378

soul in Cry, the peacock. She shows how the Gita can

soothe the arrguished souls® To fill the rift between

Gautam and her, Maya turns to seek her solace in the

Gita from the magnificent words about the Sthitpragnya#

extolling serenity® Ifollow scriptural recitation may

breed monotony® The scriptural wisdom, culled from the

hundred - petalled soul-flower, must be absorbed in a

mood of total surrender and serene receptivity. Anita

Desai tries to assert the applicability of the precepts

of the Gita® Gautam tells Maya that he has not driven

her away from the party but has saved her from its
boredom® Maya says that she wants to be with him. He
then quots the famous verse from the Gita, preaching

freedom from all attachment, the root of longing, anger#

delusion, loss of memory, loss of discrimination and

perishing® Maya furiously reacts, saying that She wants
23
love® It is natural to recall Romeo *s retort to Friar
Lawrence - "Hang up philosophy, unless philosophy can
create a Juliet j"24 \X>'/

Anita Desai analyses the sense of isolation and

futility in the light of ancient religious wisdom®

Monisha, in Voices in the City# reflects on how Nirode*s

work and failure in life has been influenced by the

teaching of the Gita® Nirode has worked without regard

for the fruit of action, detachedly; but he is involved

with mother and the past and that is the end of peace.
She wants to caution her doomed brother to cast away
 379

involvement and *be totally empty, totally alone'.2"’

Anita Desai subtly unfolds how the dispassionateness o£

a saint is almost akin to resignation, vacuity, indiff-

sxence to mundane interests — a sort of physical indol—

nence but along with it there should be spiritual

vigilance too® Arun Joshi, in The Foreigner, suggests

that detachment does not mean running away from action®

Sindhi has started his adolescent life on a note of

detachment. He loses much from his fear of getting

involved. He has to pay a high price for realising that

life means action, detachment from the dross of fear,

anger, pride, lust# He analyses his failure thus ;

"Detachment at that time had meant inaction® Now X had

begun to see the fallacy in it® Detachment consisted of
right action and not escape from it. The gods had set
a heavy price to teach me just that®*'26 This type of

psycho-analytical philosophising is a gift of post-

Independence fiction®

■0.' R® Prawer Jhabvala shows how difficult it is for

the religious to preserve a balance between the spirit

of action and that of resignation® The Gita exhorts one

to be active, but then the burden of the Hindu religion

is to surrender to the Lord's wish. Sarala Devi, in

Ready for Battle, cannot do anything worthwhile to

help the poor people of Bundi Busti® The serene atmosp­

here on the bank of the river washs out the filth of
 380

frustration from her mind and makes her feel pure,

blissful and free® But the regret is - the more she

has tried to be free in life, the more she has got

involved in the futile strife®

Nayantara Sahgal too punctuates the philosophy of

her characters with the teachings of the Gita, particul­

arly, the doing of the duty without expecting any reward*

Trivedi, in Storm in Chandigarh, tells Dubey about the

relative philosophy of non-violence and duty. Not to

fight because one recoils from bloodshed is cowardice*

Men, like Arjun, have to go forward into battle. Mrs.

Sahgal also shows how the Gita lesson can be admirably

enlarged so as to appeal to all religions and communities

by Swamy Satyanand for forging a true and united national
front® The Swami, in This Time of Morning, observes
that the battle of Kurbkshetra symbolises the struggle
between good and evil which all Indians have to fight
to serve their land. Their religion is no hurdle; only,
their faith is a must® Religion should not be a gulf
for separating people, but a bridge for uniting them and

yet, ironically enough, this ancient, wise, pre-eminently

religions sub-continent gave birth to a theocratic nation

- Pakistan I B. Rajan quotes Lord Krishna's admonition

to Arjuna, towards the end of his The Dark Dancer j

Krishnan thinks of it "as a condition to which his life

could work, even through the repetitions and frustrations®
 381

He who seeks freedom,.

Thrusts fear aside,
Thrusts aside anger#
And puts off desire :

30
Truly that man is made free for ever*...." B.

Rajan has performed the artistic miracle of conjuring

up the images of the spiritual growth and of the stature

of Krishnan•

The foreigner has always been drawn to Hinduism -

to commend or to criticise;.he could ndt remain indiff­

erent to it. Indo-Anglian novelists interpret Indian

philosophy and religion to foreigners in a manner which

reveals a degree of self-confidence and this is a post-

Independence feature, Arun Joshi examines the philosophic
theory of illusion as held by Hindus from the view point

of a foreigner. June, in The Foreigner, remarks in reply

to Sindhi's saying that death imparts a new realistic
dimension to love that in his - Hindu's - world, every­
thing is illusion, Sindhi clarifies s "Birth and Death

are real. They are constants. All else is variable,

in the rest you see what you want to see. According to

the Hindu mystics there is a reality beyond all this..„.

Raja Rao explains, in The Serpent and the Rope, the

philosophy of the concept of duality. He also inter­

prets the symbolism behind the serpent and the rope.

Rama tells Madeleine that the world must be either

 382

unreal or real. Erom the standpoint of illusion one

might look at the reality and one's eyes would then be

so wrapped up in Maya# Illusion# Serpent# that one would
feel for oneself and also the rope to be a serpent. The

Guru would point out that it is only a rope and then one
32
would be disillusion®!. Raja Rao's predilection for

the Vedantic philosophy is quite evident.

The doctrine of Karma is one of the most vital

points of Hinduism. It accounts for the theory of

i( -
rebirth and cycle of lives. It links up the past lives

with the present one as also the present life with the

future ones. It imparts meaning to the chain of events

and actions and renders them more acceptable. Nagarajan

elucidates the philosophy of Karma in Chronicles of

Kedaram. Koni feels that it was 'the crystallised wisdom
33 _
of the ages *. This is the core of Hindu philosophy s
life beyond life - a series of lives and the law of Karma
SR
operating all through^; lends the sembalance of .justice
to our deeds and happiness and which otherwise would

often seen to be grossly meaningless and unjust and

cruel - *a tale told by an idiotI', Shakuntala Shrinagesh

expresses all the grimness of the preordained course of

life ~ groping about in the bog of regret# frustration#

fatalism and death, sarala# in The Little Black Box#

ruminates on the futility of human struggle against an

inescapable pattern ordained for each individual.34 Raja
 383

Rao expounds the significance of self-realisation, of

introspection and of conquest of one's destiny. Karma,
by surrendering one's actions to God® Rama# in The Ser­
pent and the Rope, reflects that Destiny is ‘a series

of psychic knots', which can be undone by travelling

inwards. The going inwards is the true birth of the

Brahmin - to stop life and look into it and bathe in his

inner Ganges. Then could he become absolved of his sin.

“Sin is to think that in acting you are the actor t

freedom, that you never could be the doer or enjoyer of

an act. In the Ganges of such a life destiny dissolves

35
and you saildown to your own ocean®“ R» K. Narayan
refers to the Indian belief in the working of Karma in

human life© Raju, in The Guide, is arrested on a charge

of forgery. Rosie does not sympathise with Raju in his

predicament. She chastises him j "I felt all along you

were not doing the right things® This is Karma. What
36
can we do ?"

B® Rajan Shows, through the prism of modernity, the

Indian attitude to the philosophy of Karma, Krishnan, in

The Dark Dancer, defends the position of the British

regarding the Partition riots. He says he is not more

forgiving than the Medical Officer and his ilk, who

need the camouflage of fate. The belief in Karma is

37
every Indian 's instinct as well as excuse'. Our belief
in fate is often tainted either by dejected indifference

or aversion to change. The narrator, in Nayantara

 384

Sahgal 's A Time to be Happy# explains to MeIvor how a

forthright sensuality exists side by side with a stark

and stoic renunciation in Indian life. Melvor remarks
that this getting the most of life does not accord well
with the Indian fatalistic approach of Karma. The

narrator elucidates that Karina merely means living your

life and doing your duty and that the past# present and

future lives are all interlinked. Veena Paintal's

Serenity in Storm presents naively the traditional

picture of woman seeking her shelter in' providence.

Koshni has to sacrifice her love for Deepak in the

interest of her father's life. She seeks the age-old

solace of Karma and surrenders her will at the feet of

Rama# because duty of Karma was the sum-total of perfec-

39
tion in life. Muthu# in Arun Joshi's The Foreigner#
and the Chacha# in Ved Mehta's Delinquent Ghacha# Naga-

bhushanam# in D. surya Rao's The Two Visions# and Thakur

•Singh in Mulk Raj Anand's The Road# also firmly believe
in and assert the all-important role of Karma in man's
life. They hold that man is ohly the instrument# the
will is the Lord's. This shows how an average Indian's

mind is deeply coloured by traditional religions and

philosophical thought.

R. K. Narayan employs his subtle irony to indicate

that even the educated try to explain away anything

beyond their ken with the help of the doctrine of Karma.

In Waiting for the Mahatma# when Sriram's granny comes

 385

back to life, the Doctor is baffled and apologetic and

admits that miracle is enough to make one believe in

40
soul. Karma and all that. Mulk Raj Anand makes his
pretentious priest expound the philosophy of Karma.
The priest in The Road, says that the untouchables

'were condemned by their Karma to work out their doom*

in dirt. He suggests a purificatory ceremony which

Thakur Singh resents but cannot escape from. The priest

says i "Always they will remain tainted by their past

41
deed, but you are twice-born....«“ The concept of

Karma is sometimes misused for excusing one's weaknesses,

failures, blunders and sins.

The doctrine of the cycle of resurrection is another

aspect of the doctrine of Karma. 'Here and now* is not

everything. Death is not the end of life, but the
beginning of another. This life is one arrested stage
in the perennial flux of Time. This rationalises the

concept of sin, suffering, penitence, redemption.

Undeserved happiness and unhappiness can only be accounted

for with the help of this doctrine of Hinduism which has

gone to the very roots of the mental and spiritual make­
up of the majority of Hindus. Anitq Desai refers to the

doctrine of resurrection. Gautam, in Cry, the Peacock,

wonders at Maya's conception of life as one brief episode.

He also wonders how Maya, a Brahmin, can hold such an

Occidental view, because the traditional Hindu view is

that the spark of life sheds a constant glow. To be
 386

tethered to this cycle would be regarded as fatalism#

but its logic cannot be ignored - 'one incarnation
acting upon the other* like ‘autumn following summer's 42
This doctrine of rebirth invests life with a new meaning#
a new sense of responsibility and challenge® Anita Desai
again discusses this problem® Maya asks Gautam the mean­
ing of death# and then# whether he believes in an after­
life, in the permanence of one's- soul# and the resurre­
ction of one's body# in different forms : if so# one
might die in any manner# for any reason and any number
of times# Gautam remarks, a shade caustically, that he
does not believe in the Christian theory of damnation. 43
R® K. Narayan gives an oddly humorous twist to the
philosophy of Reincarnation® In The Man-eater of Malqudi,
some religious-minded.persons tell Vasu to leave the
procession and Kumar alone because a stampede might
cause the deaths of many innocent persons. Vasu cyni­
cally retorts that if they really believe in the philo­
sophy of rebirth, they should not feel so deeply perturbed
s if one died, one would be reborn® Morever# he adds#
the Melas (e.g. The Kumbha Mela) also contribute towards
' *

keeping the population within manageable limits.^

Vasu *s logic is queer but compelling. It is time such
mammoth Melas were reassessed and remoulded in the new
context of a rqpidly changing world®

Every Indian is a born fatalist. At least it used

to be so until recently® On account of the spread of
 387

education and the spirit of self-confidence after Inde­

pendence, unhealthy and blind fatalism is questioned.
The Indian attitude now seems to swing between a willing
and philosophic acceptance and a passive acceptance of

suffering as ordained by the forces of fate. Apart

from the tranquil acceptance of God's will by the devout,

there are the morbid and the frustrated who wish to lay

all their failures at Fate's door. Raju, in R.K®

Narayan's The Guide, tells Velan that still the time is

not ripe for solving his sister's problem. Velan agrees,

saying that fate cannot be changed. Raju remarks that

they can at least understand it. Later, Raju says,

"What must happen, must happen; no power on earth or

45
heaven can change its course.aa,0" Markandaya shows
how Indian peasants are fatalistic and stoic in facing
the miseries of life. Old Granny, in Nectar in a Sieve,

earns her own livelihood in her miserable but uncompla­

ining manner® She tells Rukmani that such a life is not
45
unbearable, because one gets used to it® The doomed
islanders, in Marath s. Menon's The Sale of an Island,
the pessant pilgrims, in Bhabani Bhattacharya's short
story "Pilgrims in Uniform", The Manager of the hotel

Riviera, in R. K. Laxman *s Sorry, No Room, Sarala and

her mother-in-law, in R, prawer Jhabvala's short-story
"The Aliens", and even Dandekar - a fairly educated man

in Markandaya *s a Silence of Desire, indicate that even

in today's India, the sky of life is often overcast with

 388

clouds-of fatalism as ©f yore in Greece.

There is an acknowledgement of the forces of fate,

but also a determination not to yield - Aamir Ali

expresses a modern sentiment nourished in the Gandhian

era. In Conflict, the strain of fatalism threads

through different situations in Shankar's life and home.

His going to Bombay is regarded by his people as ordained

by fate. At the end of the novel, Shankar is firm in

facing the battle of life. He says, "It is no use crying

over spilt milk. What was written in our destiny had to

cone. I will not repine. I will rebuild.**4^ M.V.R.,

Sarma points out how difficult it is for a m o d e m

intellectual to find solace in God, when his fate

assumes an adverse colour. Gopalam* in The Stream,, is
shocked by Swarns's 'cruelty*• He is a fence-sitter
and as such neither an atheist nor a theist and cannot
possibly reconcile himself to the state of a blind
fatalist.4^

Anita Desai asserts the importance of moral values

in life and lands the spiritual values of silence and
solitude. Nirode, in Voices in the City, tells Ami a

that any sane person would try to protect his conscience.

One might have success.after success or failure after

failure - one has to reach the bottom. In the latter

case, exposing oneself to complete darkness, complete

isolation and agonies would be unbearable and also

 389

pointless. “All this fighting to carve out a destiny

for oneself. - it's nothing compared to the struggle it

is to give up your destiny, to live without one - of

49
either success or sorrow....." This spirit of fatal­

istic resignation is born of frustration and philosophy

- a sort of Existentialist quest for ghostly tranquillity.

Idol-worship holds and important place in Hinduism

and it is criticised b y others rather severely. Indo-

Anglian novelists refer to it from different and new

angles. They explain its significance from a broader

viewpoint. Bhabani Bhattacharya points out that the

meaning one attributes to an idol makes it go beyond the 1

qualities of wood, clay, plaster, marble, stone etc.,

In A Goddess Named Gold, Mira's Grandma explains that

not the face of the actress - who played the role of a

goddess - but the power that moves the human beings into

a feeling is important, she comments analogically, “we

make a Devi with clay, stone and the image gives us a

feeling and so it becomes more than its material, it

becomes a goddess. We worship what is thus created, not

50
the wood or clay." This is a simple but sound defence

of idol-worship, some persons stop at the images only

and fail to read them as symbols. They go crazy over

symbolism in literature, but miss or skip it in religion.

Kamala Markandaya depicts one fgyto ofiijidolatry viz., the

worship of the tulasi by Hindu women, Sarojini, in A

 390

Silence of Desire, worships the tulasi, but Dandekar *s

attitude to it.is one of indifference. He regards it

as a plant only but also accepts it as a symbol of God

whom no man can visualise without the aid of symbols*

He criticises non-Hindus, especially Christian converts,

who attack the idolatry of Hindus.and denounce cows, .

snakes, plants as idols but exempt paintings, prints

and statues, "And yet he had to concede, it was a fine
point, the difference between the reverence due to a

symbol and to its actuality; between the tulasi tree

51
and its maker." Markandaya has portrayed with subtl­

ety the quasirational attitude of the hesitant, mal-

westernised Hindus to their religion. Manohar Malgonkar
presents two extreme view points with regard to the
idolatry of Hindus. In A Bend in the Ganges, the tan dav
state of Shiva symbolises for Aji the dance of destru­
ction of evil and to the sophisticated modern youth

Gian, it is *a relic of some barbaric ritual .Gian,

however, is reminded that it is not the time for

harbouring casual thoughts about the family deity who

has brought them good. Gian compulsively chants - ‘Om

52
namah-Shivay *. . It is difficult to deny the charge

that our religiousness is based on selfishness and fear,

and it is, in the words of C.E.M. Joad, 'the cup-^board
love * of- God.

The traditional rites, rituals and ceremonies

should be reassessed and empty and dead ones must be
 391

discarded because ultimately these .are meant for man

and are only a means# but that should not be done for
the sake of novelty or just implementing some reforms.
Anita Desai discusses the value of scriptural dictates.
Gautam# in Cry# the Peacock# tells Maya that the ortho­
dox# who lament the disappearance of traditions# should
grasp the real meaning of religion and refrain from
performing the empty rites regarding birth# marriage#
53
death. Bhabani Bhattaeharya wields his irony against
the traditional Hindu belief about funeral rites# in
Music for Mohini# when Bistu's body cannot be traced
after his being drowned in the temple-pond and this
makes the performance of the funeral rites impossible
54
and his soul# therefore# would not find rest. Mulk
Raj Anand also criticises the mourning ceremonies and
suggests the interaction between the old Agakhani
religion and the Arya Samaj# Dev Dutt# in Morning Pace#
is impatient with the long drawnout ceremonies indulged
in by the coppersmith brotherhood. Women gossip and
men get drunk and their children suffer. "Our religion
has just become ritual and decadence 1 Custom l And
the Arya Samaj is not able to do very much about it 1"55
It is true that abstract principles of religion must be
made acceptable to all by rites# rituals and ceremonies#
but it should not go to the extent of vulgarisation and
subversion of its basic values and concepts, B» K.
Karanjia points out how the deadly iron framework of the
ceremonial religion provokes young hearts into resentment
 392

and would some day stifle religion itself. In More of

an Indian, Kersasp captions Piroja and Burjor with

asperity how# by their rigidity, they are abetting the

aversion of the young to their religion, namely, the

56
parsi religion. How ironically true that only the
zealots kill their religion l To be narrow-minded is to

be blasphemous.

S. Menon Marath triecTjias to assess the sacrifical

rituals in the light of the awakening of a new social

and spiritual conscience - a positively post-Gandhian and

post-independence influence. Marath shows how the truly

religious aspire to mortify blesh and conquer senses - a

reaction to sacrificial orgies. Chandu Menaon, in The

Sale of an Island, mortifies his flesh because his .faith

C *1
in the violent sacrifices and rituals is shaken.

> Festivals, the props of tradition, evoke fervour and

love for religion in men. Padmini Sen gup t a indicates,

in Red Hibiscus, that the Durga Puja festival, full of

gaiety and pageantry, is an all-Bengal affair. Even the

Bases, who are Brabmos, participate in the celebrations

58
with gusto. santha Rama Rau suggests how sane upper-

class persons, reformers and intellectuals in the modern

age disapprove of the festivals. In Remember the House,
Baba*s father says that the celebration of religious
festivals "merely perpetuates prejudices and breeds an
C Q

entirely unjustified sense of self righteousness.”

This sounds queer but not false, to easy self-righteous-

 393

ness would be far from being religious. This is a charac­

teristically modern# post-Independence sentiment coloured

by a growing sense of secularism•

Mulk Raj Anand aptly emphasises that conscience is

the very prop of religion and that# in this context# even

an orthodox# superstitious creed would be preferable to

iisconoclastic# immoral#' blasphemous modernity. Babu Ram

Ghand# in Morning Face# procures a job for Harish and

ironically asks his wife ‘to feed some more brahmins* and

pray to her ‘false Gods*# She asks him not to mock at her

gods before the children. Krishan feels that but for the

ritualistic morass in which his mother is enmeshed by the

selfish priests# she is more moral than his father# in

spite of her superstitions# because of her living consci-

Q Q

ence® An and# with his characteristic proletarianism#

depicts# in the short story# "The power of Darkness", how

the superstitious people of Kamli oppose the developmental

plans of the Government owing to their belief that it is

an insult to the goddess Kamli, and how the Government is

61
also callous to them® Bhattacharya als* describes the

blind faith and superstitiousness of the common folk in

backward villages in India# in Music for Mohini# because

they do not allow Shiva°s pond in Behula to be cleaned on

account of an aged crocodile supposed to be a devotee of

Shiva® R. K. Narayan illustrates the grip of religion

on some people. Ravi# in Mr. Sampath# who is unhinged in

mind due to frustration in love, is subjected to the

 394

ruthless tyranny of exorcism. Srinivas feels rebellious

at first but he then philosophises that nothing whatever

63
matters in the context of the timeless flux of Time,
In Manohar Malgonkar *s Combat of Shadows, the superstiti­

ous semi-aboriginal village folk refuse to inform Winton

about the mad elephant, who being an incarnation of Ganesh,
64
cannot be killed. In such a superstitious climate as
this, religious devotion would be based on fear instead
of love.

Indo-Anglian novelists feel righteously indiganant

against socio-religious hypocrisies and hoaxes, gullibi­

lities and atrocities. They show how people deceive and

cast off deception, when deception becomes an unbearable

spiritual burden. They worship their gods out of fear

and not love; selfishly and not selflessly to expiate

their sins but to commit new ones. Religious vows are

reduced to sheer bargains. All this comes in for relent­

less criticism. Evidently, these novelists have derived

benefit from the post-Gandhian religious, social, economic,

political and moral revaluations of life. Bhabani Bhatta-

charya is severe on the goosey Indian people who are
easily cheated by any hoax in the name of religion. B-1Q,
in He who Rides a Tiger, suggests to Kalo, a Kamar, to
cheat people by playing a fake priest and mint money.
Food-supply for the soul was a regular trade and with
necessary salesmanship he can make the spirit-starved eat

out of his hands. His words are a-tirade against the

 395

hypocrisies of conventional religion s "The temple is a

market and the priest a dealer. People are always ready

to pay well or feeding the inner man 1" The novelist

clearly suggests, later in the same novel, that one caught

in a spiritual hoax has no option but to shatter the hoax

or be shattered by it. Kalo boldly confesses that he, who

is not a Brahmin, has made Shiva *s abode and that he does

not know any Mantra and Tantra. ' He knows the sacrifice
he has to toake. But he has to.
Even when he rides the
66
tiger, he knows he has to kill the beast. Bhattacharya
exposes the two dark layers in which religion is often
shrouded - hypocrisy and deception. He shows that blind

forces of orthodoxy might be momentarily defeated, but

never fully demolished. Kalo kills the tiger he is riding.

Motichand - and also others - cannot do anything to him.

67
Motichand feels that Kalo will surely be punished by God.

Perhaps the novelist wants to suggest that the religious

hypocrites are incorrigible,
/

\X< R. prawer Jhabvala brings out ironically how people

read the Gita, but do not translate the sacred precepts

into action. Moreover, even when some people contemplate

religiously there is a subconscious strain of the mundane

in their mind. In Get Ready for Battle, Vishnu and his

mother Sarala Devi each has a different thing weighing on

the mind : he is perturbed over the rumoured divorce of

his parents and she is worried about the slumi Bundi Basti.
Vishnu starts reading from the Gita and reads and re-reads*
 396

Sarala Devi says sorrowfully : "®„...you are beautiful

as Krishna and strong as Arjuna. But your conduct is
that of a little merchant *s son®"68 The Gita verses,
full of divine wisdom, radiate Hindu homes, but sometimes
the philosophic gravity and fruitfulness are lost® Anita
Desai's caustic views on religion are expressed through
Monisha, an aesthete in the land of Midas, in Voices in
the City® In New Market, Nonisha sees the merchants
worshipping Ganesh and Lakshmi for fortune and wealth®
She goes on ruminating on the anaesthetic idols in the
selfish, greedy and cub-throat commercial environment. 69
Huthi Singh hints at the fear - almost Greek - of the
gods and their wrath and curses and the religious hypoc­
risy of some persons® In Maura, Panchi brags that she is
not afraid of losing what she has, owing to Ritha’s entry
into the haran® she is then afraid that her audacious
words may be mistaken by the gods for a challenge® "In
the presence of her friend, the ominous words could stand®
One’s god was in one’s heart®" It is true one’s religion
is an internal concern, but it should not be used as an
instrument of self-deception® Kamala Markandaya suggests
that mostly people believe that one worships when one
lacks something or suffers for something. Dandekar, in
& Silence of Desire, is perturbed to see Sarojini praying
to the tulasi tree so intensely that one may imaging that
her very life depends upon that prayer. 71 i

Bhabani Bhattacharya severely criticises the

 397

religious hypocrites who wish to reap profit from their

religion - the margin between charity and merit# In A

Goddess Named Gold# the sethji asks the Elders to inform

the Brahmin about the special pula# He remarks that the

amount does not matter, what matters is the devotional
72
feeling." This principle was, of course, in tune with
the Sethji's niggardly nature. Nergis Dalai exposes the
religious hoax of some fake sadhus who wish to create
sensation and deceive the religious-minded simple folk,

but in the m o d e m times they are often brought to book.

In Minari, a Sadhu promises the sigfct of a cobra with the

jewel which will fetch a lot of money to a person* A

small boy exposes the source of light which is not the

73
jewel, but a glow-worm. With the advent of freedom,

some persons at least have started thinking independently.

This rational approach is opposed to blind worship. But

still India is patently the land where deception can flou­

rish in the name of religion.

• Indo-Anglian novelists have frankly censured religi­

ous fanaticism leading to tyranny® Frenzy and violence
in any form when priests and rulers and followers of a

religion attempt to establish the superiority of the reli­

gion they follow, religious intolerance is the result#
This brings in its train armed encounters of different
degrees and innocent bloodshed. R. K. Narayan suggests
how one religion sometimes becomes an:; instrument of

torture and destruction for another. In Waiting for the

 398

Mahatma, Gandhiji and hi-s fol -lowers do not care to kno w

whether the orphaned children from Bengal and Bihar -,/aJS

Muslims or Hindus® Names often are labels for religion

74
and so they give than names of flowers and birds*

This is very true® Names proclaim communities and reii-

gions and sometimes cause riots. This is a Gandhian

sentiment. Nayantara Sahgal observes that the partition

riots had nothing to do with religion s they were the
outcome of man's primitive frenzy. Harpal, in Storm in
Chandigarh, does not think that the partition riots are
communal because religion has no part in their dealings,
with one another® "It was more like the clock turned
back to a primitive century. Men had always wanted power

over each other's minds and religion had been only one
75
weapon in their hands®" It is true that a riot is

incited more by frenzy than faith, but this frengy is

the result of a mistaken sense of religion® B. Rajan

suggests how the light of duty cannot be extinguished by

dark forces of fanaticism and duty must of necessity

transcend the communal prejudices and perils. In The

Dark Dancer, the M.D. has to acfrnit the cholera-stricken

Muslim to the Hospital, at the instance of Krishnan and
Kamala, in spite of his own communal prejudices and his
76
genuine apprehension of a communal flare up® Nayantara
Sahgal brings out how violence in any form is the viola­
tion of the very fundamental principles of religion®
Dubey and Saroj, in Storm in Chandigarh, are discussing
 399

how Gyan*s strike over the Chandigarh issue, which has

nothing Gandhian about it, breeds insecurity and imperc­

eptible decay* Dubey says s "A monolithic slab of

antiquity had survived the ages. A way of life, wrongly

called a religion, lay embedded in it. Against it the'
77
intellect insignificance." Lambert Mascarenhas indic­
ates, that tyranny cannot go well with religion and no
amount of church-going can vindicate cruelty. In Sorrow­
ing Lies My Lands. lab bluntly tells fehe the Regedor

that the Portuguese rulers do not know a thing about the

religion. He says that Salazar, who deprives others of
their inherent rights of free speech and free discussion,
is a tyrant and that he does not think Salazar knows
78
even the rudimentary principles of Christianity. The

show of religion is often a clock for hiding barbarity.

Mascarenhas, again, has brought out the distinction

between bigotry and devoutness. Tab and ana deeply love

each other and yet differ.; about their religious attitudes.

She asks him not to talk of God and religion in a ‘cont­

emptuous and familiar manner*. Tab would explain that

religion means much more than church-going and saying

prayers. He would ask, *IS n *t God everywhere and isn *t
He with us ? So how do you expect me not to be familiar
79
with Him ?"

The priestly class generally has been severely

^dealt with by Indo-Anglian novelists. Their faith in
'.the genuine holy man is unquestionable, as pointed out
 400

by prof. K. R. Chandrasekharan in respect of Markandayafe

holy men, especially the two Swamys in A Silence of

80
Desire and Possession. This cannot be accepted -in case

of priests who are on a lower plane. Their avarice,

vanity, impudence and lust are relentlessly exposed.

Most of than are believed-to be mere mercenaries and

even addicated to ‘bribes*. R. K. Narayan depicts the

impudence of priests as well as their power through their

being near to God through Margayya's ambivalent attitude

in The Financial Expert. He wants to come into quick

money and so he squanders money on all the fantastic

things as suggested by the old priest, but he does not

get money as promised. The young priest’s rudeness '

!

enrages him. Narayan shows how Margayya *s mind is divided

between his indignation at the impudence of the priests

and his fear at displeasing the priests who live in the

81
proximity of God. Mulk Raj Anand presents an ugly

facet of priestly life - double dealing in addition to

hypocrisy,- flattery and avarice. Suraj Mani, in The Road.

is what a priest should never..be. He causes a split bet­

ween Thakur Singh and Dhooli Singh and rules. He tells

the latter ; "God has become Dardyanarayan, become

incarnate in these ehamars l“ Suraj Mani excels himself

when he sanctifies ‘the phenomena of caste Hindus and

outcastes working together* and quots from the Gita

regarding the equality of all - truly, Dhooli Singh is a

82
Karma-Yogi l It is remarkable that Anand *s hate of the
 401

priestly class has not become diluted even in post­

independence times® The hypocritical# lecherous priest
in Untouchable is a fit ancestor of Suraj Mani in The
Road® Huthi Singh comments on the dwindling status of
the priests# some of whom have become hurdles in the
path of progress* in Maura# it is announced that one new
grand temple will be built in honour of the prince's
birth® Hanut resents this. He knows that the priests
are at the root of all that. He decides to curb them#
because they have become the 'preserves of tradition*#
S3
the cobwebs of conventionality® Hanut conveniently
forgot that the princes themselves were not less obstru­
ctive in the country's progress than the priests i
Malgonkar shows how man attempts to better his socio­
religious status by purchasing religious sanction# by
•bribing' the priests® prince Hiroji, in The Princes#
obtains the right of wearing the sacred thread and offer­
ing prayers like Caste Hindus from the Gokatn priests by
paying for the repairs of the Durga Ghat at Gokarn and by
giving costly gifts to the priests, to the chagrin of
84
Abhay, a representative of the New Age® The author *s
analysis of the different attitudes to religion as shown
by the people of old and new generations have scientific
dispassionateness. The priestly class is generally
believed to be selfish# greedy# not ready to work hard®

Indo-Anglian novelists have commented on inter-

 402

by the couple would pose problems, but not always. Raja

Rao delves into the mysterious interplay of two religions
in The Serpent and the Rope, finds a linqa from the Durance

and installs him, with Madeleine pouring holy water on

Shiva's head. She says Rama will make her a Hindu. Rama
remarks that the gods have no caste,' creed, community,
' 85
country. They are man's conception. Romen Basu shows

how people are reluctant to bring a girl of another

religion into their family. Karun's family, in & House

gull of People, is a compact family and even with the

advancement of education .and modernity in the family,, he

cannot accept Ghitra, a Christian girl as Ranjit's wife
86
and the others definitely cannot. Despite one's general
indifference to religion, it does have its Sway on one's

sub-conscious in many cases. B.K. Karanjia makes, as it

were, a plea to parsis to be more accommodative even by
way of gratefulness, in matrimonial alliances. Kersasp,

in More of an Indian, concedes that the parsi religion

would not have survived, had Hindus not given them asylum.

Still Kersasp has been unable to convince himself about

allowing inter-marriage. And now both his children *
Jamsu and Shirin - are determined to marry out of their
_ 87
community. sy^

Shattacharya shows how morality and religion - at

least to some - are not always separable. Satyajit, in

Shadow from Ladakh, asks himself if his defeat is due to

 403

the breach of a basic principle viz® Brabmacharya© If

the mind wanders, suppression of the body is harmful -
88
Gandhiji has said® This indicates that religion should
be practised in thought, speech and action - as the Gita

enjoins us to do©

How closely religion and art are related to each

other is indicated by K® Nagarajan, who brings out a

subtle point that our love for God is deepened by the

artistic environment of the abode of worship© Koni, in

Chronicles of Kedaram, remarks how Vasu likes the temple

of Kedareswara better than the god inhabiting it© He

comments on Vasu's analysis s "Kedareswara exploited His

environment© Doubtless a crude way of putting it but he

(Vasu) unwillingly came nearer the truth that God is what
89
man makes of Him© '*

Khushwant Singh indicates that one of the reasons

why the Communists have been unable to hook the simple,

villagers is their lack of religious faith which is

repellent to the rural folk© In Train to Pakistan, when

Iqbal talks about removing the princes and the landlords

to give meaning to freedom, Banta Singh asks him whether
he is a communist, because some other comrades als# have
talked similarly *to drain the sacred pool round the

temple at Tarun Tarun and plant rice in i t '®90 Religion

has deeper roots in the hearts of Indians and atheism

and blasphemy would not be at all welcom-e to them®

 40 4

Santha Rama Rau discusses the problem of imparting

religious inst r u c t i o n in educational institutions. In

R e m e m b e r the H o u s e , Krishnan tells Baba that it wo u l d be

difficult to teach Indianjchildren about the m o t h e r l a n d

without teaching them religion which constitutes the

back-bone of Indi a ' s greatest literature, music, art and

even politics® H e warns that they have to distinguish

between religion and s uperstition and philosophy and

mythology. H e says, "One m u s t teach them religion without

i n v olving ones e l f in the forms of worship themselves....

91
. M u l k . R a j Anand expresses his 'revolutionary* ideas

regarding r e l i g i o n , .e x ploitiation and the N e w Age in The

O ld Woman and the C o w ® Gauri relates h o w Dr. M a h i n d r a

believes that the poverty of t he peasants give birth to

the triple age n c y of E xploitation - priests, landlords

a n d moneylenders and God is always on their side® "Educ­

ation," Gauri says, quoting the big Daktar, "education

92
will make us m a s t e r s of o ur destiny - not religion."

This is a c h a r a c teristically m o d e m sentiment, question­

ing _ the blind w o r ship and asserting human values that can

shape man's destiny®

In the p ost-Independence p e r i o d the I n d o - Anglian

novelists p p p e a r to be more critical even of t h e i r own

religion which shows their impartiality® B. Rajan points

out the d i s t i n c t i o n between I s l a m and Christianity on the

one h a n d and H i n d u i s m on the other® In The Dark D a n c e r .

Krishnan iron i c a l l y asks if he can have Cynthia in the

 405

next birth* Kruger innocently comments that She cannot

be a Brahmin by then. Krishnan thinks that Muslims and

93
Christians are much happier than Hindus. B, K* Karanjia

thinks deeply about the Pars! religion and its exclusive­

ness despite its closeness to Hindu customs and ceremonies.

Kersasp, in More of an Indian, tells Ashok that the rese­

mblance between their religions is ritualistic and super­

ficial and that Parsis are true to the core of their
ancient religion. He agrees that the reasons why their
faith does not welcome converts are not religious but
circumstantial. Theirs being a paall,.dwindling community,

each Parsi has not only.to be a practitioner of his faith

94
but also its protagonist. This frank discussion is a

peculiarly post-Independence gift. A Parsi author, for

the first time, examines and interprets his religion dis­

passionately . Kamala Markanday.a indicates the differences

in the Eastern and the Western attitudes to religion

through the examples of Rukmani and Kenny in Nectar in a

Sieve. Kenny tells Rukmani that it is useless to suffer

in silence and that there is no grandeur in want or in

endurance. Rukmani reflects that it is weak to cry out

at every step for help and.that man's spirit must help

him rise above his misfortunes. ’'What profit to bewail
95
that which has always been and cannot change ?”

The Indo-British encounter resulted in the spread of

Christianity, boosted by conversions. Indo-Anglian novel-
 406

ists have surveyed this aspect with interest and excitement

and the picture that emerges is fairly impartial* As far as

the faith and sincerity of these missionaries are concerned,

the novelists do not have to say much against them® But

their activities are regarded with distrust and dismay to

the extent that even missionary schools and other insti­
tutions are regarded with suspicions by many Indians®
There were conversions for different reasons - considera­
tions of material advancement, of love and marriage, of -
reaction to social boycott - besides the genuine ones.
- Kamala Markandaya regards Kenny, the missionary and his
benevolent medical and social service in Nectar in a Sieve,

in a spirit of admiration. She, however, presents both

sides of the shield through the missionary Hicky in Some

Inner Fury. Apart from his narrow-minded conversionist

frenzy and his white man’s burden and his false witness

against Govind, Hicky is an unassuming, sincere missionary

as is seen in his establishment of the orphanage and school.

Premala is struck with it, but Hicky simply says % "We

96
work, and pray, and our prayers never go unanswered."
The general notion of dislike for missionary schools is

reflected in R. K. Narayan's The Guide. Raju refers to

his father’s dislike for the Albert Mission School® "I

don’t want to send my boy there; it seems they try to
convert our boys into Christians and are all the time
97
insulting our gods."'

Hilda Raj traces the social and religious environment

in India when the missionaries were struggling to convert

Indians to their faith® In The House of Ramiah, the miss­

ionaries have a moment of despair and think that their

efforts are futile. Moreover, the Hindus are suspicious

of the Christianswho, they feel, flourish because of

the British rule® They are oblivious of how the mission-
Q Q

aries have been suffering® This is the view of the

missionary activities from the Christian angle. Hilda
Raj accounts for the spread of Christianity and the
conflict in the mind and life of missionaries born of
their encounter with ‘heathen and ‘pagan* Indian religions
In The House of Ramiah, Jackson*s efforts are rewarded

when he finds the untouchables, wounded by social boycott,

seeking shelter in Christianity for recognition as humans®

99
But converts from other castes are rare® There was

something wrong about these conversions, because they

primarily appealed to the sensp of material progress®

However, it was a good antidote to the malaise of untouc-.

hability. Fortunately for Hinduism, Gandhiji realised

the perils of social injustice and ostracism and endea­
voured to solve the problem® Hilda Raj tries to show the

inter-action between love and religion and that conversion

must have.the solid foundation of conviction® Jagannathan
in The House of Ramiah, writes to his beloved Thilakam's
father, Paul Nayagam, that though an indifferent Hindu he
would not like to change his religion® But he wants to
escape from a marriage arranged by his parents which he
 40 8

can do by becoming a Christian.^®® Jagannathan later does

sacrifice his religion on the altar of love - how self­

contradictory is Jagannathan, or Hilda Raj for that matter ?

This also indicates the effect of m o d e m revaluation of

community - considerations®

Mulk Raj Anand contrasts the sectarian prosely-tization

with the traditional Hindu liberalism in The Old Woman and

the Cow® Miss Young informs Colonel Mahindra that she

wishes to take Gauri to the Ludhiana Mission, but he warns

101
her that he will not brook Gauri*s compulsory conversion®

Mascarenhas is a frank critic of Christianity and conversions

to that faith in Goa. He takes special pains to clear out

the cobwebs of the ritualistic, priestly, conversionist

fatalism strangling Christianity® He seems to think that

unconvincing conversions and pompous rituals had harmed

Christianity in Goa. He lays bare the hypocrisy of

Portuguese Christianity, bloodied by compulsory, persecuted

conversions. Tab, in Sorrowing Lies My Land, remarks

ironically that they are thankful to the Portuguese for

bringing Christianity to them in Goa. They had burnt

temples, mosques and many men and women in Goa. Terroris-

ation and persecution were rampant in the name of religion®

"Evengelisation had been used as a cloak for crime, and

102
robbery and butchery and murder." Few conversions have

a truly spiritual basis. Compulsory propagation and spread

of religion would surely result in degeneration® How it is

easy for Christians to assure the converts of the Christian

 409

ideal of equality but how difficult it is to really consider

the converts on a par with themselves is shown by Mascare-

nhas. Ema, in Sorrowing Lies Mv Land* admonished tha-t she

Laxmi that she is not worthy of marrying Antonio® Laxmi .

demands why Ema has talked of all being equal in the eyes

of God® "Are we to have one type of Christianity and

practise another ? If so, why did you make me a Christian

at all ? " ^ 3 prawer Jhabvala shows deftly the inter-

action between the Western and Eastern faith, while depict­

ing the repercussions of the East-West confrontation.

Bhuaji, in A Backward Place, has deep faith in God and Judy

echoes her sentiments, but her faith is a vague, easy faith,

because she has inherited a mistrust of the pious. Later,

in Bhauji’s company, she acquires Indian religious suscep­

tibilities and reiterates Bhuaji*s faith that God provides .^04

This is the Indian way of conversion® Deep faith, touching

and tender, - and not tempting half-starved people - is

the real weapon of the missionary*

yV
✓ Indo-Anglian writers after Independence interpret

religion broadly and sometimes rather loosely® Their strain

of thinking is patently imbued by a spirit of rational

questioning in the modern age® They resent blind faith and

orthodox rigidity. They often question - and some even

flout - old religious beliefs and practices® Their attitude

is not of patient or tolerant acceptance as in the age before

Independence, but sometimes bold, revolutionary and even

insolently blasphemous. S. Menon Marath dispassionately

 410

presents the case against the mortification of the body in

the name of asceticism. In The Sale of an Island. Chandu

Menon realises that the daily round of life is meaningless

and vows to-snap the bonds of mundane reality. He tells

Samban how one aspires to the purity - uninvolvement - of

the sun. Samban retorts that was ‘the insufferable conceit

of faith* - he resents that the claims of life be fought

back under the cloak of religion. ‘‘Creation is a mockery

105
then, if salvation can only be attained by its denial." -

This is an irrefutable piece of reasoning. - If.denial of

self be the goal of religion, why bother about anything — -

life, self, reality ? Religion was rarely attacked in such

a ruthless manner as this in pre-Independence fiction. In

Morning Face,.when Krishnan declares that if there is a God,

He must be very unkind to make Bakha an untouchable,-though

Bakha warns him against defying God.. Krishanan expresses

his terrible disdain at the injustice of the world. "To

invoke His wrath, I spit on God."^0^ This is a red light

to the parents vho unwillingly plant atheistic defiance in

their children by their religious discord watered by the

twin extremes of scepticism and orthodoxy. Kamala Martean-

daya brings out the sense of revolt of the new generation,

sharpened by the spirit of scepticism and frustration. In

A Handful of Rice, Ravi tells Nalini that Apu is in God*s .

hands. Nalini remarks that their livelihood too rests in

God*s hands. Ravi bursts out that men themselves can shape
107
their career, it is in their own hands to do so. This

new spirit is indicative of post-Independence realism and

 411

self confidence as opposed to blind faith®^'-'

Apart from the m o d e m spirit of inquiry and scepticism,

the Indo-Anglian novel reflects new attitudes to religion*

There is a desire to supplant old, parochial and strangling

traditions by new, liberal ideas. The new trend is not

always towards scepticism, blasphemy and irreligion, but

towards modernising and rationalising religion by libera­

ting it from the shackles of rites, rituals, sacrificial

libations, mechanical chanting of prayers and routine worship®

In a word, the yearning is for, humanising the orthodox forces

of religion® Anand Lall interprets the new concept of reli­

gion as shaped by the modern, enlightened spirit® In The

House at Adampur, when Jai asks Dev Raj, who daily and

regularly worships God, what his God is, Dev remarks that

Jai may not be religious in the accepted orthodox sense*

"What you reject or do not acknowledge is the God of your

ancestors® But that only means that you are making contact
108
with God in your own way." This indicates that even the

traditionally religious accept that religion does not merely

mean a rigid observance of rites and rituals, but it means

doing your duty sincerely and selflessly according to your

lights. M.V.R. Sarma also tries to reveal the meaning of

religion from the modernist angle, when Gopalam tells Joan,

in The Stream, that he believes in some supreme Force,, but

1og
does not like to follow the blind tenets of religion.

Bhabani Bhattacharya shows how sometimes conventional

morality should give way to a new and revolutionary

 412

i n t e r p r e ta tio n o f relig io n * I n So Many H u n g e r s , a young

d e s t i t u t e g i r l i s re d u c e d to b a r i n g h e r body b e f o r e a l i e n
s o l d i e r s f o r f e e d i n g a l a n e f u l o f d e s t i t u t e s t o whom t h i s
‘ f a l l e n * woman i s ‘ o u r own m o th e r* . R a h o u l, n o t a conven­
tio n - b o u n d moron, f e e l s t h a t ’ he h a d g lim p s e d t h e s a n c t i t y
110
o f t h e human s p i r i t * • T h is b r i n g s t o o u t mind t h e
im age o f S o n i a , i n D o sto e v s k y ’ s Crime and P u n is h m e n t. She,
t o o , s e l l s h e r body b u t s u s t a i n s h e r s o u l ; m a i n t a i n s h e r
f a m ily a n d r a i s e s even t h e h e r o from t h e m o ra ss o f s i n .
T h is i s t h e triu m p h o f t r u e r e l i g i o n o v e r f a k e m o r a l i t y .

B habani Bh a t t a c h a ry a i n d i c a t e s t h a t olid, o r th o d o x ,
r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s n e e d t o be r e v i s e d and so a d j u s t e d t o t h e
p r e s e n t age t h a t t h e s e would be a c c e p t a b l e . I n Music f o r
M o h in i, J a y a d e v ’ s m o th e r wants him to r e m a r r y , b e c a u s e
M ohini i s c h i l d e s s . He r i d i c u l e s b e l i e f i n t h e h o ro s c o p e
and w ises t h a t M ohini a l s o s c o f f s a t i t . He u r g e s M o h in i,
“Do n o t bow down t o su ch i n s u l t . You a r e t h e New I n d i a .
The o l d o r th o d o x ways h a v e b een o u r y o k e, h a v e e n s la v e d u s .
L e t us be f r e e ,*’ 1 These u t t e r a n c e s t r u l y r e v e a l t h e p o s t -
In d e p e n d e n c e a i r i n I n d i a . G a n d h iji* s b o ld a p p ro a c h to r e l i ­
g io n i n t h e new c o n t e x t c a n n o t b e u n d e rs tim a te d ® H is p ro p h ­
e t i c Z eal i n v i t a l i s i n g I n d i a n t h o u g h t , l i b e r a t e d from t h e
s h a c k l e s o f o rth o d o x y , c r e a t e d a f u r o r e and i n c u r r e d th e
w ra th o f th e o r th o d o x l e a d e r s h i p . An e n t i r e g e n e r a t i o n was
n o u r i s h e d on t h i s G andhian e l i x i r o f l i f e . B h a t t a c h a r y a ,
th ro u g h J a y d e v , f a i t h f u l l y b r i n g s o u t t h a t s p i r i t o f the
New Age. Mulk R aj' Anand h i n t s a t t h e combat betw een
 413

tradition and modernity, blind faith versus catholic

humanism, Victor, in Private Life of an Indian Prince,

objects that his views contradict the entire Vedantic

philosophy, when Dr, Shankar observes that there is no

power transcending man, Shankar suggests that the concept

of religion should be revised and enlarged. “At any rate,.

nowadays one*s religion must become more universal and

112
applicable to all". Dr, Shankar represents the trend

of the New Age - to rationalise, vitalise and humanise all

values of life, even religion®

Thus, Indo-Anglian novelists have dealt with the notable

features of Indian religion and philosophy to impart a new

dimension to their characters and achieve the artistic

miracle of convincing and wellrounded portraits. They

appear to have acknowledged the full significance of this

aspect in vitally influencing Indianlife. References to

the inner life of a character as shaped by the ancient

religions and philosophic wisdom are an artistic must for

understanding and explaining the mysteries of human behaviour

and action. These novelists bring out the modern spirit of

questioning and scepticism but nevertheless, stress the need

for real faith in life and present tender pictures of the

innocent in prayers to their gods. They do not miss to

mention how this faith often degenerates into fatalism.

Sheer, blind fatalism is castigated but, if along with the

recognition of the forces of fate there is determined prep­

aredness to face the odds in life, it does not go unnoticed.

 414

If the symbolic sense underlying idol-worship in India is

clearly indicated, it is equally clearly stated that' the

hollow and obsolete rites and rituals, ceremonies and fest­
ivals be discarded or remoulded after proper revaluation s
e.g. self-immolatbry asceticism is not brooked. They show
how most Indians, despite, their orthodoxy, give the proof
of their religious catholicity and magnanimity by respect­
ing all religions. They, however, condemn religious frenzy
and fanaticism, bred by priests, rulers, leaders and others
by cheaply appealing to the people*s sense of superiority
of and partiality for their sect or religion. The priestly
class comes in fox severe and harsh treatment as far as its
religious hypocrisies, hoaxes, vanities, injustices and

atrocities are concerned and yet the genuinely holy are

heartily revered. They frankly express their resentment

and indignation.against coercive conversions from one faith
to another and.yet maintain that genuine conversions should

not be obstructed. Their.penchant for punctuating the conv­

ersations of their characters with quotations from.the Gita
is evident, but, some of them, now and then, seriously
attempt to comment on certain philosophical principles in a
correct and subtle manner t e.g. Detachment does not mean
running away from action, but life means action purged of
fear, anger, pride, lust. They comment on the doctrines of

Karma and Resurrection a nd boldly indicate that the popular

Western conception of Karma as mere fatalism is delusive.
The foreigner may appreciate or censure Hinduism, but he
 415

feels so attracted to it that he can never ignore it. This

analytical strain of interpreting and,elucidating the prin­

ciples of religious philosophy is a positive achievement of
the post-Independence era.

\i-'
^-HThese Indian writers in English after Independence
evince a remarkable degree of self-respect in interpreting
the niceties and subtleties of their faith to foreign audi­
ences. They appear to.have shed their awareness of the

pre-Independence deep-seated sepse of inferiority and diff­

idence. At the same time they are not obsessed by a sense
of superiority of their special religio-philpsophical

contribution to world thought. A Narayan weilds his inimi­

table irony to expose the occasional oddity of Indian

attitude to its own philosophy. Their self-criticism

springs from their true scientific and rational attitude

to religion and literary art.. On the whole, these post-

Independence Indo-English novelists interpret religion

broadly but sometimes rather loosely. Their attitude, by

and large, is one of rational inquiry and dispassionate

reassessment} it is not one of meek acceptance as in the
previous era, but it is fearless, radical and sometimes
even casual or impudent. They are for establishing democ­
ratic and humanitarian values to evolve a new socio-religi­
ous conscience. There is a genuine desire to be flexible in
forging new attitudes to religion to revitalise the orthodox

religious values in the context of a future world likely to

be more complex than ever before.

 416

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1 Khushwant Singh, I shall not hear the nightingale,

John Calder, London, 1959, p. 204.

2 Ibid., p. 203.

3 Shakuntala Shrinagesh, The Little Black Box.

Seeker and Warburg, London, 1955, pp. 30-31.

4 Kamala Markandaya, A Silence of Desire, Four Square

Edition, London, 1966, p. 103.

5 K. A. Abbas, Inquilab. Jaico Publications, Bombay,-

1955, p. 127*

6 Kamala Markandaya, Possession, JaicoPublications,

Bombay,- 1967, p. 100.

T Khushwant Singh, I shall not hear the nightingale.

p. 238. -

8 -Markandaya, Possession, p. 159.

9 Kamala Markandaya, Nectar in a Sieve. Jaico

Publications, Bombay, 1957, p. 18.

10 S. Y. Krishnaswamy, Kalyani^ Husband, Higginbothams,

Madras, 1957, p. 129.

11 S.P . Dhanda, Surgeon Goes to War. The Kothari Book

Depot, Bombay, 1966, p. 309.

12 D. Surya Rao, The Two Visions. Alpha-Beta Publications,

Calcutta, 1962, p. 154.

13 R. K. Narayan, The Guide. Indian Thought Publications,

Mysore, 1966, p. 155.
 417

14 Chaman Nahal, Azadi, Arnold Heinemann Publishers,

(India) Pvt., Ltd., New Delhi, 1975, pp. 212-213.

15 Khushwant Singh, I shall not hear the nightingale.

P. 59.

16 Nayantara Sahgal, This time of Morning. Victor

Gollancz, London, 1965, p. 15.

17 Nayantara Sahgal, A Time to be Happy, Jaico

Publications, Bombay, 1963, p. 47.

18 Khushwant Singh, Train to Pakistan. Four Square

Edition, London, 1961, p. 36.

19 Khushwant Singh, 1 shall not hear the nightingale,

p. 56.

20 Lambert Mascarenhas, Sorrowing Lies Mv Lan d .

Hind Kitabs, Bombay, 1955, p. 42.

21 Zcenuth Futehally, Zohra, Hind Kitabs, Jaico,

Bombay, 1951, p. 287.

22 Anita Desai, Cry, the Peacock. Rupa Paperback,

Bombay, p. 125.

23 Ibid., pp. 128-129.

24 fillian Shakespeare; Romeo and Juliet. The Warwick

Shakespeare, p. 56.

25 Anita Desai, Voices in the city. Peter Owen,

London, 1965, p. 133.

26 Arun Joshi, The Foreigner. Asia, Bombay, 1958,

p . 133 »

27 R. Prawer Jhabvala, Get Ready for Battle. John

Murray, London, 1962, p. 169.
 418

28 Nayantara Sahgal, Storm in Chandigarh. Chatto &•

Windus, London, 1969, p. 85.

29 Sahgal, This Time of Morning, p. 182.

30 B. Rajan, The Dark Dancer. Heinemann, London,

1965, ,p. 313.

31 Arun Joshi, The Foreigner, p. 171.

32 Raja Rao, The Serpent and the Rope. John Murray,

London, 1960, p, 340.

33 K. Nagrajan, Chronicles of Kedaram. Asia

Publishing House, Bombay, 1961, p. 103.

34 Shakuntala Shrinagesh, The Little Black B o x ,

p. 92.

35 Raja Rao, The Serpent and the Rope, p. 218.

36 Narayan, The Guide, p. 193.

37 B. Rajan, The Dark Dancer, p. 221.

38 Sahgal, A Time to be Happy, p. 161.

39 Veena Paintal, Serenity in Storm. Allied

Publishers, Bombay, 1966, p. 57.

40 R. K. Narayan, Waiting for the Mahatma. Indian

Thought Publications, Mysore, 1964, p. 124.

41 Mulk Raj Anand, The Road. Kutub-Popular, Bombay,

1961, p. 40.

43 Ibid., p. 194.

42 Anita Desai, Cry, the.Peacock, p. 141.

44 R. K. Narayan, The Man-eater of Malqudi. Indian

Thought Publications, Mysore, 1968, p. 196.
 419

45 Narayan, The Guide, p. 20.

46 Markandaya, Nectar in a Sieve, p. 62.

47 Aamir Ali, Conflict. National Information &

Publications Ltd., Bombay, 1947, p, 167.

48 M. V. R. Sarma, The Stream. Triveni Publishers,

Masulipatam, 1956, p. 88.

49 Anita Desai, Voices in the City, p. 191.

50 Bhabani Bhattacharya, A Goddess Named Gold.

Orient Paperbacks, Delhi, 1960, p. 47.

51 Markandaya, A Silence of Desire. Four Square

Edition, London, 1966, p. 5.

52 Manohar Malgonkar, A Bend in the Ganges. Hamish

Hamilton, London, 1964, pp. 24-26,

53 Anita Desai, Cry, the Peacock, p. 19.

54 Bhabani Bhattacharya, Music for Mohini. Jaico

Publications, Bombay, 1952, p. 196.

55 Mulk Raj Anand, Morning Pace. Kutub-Populax,

Bombay, 1968, p. 235.

56 B. K. Karaniia, More of an Indian, Sindhu Pub.

Private Ltd., Bombay, 1970, p. 84.

57 S. Menon Marath, The Sale of an Island. Rupa &

Company, Bombay, 1968, p. 78.

58 Padmini Sengupta, Red Hibiscus. Asia Publishing

House, Bombay, 1962, p. 66.

59 Santha Rama Rau, Remember the House. Victor

Gollancz Ltd,, London, 1956, p. 10.
 420

6(5 Mulk Raj Anand, Morning Face, p. 364.

61 Mulk Raj Anand, The Power of Darkness. Jaico

Publishing House, Bombay, 1956, p. 107.

62 Bhattacharya, Music for Mohini, pp. 190-191.

63 R. K. Narayan, Mr, Sampath. Indian Thought

Publications, Mysore, 1949, p. 208.

64 Manohar Malgonkar, Combat of Shadows. Hamiah

Hamilton, London, 1962, p. 75.

65 Bhabani Bhattacharya, He Who Rides a Tiger.

Jaico Publishing House, Bombay, 1954, p. 42.

66 Ibid., p. 235.

67 Ibid., p. 242.

68 Prawer Jhabvala, X3et Ready for Battle, p. 146.

69 Amita Desai, Voices in the City, p. 121.

70 Huthi Singh, Maura. Constable, London, 1951,

p. 65.

71 Markandaya, A Silence of Desire, p. 40.

72 Bhattacharya, A Goddess Named God, p, 164. ~

73 Nergis Dalai, Minari. Pearl Publications, Bombay,

1967, pp. 142-143.

74 Narayan, Waiting for the Mahatma, p. 167.

75 Sahgal , Storm in Chandigarh, p. 36.

76 B. Rajan, The DarkDancer, p. 227.

77 Sahgal, Storm in Chandigarh, p, 93.

 421

78 Masearenhas, Sorrowing Lies My Land. Hind Kitabs

Ltd., Bombay, 1965, p. .198.

79 Ibid., p. 28.

80 K. R. Chandrasekharan, East &.West in the novels

of Kamala Markandaya in Critical Essays on Indian
Writing in. English. Kamatak. University, Dharwar,
1968, p. 73.

81 E. K. Narayan, The Financial Expert. Indian Thought

Publications, Mysore, 1952, p. 62.

82 Anand, The Road.pp» 82-83.

83 Huthi Singh, Maura, p. 254.

84 Manohar Malgonkar, The Princes. Hamish Hamilton,

London, 1963, p. 36.

85 Raja Rap, The Serpent and the Rope, pp. 56-57.

86 Romen Basu, A House Full of People. G. C. Ray,

Navana, Calcutta, 1958, p. 138.

87 B. K. Karanjia, More of an Indian, p. 162.

88 Bhabani Bhattaeharya, Shadow From Ladakh. Orient

Paperbacks, Delhi, 1966, p. 212.

89 K. Nagarajan, Chronicles of Kedaram, p. 40. '

90 Khushwant Singh, Train to Pakistan, p. 47.

91 Santha Rama Rao, Remember theHouse, p. 179. '

92 Mulk -Raj Anand, The Old Woman -and the Cow, Kutub-
Popular, Bombay, 1960, p . .58.

93 B. Rajan, The Dark Dancer, p. 168.

94 B. K. Karanjia, More of an Indian, p. 49.

 422

95 M arkandaya, N e c ta r in a S ie v e , p . 113,

96 Kamala M arkandaya, Some I n n e r F u ry , The Harborough

P u b lish C o ., L t d ., London, p , 8 4.

97 N arayan, The G uide, p . 2 3 .

98 H ild a R a j, The House o f RamiQh. Lucknow

P u b lis h in g House, Lucknow, 1967, p . 48.

99 I b i d . , pp. 7 9 -8 0 .

100 I b i d .,- p . 2 2 5 .

101 Anand, The O ld Woman and th e Cow, p. 189.

102 M ascaren h as, Sorrow ing L ie s My Land. Hind K ita b s

L t d ., Bom bay,'1 965, p. 8 6 .

103 I b i d . , p . 133.

104 R. P raw er J h a b v a la , A Backward P la c e . O r ie n t

P a p e rb a ck s, D e lh i, 1965, p. 8 0 .

105 M arath S. Menon, The S ale o f an I s l a n d , p . 8 0 .

106 Anand, M orning F a c e , p . 412.

107 Kamala M arkandaya, A H andful of R ic e ,O r ie n t

P a p e rb a c k s, D e lh i, 1966, p . 145.

108 Anand L a l l , The House a t Adampur. P e a rl P u b lic a tio n s

P r iv a t e L t d . , Bombay, 1966, p. 95.

109 M. ¥ . R. Sartna, The S tream , pp, 6 8 -6 9 .

110 Bhabani B h a tta c h a ry a , So Many H ungers. J a ic o

P u b lis h in g H o u se ,, Bombay, 1947, p . 194.

111 B h a tta c h a ry a , Music f o r M o h ih i. p . 204.

112 Mulk Raj Anand, P r iv a te L if e of an In d ia n P r in c e ,

p . 284.
 423

CHAPTER X

NATIONAL CULTURE

^^Culture is a multi-generation heritage, the sum-

total of the w a y of life moulded in the course of thousands

of years in the history of a nation, a people. Culture

means, in' the words of Sardar K. M. Panikkar, "a community

of thought, a similarity of conduct and behaviour, a

! common general approach to fundamental problems, which

arise from shared traditions and ideals . ' 1

quint-essence of noble living.

Culture is the

It is an ideal that has to

be reached, like the summit of the Himalayas, by some

sometime.

v.Indian culture is one of the richest ancient world-

/ cultures. Its roots are deep and well spread out and its
!

I traits are clearly demarcated. Spirit of tolerance,

/ sacrifice and restraint, desire, for synthesis, universal,

| philosophical and charitable outlook, catholic and compas-

; sionate sensitivity, harmony and kinship with nature,

: religion-oriented, (as seen in the systems of Purusharthas

I

\ - Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha - and Ashramas - Brahmacharya,

!! Garhasthya, Vanprastha, Sanyasa - )- love for truth, beauty,

^ goodness an d non-violence - these are some of the outstand­

ing features of our culture. There are some mistaken

notions about Indian culture j the criticism is that it is

unsocial, anti-science, otherwordly, fatalistic and pessi­

mistic, caste-ridden, village-based, unjust to women and

 424

the untouchables,

Post-Independence India is faced with political,

economic, technological, religious and cultural challenges.

The prolonged slavery of and contact with the Englishman

filled India with new opportunities and conflicts. The

East-West confrontation has created a new cycle of attitudes,

approaches and complexes. With the advent of the long-

awaited Independence has come the spirit of self-assertion,

re-instatement of old.ideals and, above all, self-confidence

and self-respect. This would naturally furnish Indo-Anglian

novelists with unexplored vistas of harmony and clash of
cultural back-grounds, v^-'

The Indo-Anglian novelist brings out the peculiar,

distinctive and ancient character of Indian culture. He
also shows how even prolonged slavery and repeated assaults
on the nation could not subjugate Indian culture, because

Indian’s body could be chained but not her spirit. A great

culture should be magnanimous and all-absorbing. Respect

for religion and scriptures is also a cementing force in

the formation of the culture of a nation. Vlndian is
particularly fortunate in this regard and, therefore, the

bonds of culture are - honoured and lasting ones in India.

Raja Rao indicates that the distinctive and peculiar

character of Indian culture lends greatness to India and

Indians. Rama, in The Serpent and the Rope, says that like
Indian Ragas, which includ all that is musical, India is
 425

a ls o a ll-e n v e lo p in g , u n iv e r s a l. " I n d ia i s s p a -rt, t h a t i s

why, sh e h as no h i s t o r y . I n d i a i s ev ery b o d y ’ s ; I n d i a i s
i n e v e ry b o d y .
I t i s i n t h a t s e n s e , I t h i n k , t h a t Mahatma
2
G andhi s a i d , * Vllhen we a r e f r e e , a l l w i l l be f r e e ! H is to r y
means a p p o r tio n in g a s p e c i f i c , , l i m i t e d p e r io d o f tim e t o
a c o u n tr y , a p e o p l e . I n d i a h a s no h i s t o r y , b e c a u s e I n d ia
i s tim e le s s , e t e r n a l . I n d i a i s , t h e r e f o r e , u n i v e r s a l and
v a s t , n e v e r c ir c u m s c r ib e d i n i t s e l f , b u t alw ays magnanimo­
u s l y o p en in g o u t , s t r e t c h i n g o u t to th e o u t e r w o rld beyond
its e lf. L am bert M ascaren h as p o i n t s o u t how ad v an ced and
a n c i e n t G o a n -In d ia c u l t u r e h a d b een when o t h e r c o u n t r i e s
w ere g ro p in g i n ig n o ra n c e and b a r b a r i t y . Tab, i n S o rro w in g
L ie s Mv L and, t e l l s h i s c h i l d r e n t h a t t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s
h a d been f a r m ore c u ltu r e d th a n E uropeans and h e t r a c e s
b e f o r e them th e a n c i e n t Goan h i s t o r y s t a r t i n g from Asoka
3
down to A lbuqueTque*s ominous e n t r y i n 1510. B habani
B h a tta c h a ry a q u o te s G a n d h iji on c u l t u r e to s t r e s s t h a t
c u l t u r e s h o u ld n o t b e e x c lu s iv e and p r is o n - * lik e . S a ty a jit,
i n Shadow from L a d a k h , sa y s t h a t G andhigram m u st a c c e p t th e
S te e lto w n c h a lle n g e o f Meadow H ouse an d rem ain G andhigram .
He does n o t l i k e m e re ly t o fe e d on t h e a n c i e n t n a t i o n a l
c u ltu re . They s h o u ld e n r ic h t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s w ith th e
e x p e r ie n c e o f th e new a g e . The a l i e n s m u st im b ib e th e
4 . ,

s p i r i t o f th e s o i l . These G andhian words e n v is a g e a s e l f -

r e s p e c t i n g , a g g r e s s io n - d e f y in g c u l t u r e .

R a ja Rao b o ld ly and c o n f i d e n t l y .d e c la r e s t h a t I n d ia
 426

could be conquered politically, but never culturally. In

The Serpent and the Hope. Rama suggests that.politicians

and professors of Political Science cannot become the fit

vehicles of culture. It is reserved for other Indian think­

ers and a few sympathetic foreigners to interpret Indian

culture. Rama is fascinated by Coomaraswamy, that Boston

Brahmin, who, like Wiliam Jones and John Woodroffe, is

more Brahmin than any Brahmin. “Anybody can have the geo­

graphic - even the political - India; it matters little.

But this India of Coomaraswamy, who will take it away, I

5
ask you, who.? Not Tamurlane or even Joseph Stalin'*.

Rome conquered Greece, but could not conquer it culturally,

because Rome worshipped lust, whereas Greece adored culture.

India has sacrificed a great deal for the attainment and

preservation of her culture and now stands- fortified against

any aggression in that behalf, Nayantara Sahgal brings out

the spiritual prowess of India even when she was in chains.

In A Time to be Happy. Savitri tells the narrator how the

British rulers had spread the reign of injustice in India

by taking away lands, naming roads after their people,' .

reserving places and jobs for themselves, but still they

had not been able to crush the Indian spirit, "The realm

of the spirit continues inviolate,, soaring.above the crushed

hopes and the unborn dreams. That still belongs to Bharat

Mata alone, and no one can deprive her of it," Though

Rome conquered Greece militarily, it was Greece that really

conquered Rome culturally. Similarly, the conquered India

 427

was only materially conquered, but never her spirit. K.

S. Nayak also shows how Indian culture has remained invin­

cible despite many attempts made for its destruction in

the course of slavery for centuries. Prof. Vidyasagar, in

Campus on Fire, tells the American visiting student : "They

did not know.that our boundaries were guarded by invisible

spirits of pur religion. ' As a nation we were easily conqu­

ered, but not our spirit. That is the invincible character

7
of our thought.”

Anita Desai suggests that life in India is shaped by

religious attitudes formed by scriptural guidance. People

quote from the scriptures as readily as the socialists who

swear by Das Kapital. The verses from the Gita are the

most quotable quotes. While analysing Nirode*s failure in

life,.Monisha, in ¥oices in the Citv. comments on his deta­
chment in life but also on his involvement with his mother
and the past® She is tempted to advise him to cast away
' 1 - O '

involvement and be totally empty, alone. Only a sage or

savage can bear solitude, sorrow and silence : but sometimes,
a man with sharpened sensibility also tries to realise the

ideal. Bhabani Bhattacharya points out that the bonds of

one‘s culture are more lasting than one imagines them to

be.. In Shadow from Ladakh. Bhashkar becomes a thorough­

going American in habits. He drinks and dates a lot.

Though now in India, he feels he is far from India because

his people refuse to change and welcome the machine.
 428

However, the pull of the culture might be latently persist­

ing, as his twelve years* stay in* the States could not

e x t i n g u i s h e s Indianness. "Yet it could well be t hat

9
within him India remained as real as ever before," Culture,

like a mother, does not abandon us. Its assertion may be

slow, but it is never altogether absent.

Xy/The Indp-Anglian novel illustrates the salient and

peculiar characteristics of Indian culture. Its outstand­

ing feature is the stress on the internal and the neglect

of the external. Kamala Markandaya shows that what matters

is to remain spiritually unchanged, undistorted, in spite

of physical change or disfiguration. Ravi, in A Handful

of Rice, refuses to be cowed down by others* estimate of

him. Externally, he looks an abject little tailor, but

internally he feels unchanged, strong and that only is

10
important. This is typical Indian thinking. Time and

misfortune might work ravages on a man’s face and figure,

but so long as he does not lose his inner identity, it

does not much matter. Raja Rao indicates how a mystic

bred up in culture might wish to discover India, the land

of magnanimity and sublimity, of wonderment and ennoblement.

As Rama, the hero of The Serpent and the Rope, observes

that he does not want to discover India materially or

externally, but - just like antara-kasj. *the inner Benares*,

- internally,, 'something other, more centred, widespread,

humble'. "The India of Brahma and Prajapathi; of Varuna,

 429

Mithra and Aryaman of India, of Krishna, Shiva and Parvathi;

of Rama, Harishchandra and Yagnyavalkya; this India was a

11
continuity, I felt, not in time but space;....." To

yearn to see one*s India as something invisible that one

has seen, something unknowable one has known - to poetise

the concrete, to invest the concrete with its abstract

identity - is the triumph of Indian Culture. Bhabani

Bhattacharya shows how people would die fox a moral principle

but not for a selfish purpose._ Rahoul, in So Many Hungers,

notes how the peasants revolt against the tyrants who had

imprisoned their leaders, but they do not fight for satis-

12
fying their stomachs." Bhattacharya has nicely disting­

uished the Indian attitude to moral and material problems,

Indian culture stresses the spiritual aspect more t han the

material one. Veena Paintal brings out how moral conside­

rations, instilled into Indian minds by their ancient

culture, render them peculiarly invulnerable to material,

amorous and such other onslaughts. In Serenity in Storm,

the multiplying cruelty of Ashok drives Roshni onto the

cross roads of her life. She is tempted to give in to

Sanjay by breaking away from Ashok. She hovers between

duty and love, sacrifice and happiness. Her moral conflict

is b o m of her cultural awareness and pride. "She felt

' (

like a bird caught in a cage and the cage was her own
13
conscience....." Culture often demands sacrifice from

the loyal initiates. Happiness and unhappiness are out of

context, because sometimes they themselves have to elect

the path to unhappiness. ^

 430

Indian culture regards asceticism, self control and

self-sacrifice as essential. R. K. Narayan, in a serio­

comic strain, points out that Indian sages always advise

us to conquer self. Jagan, in The Vendor of Sweets, says

14
that the conquest of taste means.the conquest.of the Self.

This shows that self-control is a must for spiritual prog­

ress. Bhabani Bhattacharya indicates that self-sacrifice

for a true cause is the noblest virtue. It is, however,

ironical that Rajni, whose job it is to hunt out saleable

young women, advocates self-sacrifice. . In He Who Rides a

Tiger, Rajni tries to trap B-10, by arguing that there is

no virtue greater than self-giving and so he should persuade

the five destitute women to sell their bodies and save

15
their kinsfolk and themselves from inevitable death.

The devilish are dexterous and they twist and pervert the

ancient scriptural wisdom and cultural values to their

nefarious ends. Zeenuth futehally deals with supreme self-

sacrifice as part of Indian culture. The heroine of Zohra

donates a son to Safia, but is crushed by the painful,

early separation from the flesh of her flesh. . Everyone is

considerate to her, because she herself has been so magna­

nimous ! She feels resigned but the sacrifice has given

1 fi
her a new spiritual lustre, strength, depth. Losing is

one of the ways of gaining. Self-sacrifice is the best

from of devotion. Indian culture always aims at it for

making.others happy.

Indian culture accords a very important place to the

 431

ideal of simple living and high thinking. It is catholic

and deep} tender and sweet. R. p, Jhabvala shows how simple

living reflects a sense of true dignity and arouses rever­

ence even in the hearts of the affluent. Mrs. Bhatnagar

and Mrs. Das, in Get Ready for Battle, appreciate Sarala

Devi’s room,as simple and charming and say that simplicity

is the aim of Indians in life. Mrs, Bhatnagar feels that
17
there is no place for pomp and show in India. The author’s

irony is very clear and brings out the contrast between

simple and hypocritical living. Simplicity is the first

step in the direction of self-control and asceticism which

whould lead to self-realisation. Bhabani Bhattacharya shows

how Indian culture is catholic and profound. It is not
restricted to personal happiness, Satyajit, in Shadow from

Ladakh, blesses his daughter Sumita on her eighteenth

birthday in a magnanimous manner,. He prays for the honey
of bliss to envelop all created objects. "His daughter was
not entitled to a private happiness of her own, but she
8
could have a share in what was to be universal and cosmic."
Only an Indian mind steeped in Indian culture could draw
a large circle of cosmic happiness to include private

happiness. Hilda Raj shows how Indians are, by nature,

large hearted and sympathetic. They cannot bear to see the
suffering even of Christian Missionaries, Of course,

fanatics are also there but they are comparatively few.

In The House of Ramiah. during the early days of their

activity in India, the Christian Missionaries have to

suffer. Ramiah’s mother’s heart is filled with pity for

 4 32

them. "We shall have to pay for their blood some day. We

shall suffer for our wickedness in harming the innocent

19
that come to our door." Hospitality and protection to
guests and those who come for shelter are remarkable traits

of Indian culture. Even the worst enemy cannot be injured.

The blood of the innocent cannot be washed. Bhabani Bhatt-

acharya brings out how Indian culture is against revengefu­

lness and maliciousness. It is full of natural goodness,

compassion and pardon. In A Goddess Named Gold. Meera1s

grandfather says that it is not possible to right one wrong

with another or fight malice with malice. _ He is sure the

Seth would regret his refusing the women admission to the

picture play. When Meera objects that she will be ridiculed

if she gives up the fight, he says ; "Those who mock at

goodness mock themselvesj for there is a secret goodness
20
in them also." Unfortunately, this philosophic background
of Indian life.which has made Indians catholic and magna­
nimous has also made them passive and submissive. Bhatta-
charya also shows that Indian culture is full of-tenderness
and sensitivity. Tyrants go to hell - people hold on to
this belief. Meera, in A Goddess Named Gold, clarifies
that when she says the Seth would suffer she means that

those who thrust suffering on others go to hell and their

21
happiness is only outward. This desire to find poetic

justice in the world is indicative of unflinching faith in

the spiritual values of life.

Zeenuth Futehally refers to the Indian predilection

 433

foi tranquillity and equanimity forming the basis of

contemplation. In Zohra, Hamid tells Zohra that man is

a solitary being whose real companions are his thoughts.
Zohra enquires whether the Indian climate also is conducive
to philosophic pursuits. Hamid states that the present

day bustle.is ‘alien to the Indian temperament* and that

they should ‘once more cultivate the habit of contempla­

tion* . He stresses the study of Yoga in the education

22
system for both mental and physical poise.

The voyaging for truth has always been the unquench­

able thirst of all true Indians. Bhabani Bhattacharya

indicates how man starts his quest for truth in his old

age. In A Goddess Named Gold, the minstrel keeps on retur­

ning to his wanderings, not because he is devoid of feeling

and concern for the family as Meera believes. He cares

much for them but there is no stopping the urgent, inner

spiritual behest - as Meera*s Grandmother knew. He has
23
to be true to himself. This is based on the four Ashramas
of life. Whatever his wordly status, an Indian has to be

ih search of self-realization. Truth and non-violence go

jtogether hand in hand in Indian philosophy and culture,
/ according to which people believe that no one has the power
to take away life. S. P. Dhanda brings out the compassion­

ate nature of Indians who could not bear any life being
taken. In Surgeon Goes to War. Col. Diwan courageously

treats a case beyond all hope. He remembers that some

aborigines of Africa mercifully killed the old and infirm.

 434

But Indian culture has inculcated into us a different

attitude, ‘for the One who gives life alone has the power
24
to.take it away*. Life is sacred : one has to try one*s

uttermost to preserve it, even under the shadow of peril.

Khushwant Singh shows how the terrorists had to fight against

the sentiment of kindness and pity injected into them by

their ancient culture. Sher Singh, in I shall not hear

the nightingale, has to have his baptism in blood. He is

reluctant to kill an innocent, inedible bird. Madan

taunts him with softness which will hamper him in shooting

Englishmen. "Steel your heart against sentiments of kind­

ness and pity. They have been the undoing of our nation.
25
We .are too soft®" Nergis Dalai refers to a paradox of

Indian behaviour -r people would not take a life but also

would be indifferent to the suffering of any living animal.

Rula, in Minari, observes how half-starved, diseased stray

dogs, roam the streets of Minari, but people do not destroy

them or put an end to their suffering.. Destroying any life

is against all Indian religious teaching, Rula comments a

26
little ironically. This sort of non-violence may be

termed a mixed virtue. One may criticise Indians for their

indifference to the suffering of animals, but not for their

reluctance to take a life deliberately.

Bhabani Bhattacharya, in Shadow from Ladakh, refers

to Tagore*s life-long quest for cultural integration of

India. Suruchi explains that simple folk-music is as

important as classical melodies. She relates how Tagore

 435

stresses the value of integration, ".....integration of

the simple.and the sophisticated; the ancient and the.

27
modern; city and village; East and West." India is'unity
in diversity*. Harmony is the apex of cultural achievement.
R. Prawer Jhabvala shows how the unity in diversity could

well be observed on an Indian train in assorted passengers.

Indian passengers are talkative and have a habit of asking
and answering questions of quite a personal nature. Sudhir,

in A Backward Place, is made to relate his personal circum­

stances., Even a morose money-lender reveals his yearning

to go to Tiruvannamalai. A barren woman, eager to be

biassed with a child, goes on from' one place of pilgrimage

28
to another. This panorama of Indian life is a matter of
admiration, and awe. It is typical of Indian culture to
feel concerned with what happened even to strangers - a
sort of philosophical sense of tolerance, synthesis, respect
for the individual and universal outlook,

- Mulk Raj Anand illustrates how the philosophy of Karma

has made a deep impression on the Indian mind. Thakur
Singh, in The Road, feels, after the defection of his son,
that perhaps he should revise his'opinion about the Chamars,

but the traditional belief cannot be easily overthrown.

"So how could he admit that the low caste chamars were the

same as the twice-reborn ? He clutched at his truth from

the deepest eternity and replied to his conscience that,
from generations, his ancestors had believed in Karma,

which determined birth according to the rewards for the

 436

29
deeds of the past life." The belief regarding Karma
and transmigration, as pointed out by Rajaji, forms the

core of Indian culture. The caste structure is also inter­

twined in it and its occupational nature is also a peculi­
arity of our culture.

Fatalism is almost an inseparable characteristic of

Indian life and culture. At one extreme is faith in God’s

will and at the other is blind faith resulting in criminal

inertia. If this enables Indians to endure adversities in

life, this also renders them incapable of improving their

lot. R. K. Narayan illustrates how people reconcile them­

selves to ugly turns of events in life with the help of

philosophic faith and spirit of resignation about the

inevitability of fate. In Waiting for the Mahatma. Sriram,

eager to meet Bharati, asks the bully why they do not
escape from that hell. The bully tells him that such a
feeling of uneasiness can be washed out by Bhajan. He has
tried to get out of prison, but is caught because whatever
30
is to happen,, happens. Anita Desai indicates that Indian
culture teaches us to accept our life as shaped by fate.

Maya’s father, in Cry, the Peacock, asks her to accept and

not to fret, because he is a fatalist. The disintegration

of personality is due to the conflict resulting from the
East-West confronation and disharmony. The Western theory

of life aims at destroying one’s limitations, but not so

31
the Eastern one. Acceptance annul#., the conflict and its
agony and makes misery endurable. R. Prawer Jhabvala shows
 437

that the fatalistic trait of Indian culture has adversely

influenced Indians, In Get Ready for Battle, Sarala Devi

finds it difficult to persuade the dwellers of Bundi Busti

to. take some action to save themselves.. The author says :

"They were too used to the role of victims to be convinced
32
that they had any power to act against an aggressor,"

Man gets used to anything - so great is his desire to live.

This produces a sort of Lotos-eaters* brand listlessness

which renders man unequal to his worldly task, Sot-^to

know this unrelenting hold of fatalism on Indians is to

be unfamiliar with the way of life of a large section of

humanity,

y/
^Kamala Markamdaya points out how most Indians are
worried about the next world so much that they spoil the

present life. Their faith and fatalism are fear-crammed,

sorrow-laden, Ravi, in A Handful of Rice, notes that Apu
has been a failure in.his of it by boldly grabbing anything
he can lay his hands on and then he imagines he will prosper
33
in the next life. R. Prawer Jhabvala also exploits the
Indian trait of other worldliness by exposing its other

side of idolatry. Hari, in To Whom She Will, is never

punctual, but Amrita likes him for it. She traces it to .

Indian aptitude for other - worldliness - the supreme dis-

34
dain for the mundane \ Excess is always to be eschewed.

We have soiled some good cultural customs and principles

by overdoing things and then a humorist*s eye might hold

it to ridicule.^.
 4 38

India is a land of the Millers of the Dee - they

rest content to be Indians, if others do not disturb them.

This inaction - sometimes mistaken for detachment - is an

Indian trait. .Kamala Markandaya brings out how a dejected,

resigned^ acceptance of one* s course of life is imbibed

by Indians. Ravi,~in A Handful of Rice, observes how

starving people go on dreaming of getting the elementary

necessaries of life. They know they would not get anything

put.of life, that they have to be content with their lot,

if things are not worse than what they are. This sort of

hopeless resignation infuriates Ravi, a m o d e m youth, who

35
rebels against the grooves of thought. Markandaya also
suggests that Indians are listlessly large-hearted. They
have no malice against foreigners but they do not also
feel much involved. Ravi, in A Handful of Rice, informs'
Nalini how the Portuguese had come and gone, leaving the
i
■ i

church at Luz as their memory, Nalini*s attitude is

peculiarly Indian % ‘But who cared ?* said Nalini, *S/tio „
comes and goes ? We remain, we Indians and that is all

that matters.* Nayantara Sahgal brings out the passive

character of most Indians. In Storm in Chandigarh. Dubey

thinks how scenes of violence have now become a common

occurrence in big cities. There are many who do not have

much to lose by violence but there are also many others
who, passively and indifferently, wait for the mountainous

surge to swallow them. "Passively waiting, as they waited

for the rains, for the harvest, for the births of unwanted

/
 439

37
children, for death," To be philosophically unruffled

and to be lifelessly inert - these are the two extremes of

the spirit of resignation tempered by the concepts of Karma

and transmigration. Mrs. Sahgal points out the inconsist­

ency of Indian attitude - either we headlong plunge into

action or we sit gaping at events, unresistingly. In Storm

in Chandigarh. Dubey contemplates on Gyan*s craze for

action and perhaps recalls, in contrast, Harpal*s philoso-

38
phic reflectiveness. Shakespeare has wisely illustrated •
two types of tragedies in the life of man - action unaided

by reason and reflection (Othello) and reason and reflection

unaccompanied by action (Hamlet)• Indian culture often
inspires in us an air of listlessly floating down the current.

An average Indian naturally imbibes the practical

implications of the four Ashramas of Hindu life and since­
rely endeavours to approximate to its well-defined stages
'and standards. Even when at the helm of affairs and Indian

retires from active worl<£Ly life and starts his quest for

spiritual attainment. This is so usual a scene in Indian

that Indians do not think it out of ordinary if an Indian

casts off his woifdly riches and fame as readily as he does

a pair of old clothes. Most Indo-Anglian novelists have

referred to this peculiar trait of Indian life. S. Y.

Krishnaswamy indicates how the aged wish to retire after

the round of woifdly duties is over. The Mahabharat has

to end in Shanti Parva. And so with Indian life too. In

Kalyani‘s Husband, Shekhar*s mother retires to Benares as
 440

soon as the last woiSHly wish of seeing Shekhar well married

is realised. She wants to contemplate, in seclusion, on

God and religion on the banks, of the Holy Ganges, the river

of rivers, y Anand Lall also points out that retirement

from the world is a must for old people who seek spiritual

salvation. Sometimes, this desire is sharpened by wordly

shock and despair. In Seasons of Jupiter. Rai Gyan Chand

has been separated from his Askari and life has become one

grey prospect* He feels his worldly duties are discharged

and thinks to remove himself from the circle of pain. He

acknowledges the wisdom of the sages in establishing the

four stages - Varnashram - of life. In India* even a

sensualist feels this instinctive urge from within to seek

peace and God. It is the triumph of Indian culture. R.. K.

Narayan shows how Indians aim at retiring from active life

at some stage in life. In The Vendor of Sweets. Jagan

agrees with the septugenarian bearded hair-blackener that

he needs a retreat and adds that one should leave one's .

surroundings to make.others enjoy peace in life. The old

man, in a superior tone, expounds the philosophy of Vanpr-

41
asthashram and Sanyasashram. This is why they say that

an average Indian is a born philosopher. India is a land

where cunning practicality and supreme disregard for the

worldly exist side by side. Bhabani Bhattacharya refers

to man's desire to retire for contemplation in old age.

In A.Goddess Named Gold, even a greedy man like the Seth

' thinks of retiring from active life after leaving his stores
 441

42
to his son, and of contemplating on God. R. Prawex

Jhabvala indicates that the spiritual craving in old age,

- not to brandish one*s superiority, not to stress the value

of money and power beyond an extent, - is a part of Indian

Culture. In The Nature of Passion, Lalaji envies his clerk

for his detachment and spirituality, because in old age one

has to turn to God in search of inner peace. He ruefully

deprecates his greed and desire to wield power and influ­

ence. He knows that money and power are ultimately

43
meaningless, Nayantara Sahgal shows how there are two

different streaks in the paradoxical pattern of Indian

life : sensuality and renunciation. In A Time to be Happy.

Sanad tells Mclvor how Indian life illustrates two opposite

tendencies constituting the basic paradox. The difference

is the matter of time because the sensualist of today might

be the ascetic of tomorrow. Each Indian is aware of the

time concept as related to the deeds of life. .Even if a.

sensualist does not become an ascetic, he would not question

44
•the ascetic as the ideal of a fulfilled old age*. The

rational process that went into the making of the Vamashram

has stood the test of time. It aptly describes the four

Ages of man. Its philosophic basis is as firm as ancient

wisdom.

J The Indo-Anglian novel reflects the reliance of

|Indians on faith. Faith is one*s moral strength in the .

'beliefs..*of religious right and wrong. It rehabilitates

 442

a man's character and enables him to tide over critical

situations in life without feeling crushed. It is a potent

antidote to failure and frustration, danger and dejection.

It also promotes a sense of noble self-abnegation and the

stress on the spirit as contrasted with that on the mund­

ane. True faith is a sublime peculiarity of Indian culture.

The Indo-Anglian novelist shows that faith is the

anchor of culture. It gives steadiness and equilibrium

to a man reeling under the impact of an unsavoury, untoward

occurrence. S. Y. Krishnaswamy points out that Indian

culture is such as would not allow faith to die. In

Kalyani*s Husband, when the narrator sees Kalyani prostrat­

ing before the Mother in all humility, he thinks of how
the dormant faith would persistently float to the surface
45
in moments(of joy and sorrow. „ The real faith defies

neglect, cynicism, fashion, exhibitionism and ridicule.

It may be latent but it is never demolished, S. Menon
Marath suggests that faith is a distinctive mark of our

culture. In The Sale of an Island. Samban refers to the

Hindu philosophy and otherworldliness. He says that Hindus

must have developed at sometime in their history a great

contempt for life. Chandu Menon remarks that the brain

46
likes to question- and doubt but faith means understanding.
Zeenuth Futehally shows how a person clings to faith

injected into him by his family and racial background.

In Zohra, when Zohra is hovering between life and death,

her father consults *the Hafiz Oracle', He opens a book
 4-43

of Hafiz, picks a verse there-from at random and tries to

read some meaning in it. Bashir is moved by the older man’s

faith and thinks that in the subconscious mind of an Orien-

47
tal, there still lingers a spark of faith or superstition.

Faith, indicates Bhabani Bhattacharya, is bred in the bone

in India and people keep it alive even when they might be

on the verge of death. No ordeal is too high for people

of faith. In He Who Rides a Tiger. Lekha witnesses the

faith of her Old Aunt even amid the scene of starvation and
destruction. With the new learning has come the spirit of

questioning and Lekha has these visitations of suspicion.

Her father has gone to Calcutta and still the misery is
not over, despite Old Aunt*s fervent prayers. There is a
A Q

cry in her heart s "Where are the gods ?"

ytThe
^ sense of hospitality is an unalienable ingredient

of Indian culture. To entertain or protect his guest, an

Indian would stretch his capacity to the uttermost. To be
hospitable means to be deeply gratified. Indian culture

has raised a guest to the divine pedestal. R. K. Narayan

shows how the sentiment of hospitality is powerful enough •

to brush aside all other considerations of caste, creed .or

status.. In The Guide. Kaju takes Rosie home. His mother’s

instinctive Hindu susceptibility prejudices her against an

unorthodox name like Rosie. However, ..she overcomes that

unpleasant idea and receives her properly, as a guest any

time should be. "A guest was a guest though she might be
49
a Rosie." Kamala Markandaya also stresses the Indian
 444

sense of hospitality. However, unexpected and unfamiliar

guests might be, they had precedence over others in welcome.

In Some Inner Fury, the special garland meant for Kit has

to be offered to Richard who is an unfamiliar Englishman

but a guest. B. S« Nirody refers to hospitality as an

unfailing ingredient for self-content. Our ancient culture

speaks of a guest as a god.- In Mandini. Sajjan is invited

at Jayram*s house, presided over by his old affectionate

aunt, who prepares the dinner for the guest so enthusiast-
51
ically that she seems to be challenging her old age. In
Jhabvala*s The House holder, Prem feels gratified to be able

to invite Raj to his place for lunch. Raj has almost relu­
ctantly agreed to pay the high bus fare to honour the
invitation that is, in fact, thrust upon him. But Prem,
sublimely oblivious of Raju’s discomfiture, revels in their

new-acquired ’full stature of householders and marrifed-

couple.^2 \>/

Indian culture, as Rajaji has pointed out in Our

Culture, cultivates in Indians a peculiar attitude to

marriage. As he observes s "The general fo m u l a in India'

is s everyone should lead a married life and it should not:

be left to chance and romance." This attitude is in cont­

rast with the Western attitude regarding marriage. Indo-

Anglian novelists show how people in India insist on arranged
marriages and hold that the bond of marriage is inviolable.
Padmini Sengupta points out how parents start worrying when
 445

t h e i r d a u g h te r s a r e i n t h e l a t e t e e n s . -She s u g g e s t s t h a t
I n d i a n s a r e m a r r ia g e - m a n ia c s b e c a u s e o f t h e c u l t u r a l b e l i e f .
S i t a , i n Red H i b i s c u s , t e l l s Kusum t h a t sh e w ould p r e f e r . t o
d i e an o ld m a id , i f sh e does n o t f i n d t h e r i g h t man. She
re m a rk s t h a t p e o p l e a r e m arriag ^m ad b e c a u s e o f t h e b e l i e f
i n t h e Shradh cerem o n y . T o I n d i a n s , m a r r ia g e i s n o t
m e re ly a means f o r s e n s u a l g r a t i f i c a t i o n . I t s b a sis is
p ro g e n y , d y n a s t y , f u n e r a l r i t e s i . e . c r a v in g f o r Moksha.
M a r ria g e i n I n d i a i s a x e l i g i o u s - c u m - s o c i a l e v e n t . Veena
P a i n t a l shows how a c c o r d in g t o o rth o d o x I n d i a n custom s
a rra n g ed -m arria g es are s t i l l in vogue. I n S e r e n i t y in
S to rm , when once R o sh n i knows t h a t h e r m a r r ia g e w ith .D e e p a k
i s i m p o s s i b l e , sh e becomes l i s t l e s s a b o u t i t . H e r m o th e r,
i r o n i c a l l y en o u g h , f e e l s R o s h n i, i s so w e ll b r o u g h t up t h a t
she r e s p e c ts th e In d ia n t r a d i t i o n o f le a v in g m a rria g e in th e
54
h an d s o f e l d e r s . An a r r a n g e d m a r r ia g e i s a d e b a t a b l e
s o c i o l o g i c a l p r o b le m , b u t i n I n d i a , i t h a s so l o n g b e en t h e r e
r o o t e d i n s o c i a l t r a d i t i o n and f a m i l y c u l t u r e . B. R ajan
i n d i c a t e s how m a r r i a g e , a c c o r d in g t o Hindu c u l t u r e , i s
r e g a r d e d as an i d e a l , s a c r e d u n i o n . I n The Dark D a n c e r.
K ris h n a n c a n n o t f u l l y r e a l i s e o r a p p r e c i a t e t h e p ro lo n g e d
Vedic wedding c erem o n y . The s a c r i f i c i a l f i r e s i g n i f i e s much
more th a n i s g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d , " . . . . . t h e same f i r e
w hich was t h e i r w i t n e s s would b u rn i n t h e i r homes w i t n e s s .s -

t o e v e ry c o n s e q u e n c e , e v e r l a s t i n g l y , i n e s c a p a b l y , th e f i r e
o f , u n i t y and o f S i t a r s o r d e a l . " B h a t ta c h a r y a b r i e f l y
p o i n t s o u t how I n d i a n s a r e a n x io u s t o m arry o f f t h e i r
 446

daughters when they come of age. In A Goddess Named Gold,

when Meera requests her Grandfather to return to Sonamitti

from- his wanderings and then they would be all together for

all time. He is mildly tickled and surprised at Meera

speaking as if she is not going to leave that home, ever,

’•For all time ?" He broke into a laugh. "Beta, you have

to go to a home of your own. How long can you remain with

56
us ? It is time already that This is a tender scene:

he with his sense of concern t and she, puzzled and angry

at her being marriageable, with her shyness and embarrass­

ment.

Santha Rama Rau indicates how Indian culture does not

readily approve of such drastic measures as divorce or

judicial separation, Baba*s parents, in Remember the House,

are an ill-matched couple and cannot get adjusted in life.

They live separately and the situation, without,putting it

into thought or.language, is accepted. Alix asks Baba

whether her parents are divorced because her mother does not

stay with her father in Bombay. Baba is shocked. She can­

not even think .of others thinking thus of her parents,^

This scene is located in pre-Independence times, when

divorce was a rarity. Now things have changed quite, but

still Indian culture prevents divorce from being resorted

to on flimsy grounds, as. is done sometimes in the Yfest.

Kamala Markandaya indicates that Indians pay less

importance to the body than the spirit, due to circumstances,

 447

climate and religion* Chari, in A Silence of Desire,

thinks thus when Danflekar explains that Sarojini cannot be

hospitalised because her spirit is unwilling and therefore,
the body would not recover. Ghari is sorry that in India
the body is relegated to the secondary position of neglect.5®

The explanation may not be wholly acceptable, but it has

been invested with a sort of logic. The predominance of 1he
spirit over the body has a purely philosophical basis and

heritage.

K. Nagarajan asserts that Indian culture looks askance

at sexual levity and promiscuity which may be rampant in a

permissive society in the West. In Chronicles of Kedaram,

Koni is perturbed over the Vasu-Nirmala intimacy. Vanehi

laughs out his apprehension. Cole rises to Vasu's defence

and attacks the Indian mentality which cannot bear to see

a young man and a young woman together. Koni, however,
59
does not like it at all. _ Character is the inside of man
and in its degeneration man will be hollow. Culture without
character has not meaning. Nagarajan also suggests that
liberty with.the opposite sex is undreamt of by an orthodox
Indian who would not venture to write a letter of invitation
even to a friend’s wife. Koni wishes to invite Charulata
to the birthday party of his youngest son and Vasu suggests

nonchalantly that -he should write to her. Koni simply

would not do it, because he is not the man to break the

custom of ages. u Indians guarded their character as a

miser would guard his hoard. This may now sound backward
 448

in the days of strip-shows, but this sense of fealty to

culture cannot be ignored®

Bhabani Bhattacharya shows how sexual awareness is

against the concept of maidenly modesty. In A Goddess
Named Gold, Meera tries to help the Halwai to drive away
the flies. Her raised hand reveals the cutline of her

youthful form. The lecherous widower focusses his attention

on her breasts. She is filled with contempt as she under-

stands his lust. The author suggests how, young girls

feel shy at their own youthful growth. Her grandfather

comments playfully that the.young woman cannot be their

Meera. She has quickly blossomed into womanhood. Meera,

bold in other respects, blushes uneasily. ’’Meera hung her

head, awkward, hating to be a young woman, hating the shape

f\0
of her body." feminine modesty is an essential trait of
Indian culture.

Romen Basu describes how an Indian girl refuses to

surrender her body to her lover before their marriage and,
after some_ conflict, she however, surrenders which shows
the Western influence, when every restraint is cast off as
orthodox. Sheila, in A House Full of People, resists the

love-making of Arun at first but at last gives in to him in

view of their three-month-long separation. ’’You are denat­
ionalized and unlndian in so many ways. Maybe your girl

friends in England didn't mind making love with you and going

to any lengths, but I do. I feel that a line should be

 449

drawn somewhere * " ^ M ulk R aj A n a n d shows that the display

of love-making is against I n dian culture and even a foreign-

r et u r n e d person cannot brook it. Dr. Shankar, in Private

L i f e of an I n d i a n P r i n c e , is uneasy to witness the Gangi

tantrums in an o p e n . l o v e - m a k i n g • Despite his stay in Europe,

6A
his demure Ind i a n susceptibilities are manhandled.

Delicacy of se n t i m e n t is one of t h e vital tests of culture

and Indians do not like to v u l g arise sex by brazen displays.

Love-making, to them, is sacred, hence private a n d inviolable.

Indian culture enjoins man to be respectful and prote­

ctive towards women. In Raja Rao's The Serpent and the

Rope, Rama, i m p e l l e d by his I n d i a n instinct, feels like an

e l d e r b r o t h e r towards the s addned Catherine. This tie of.,

b r o t h e r - s i s t e r - a f f e c t i on is like a guarantee t h a t at least

one's sist e r wo u l d weep when one passes away. R a m a said -

".....in India*, eve ry woman who is not your wife - or your

concubine - is y o u r sister. Y o u feel the responsibility of

a b r o t h e r to every woman on this earth, w h o s o e v e r she may

be a n d in w h a t e v e r part of the world. Left to himself, the

Indian wo u l d go tying rakhi to^every woman he met, feel h e r

e l d e r brother, p r o t e c t h e r ~ l o v e . . . . . A culture attains

to greater heig h t s as it widens the area of hu m a n sensitiv­

ity and compassion. Indian c ulture strives to s h o w that

all m a n - w o m a n relationships n e e d not be c i r c umscribed to

sensuality. K a m a l a M a rk a n d a y a brings out h o w women are

to be treated with regard. M e n s h o u l d not readily thrust

their worries on them® Women also respect men's domain and

 450

are' content with whatever is retailed and doled out to them.

In Some Inner Fury, Premala and Mira are uneasy iabout

Govind's activities and Kit's knowledge of them, as the
district magistrate. Kit, though anxiety-ridden on Govind's
score, prefers not to frighten the women. After his perfu­
nctory explanation not making them any the wiser, the women

also let go any further discussion, recognising man's right

to be secretive if he so chooses

The Indo-Anglian novel reflects the traditional,

cultural trait of wifely fealty and companionship. The

Indian woman, at her best, is loyal, tender and selfless.

She attains the splendid stature of a goddess in her unfli­

nching loyalty and service to her husband, who, to her, is

not at all less than her God s she would not take her food

before he has taken his : out of respect for Indian cultural

custom, she does not even utter his name which constantly
fills her heart s even if her husband is tyrannical and

unjust to her, she does not whisper about it to anyone,

She tries her best to. merge her individuality into her
husband's and always aims at the collective family happiness.
No praise Is too.high for her endurance, service, loyalty,
modesty, dedication to her family.

Manohar Malgonkar endears his Kamala to us by investing

her with the traditional, cultural trait of wifely devotion

and companionship through storm and stress of life. Kamala,

in The Princes, refuses to leave Abhay in the lurch. She

 451

s a y s sh e w ants t o rem ain by h i s s i d e a t t h e m o st c r u c i a l

moment, b e c a u s e sh e i s n o t an o u t s i d e r . " I w ant t o rem ain
h ere. I am y o u r w i f e . I t i s my duty t o rem ain by y o u r
67
sid e . I t i s a l s o my r i g h t . 1' The modem w ife-m ay n o t be
a l l G r i s e l d a , b u t th e n sh e i s n o t a l l Nora t o o . She would
r a t h e r be a c o m b in a tio n o f b o t h . I n th e j u n g l e o f m a r i t a l
i n f i d e l i t y , s e x u a l a b e r r a t i o n s a n d “s o r d i d d i v o r c e s , t h i s
t r a d i t i o n a l id e a l of In d ia n c u ltu re i s lik e a v e rn a l b reeze,
Mulk Raj Anand c o n j u r e s up a p i c t u r e o f t h e t e n d e r , s e l f l e s s
I n d i a n b ra n d o f l o v e where g i v i n g i s th e o n ly g r a t i f i c a t i o n .
I n P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d i a n P r i n c e . I n d i r a who alw ays f i g h t s
f o r h e r r i g h t s a g a i n s t h e r e r r a n t h u s b a n d , f o ll o w s him f a i t h -
68
f u l l y and t e n d e r l y t o th e a sy lu m . I n I n d i a , w iv e s r i s e
t o t h e o c c a s io n and h e lp t h e i r h u sb an d s o u t o f t h e woods.
T h e i r c h i e f m e r i t i s t o g iv e p l e n t i f u l l y even when t h e
r e c e i v e r h a s f o r f e i t e d a l l e l i g i b i l i t y f o r su ch a d i v i n e
m a g n a n im ity . Mulk R aj Anand a g a i n s u g g e s ts t h a t w h a te v e r
t h e n a t u r e and c o n d i t i o n o f h e r h u s b a n d , t h e woman l i k e s to
be by h i s s i d e . I n d i a n c u l t u r e s t r e s s e s t h e im p o r ta n c e o f
c o n t e n t t o be h i s shadow. S a p t i , i n The Road, t e l l s Mala
t h a t th e y s h o u ld n o t be away from T h a k u r Singh a t the
c r u c i a l moment of l i f e . , " L e t u s go t o where y o u r f a t h e r
6Q
i s - we c a n n o t s t a y where the l i g h t o f th e h o u se i s n o t .
T h is i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y I n d i a n s e n t i m e n t ,

Mulk Raj Anand d e s c r i b e s how th e I n d i a n w if e w ish es

h e r hu sb an d w e l l i n s p i t e o f h i s t y r a n n i c a l b e h a v i o u r -
 452

a n d 'a p e a s a n t g i r l remembers h e r p e a s a n t man when t h e sky

i s o v e r c a s t w i t h d a r k , d a rk c lo u d s p o u rin g p u t t h e b l e s s i n g
of th e f i r s t ra in s * I n The O ld Woman and t h e Cow. G a u ri,
even when sh e h a s b een s t r u g g l i n g i n t h e l e c h e r o u s s h a r e of
S e th J a i Ram D as, c a n n o t b u t w ish she h ad beeri by P a n c h i’ s
s i d e t o welcome t h e f i r s t downpour 1 She w ish es t h a t th e
- 70
r a i n s m ig h t b r i n g a good h a r v e s t t o P a n c h i !

The s i m p l e o r t h o d o x I n d i a n woman - t r e a t s h e r husband

as God and h i s words as s c r i p t u r a l wisdom a n d a u t h o r i t y .
S a b h r a i , i n Khushwant S in g h ’ s I s h a l l n o t h e a r t h e h i g h t i n -
q a l e , does n o t l i k e B uta S in g h ’ s a t t i t u d e t o S h e r* s
71
im p r is o n m e n t, b u t she would n o t d e fy o r d i s p l e a s e h im ..
B habani B h a t t a c h a r y a e x p l a i n s how a woman’ s r e v e r e n t i a l
a t t i t u d e to h e r h u sb an d i n an I n d i a n m a r r i a g e , consummated
i n t h e b e s t s p i r i t o f I n d i a n ' c u l t u r e , i s o f f o c a l im p o r ta n c e .
She p r i z e s h e r w ife h o o d beyond a n y th in g e l s e . I n A Goddess
Named G o ld . G randm other r e q u e s t e d h e r h u s b a n d , who h ad
p r a c t i c a l l y re n o u n c e d w o r ld ly l i f e , t o keep on w r i t i n g to
72
h e r a b o u t h i s good h e a l t h . To a woman, h e r man’ s l i f e i s
more i m p o r t a n t th a n h e r own l i f e . T h is c u l t u r a l em phasis
is p e c u lia rly In d ia n . R. P ra w e r J h a b v a la to o exam ines th e
b e l i e f t h a t a h u s b a n d i s woman’ s God. I n Esmond i n I n d i a n
Uma m a i n t a i n e d the t r a d i t i o n a l v ie w , s u p p o r t i n g i t b y S i t a ’ s
- s u b m is s io n t o Rama and th e g e n e r a l s c r i p t u r a l t e a c h i n g .
Ram N ath sa y s t h a t .those p r i m i t i v e myths m u st be i n t e r p r e t e d
p r o p e r l y - t h e i r o r i g i n a l m eaning h a v in g been l o s t , th e y a re
o u t o f c o n t e x t i n modem l i f e . He r e s e n t s th e fe m in in e meek
 453

73
surrender to the male tyranny and wickedness. Jhabvala

also shows how a woman, who regards her husband to be her

God, does not hesitate to renounce him and his home, .when

he fails to protect her. Gulab, in Esmond in India, thinks

that a husband may do what he liked with his wife so long

as he protects her. There is an assault on her virtue - .
he has failed in his most sacred duty to protect her and
so she is free to leave him.^4 To an ideal Indian woman,
nothing whatever is more important than her character.

R. Prawer Jhabvala points out how Indian culture

admonishes woman to find her happiness in her husband and

children. In Get Ready for BQttle. Mala tells Kusum that

she will be happy if Vishnu takes her to .Bombay where her

parents' family and friends are. Kusum, the marital icono­

clast, asserts 5 "A woman's happiness can only be where her

75
husband and children are." Masculine leadership in.

marriage and the family is upheld by Indian culture : man

to lead, woman to follow. Mulk Raj Anand shows how the

idea that the husband is more important than the wife is

sometimes carried to the extreme of caricaturing in India.

In The Old Woman and the Cow. Panchi tries to play the he-

man and allows himself to be constafttly angry with Gauri,

who even fears to express her affection for him and indicates
it b.y a sense of general cheerfulness .as .she gods about

doing the household chores. G. Raj.gopalachari also states,

in Our Culture, that in Indian culture - 'the merger of the

feelings and rights and the personality of the wife in those

 454

o f t h e h us ban d i s c a r r i e d to t h e p o i n t o f a c o m p l e t e wiping
*7*7

o u t of the w ife ’ s in d iv id u a lity ® ...® " u

The t r a d i t i o n a l o r t h o d o x e x p e c t a t i o n i s t h a t t h e I n d i a n
woman has t o b e h a v e w it h a c e r t a i n amount o f r e s t r a i n t which
may even b o r d e r on s u pp re ss io n® R o s h n i , i n Veena P a i n t a l ’ s
S e r e n i t y i n S t o r m , r e f u s e s S a n j a y ' s I n v i t a t i o n t o go o u t f o x
a dance® Sa n ja y b i t t e r l y comments t h a t she s h o u l d have been
b o r n i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h century® R os hni i s , h o w e v e r, d e t e r ­
mined t o h o n o u r t h e s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s } ‘I l i k e to stic k
t o o u r Hindu c u l t u r e . I t i s n o t r i g h t fox a m a r r i e d g i r l
t o go o u t with a man, even i f he ha ppens t o be a d e a r f r i e n d .
' Veena P a i n t a l a l s o d e p i c t s t h e c o n f l i c t i n t h e h e a r t of
a woman between t h e t e m p t a t i o n o f i l l e g i t i m a t e l o v e a n d
t r a d i t i o n a l w i f e l y m o r a l i t y as e n j o i n e d by Hindu c u l t u r e ®
S a n j a y , i n S e r e n i t y i n S t o r m , wonders why R o s h n i , l i k e many
o t h e r g i r l s , c a n n o t change h e r d e s t i n y by l e a v i n g h e r
r a s c a l l y h us ban d and s e e k i n g h e r h a p p i n e s s e l s e w h e r e . He
a s k s h e r v\foo h a s g i v e n h e r t h o s e i d e a l s t h a t a g i r l s h o u l d
l o v e o nly h e r h u s b a n d . Roshni c a l m l y r e p l i e s t h a t i t i s
t h e i r Indian culture® ".....1 t o o , l i k e a l l o f u s , am a
l i n k i n t h a t unbr oke n c h a i n which once bound Ram and Sita®
I would n o t b r e a k i t f o r I c h e r i s h and s e e k i n s p i r a t i o n
79
from i t ® " H a lf-h e a r te d acceptance of In d ian c u l t u r a l
t r a d i t i o n s would n o t l e a v e one anywhere® These a r e t o be
p r a c t i s e d s i n c e r e l y , s c r u p u l o u s l y and s e l f l e s s l y ®

Man f e e l s f u l f i l l e d when a son i s b o r n , t o whom he

can l e a v e t h e t a s k of r e a l i s i n g h i s i d e a l s , c a r r y i n g o u t
 455

his unfinished work as also the duty of performing religious

rites and continuing the flow of dynasty - this Upanishadic

ideal is reflected in the Indo-Anglian novel. Mulk Raj Anand

suggests how Indian culture holds sons as more important

than daughters from the view point of the family and dynasty.

Laxmi, in The Old Woman and the C o w , tells Gauri how Gauri

was never loved by her father, because he suspected that

she was Laxmi*s child by Amru and also because he would

have loved to have a son instead of a daughter. "But perhaps

if you had been a boy, he would have liked you; for among

us, it is son and son*s sons - the girls are a curse -

O A

This is because a daughter is like a deposit that

has to be returned, whereas a son is a repository of man*s

cultural heritage, Kamala Markandaya also shows the impor­

tance of a son in the family and the disappointment on the

birth of a daughter® Rukmani, in Nectar in a Sieve, feels

weak and disappointed and weeps when she knows that she

has given birth to a girl, for what woman wants a girl for
81
her first-born ? Markandaya shows how Nathan, in Nectar

in a Sieve, celebrats the birth of his first son by invit-

82
ing the whole village to a feast. She also suggests how

man craves for a son to carry on his task, profession,

dream., ideal - a desire sanctified by age-old culture. In

A Handful of Rice, Appu tells Ravi how people are waiting

for his death. His regret is that he has only daughters

83
and no son. Ravi, reflecting the modern spirit of scept­

icism wonders that difference sons would make when all one
 456

h a s t o o f f e r I s - ’ empty hands a n d a p p e a l to t h e i r f i l i a l
p ie ty ’ * T h is shows t h e c o n f l i c t betw een econom ic r e a l i s m
and c u l t u r a l tr a d i t i o n * ' “ -

R . K. N arayan s u g g e s t s how I n d i a n ' c u l t u r e c o n s i d e r s

f a m ily p r o p e r t y as a s a c r e d t r u s t . One i n h e r i t s p r o p e r t y
i f one i s lu c k y and th e n l e a v e s i t u n d im in is h e d t o o n e ’ s
c h i l d r e n , w ith a d d i t i o n , i f p o s s i b l e . S r i n i v a s , i n Mr.*
Sam path, r e q u e s t s h i s b r o t h e r t o s e n d him two th o u s a n d
ru p e e s from h i s s h a r e i n t h e a n c e s t r a l p r o p e r t y . H is
b r o t h e r se n d s him t h e tim e ly h e l p b u t a l s o t h e ad m o n itio n
t h a t t h e f a m ily p r o p e r t y i s n o t t o be s q u a n d e re d away a f t e r
i n d i v i d u a l whims, b u t t h a t i t i s m eant f o r c h i l d r e n and
84
t h e i r c h ild re n * I t i s b e in g r e a l l y c u l t u r e d i f one
t h o u g h t a b o u t o n e s e l f l e s s and a b o u t o t h e r s more s I n d i a n
l i f e h a s t h a t a s an i d e a l .

R e s p e c t f o r o n e ’ s e l d e r s i s one o f th e b a s i c e le m e n ts
o f good b e h a v io u r i n h e r i t e d by I n d i a n s . T hat means e x e r c i ­
s i n g r e s t r a i n t , v\hich i s sy m b o lic o f o n e’ s c u l t u r e * K. A*
A bbas, i n I n g u i l a b * s u g g e s t s how Anwar, p iq u e d b y h i s u n c le
Amjad A l i ’ s h a r s h w o rd s , p r a c t i s e s r e s t r a i n t a n d , o u t o f
r e s p e c t f o r a g e , p o c k e ts t h e i n s u l t a n d - i n j u s t i c e , when
Amjad A li s p e a k s d i s p a r a g i n g l y o f t h e n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s l i k e
OR

G a n d h iji and t h e A l i b r o t h e r s a n d a l s o of Anwar’ s f a t h e r .

C o n q u est o f o n e ’ s a n g e r i s a d e f i n i t e advancem ent i n
c u l t u r e and I n d i a n c u l t u r e s t r e s s e s i t . The G ita l a y s
down t h a t a n g e r be r e s t r a i n e d . D r. S h a n k a r, i n Mulk Raj
 457

Ananas Private Life of an Indian Prince, desists from-

telling the Munshiji that they the — out of deference for

age - courtiers have been exploiting the Maharaja by

humouring, pampering and flattering him.86 Kumaran and

his friends, in Menon S. Marath‘s The Sale of an Island. '

need a stimulant at a very crucial moment, but do not smoke

in the presence of their elders, out of respect for them.87

Khushwant Singh points out how in India youngsters are not
supposed to enter into endless, vain arguments with their
elders, in I shall not hear the nightingale. Sabhrai takes

Sher to takk for arguing heatedly with Buta Singh.88 in

Nayantara Sahgal*s This Time of Morning.- Leela tells Rakesh

that she cares for Kalyanrs opinion as a mark of courtesy.

Leela is only outwardly influenced by Western ways of

living, but her heart is all Indian. Her reverence for age

is characteristically Indian. "Reverence for age was a

tradition bred into one*s bones. An elder was a person you

stood up to greet, and consulted on all important matters;.

This was not hypocrisy. It was a way of life."89

Indian cultural traditions might appear to be old and

orthodox, but if one went deeper into the heart of things,

they might reveal the inner core of things. Rahoul, in

Bhabani Bhattacharya*s So Many Hungers, thinks that the

Hindu custom of keeping a new mother in isolation is good,

since it affords much-needed rest to her and that these
customs might appear like taboos but they have their signi­
ficance - only one should try to discover it. "Hindu
 458

taboos, old-seeming and fast dying off, often revealed an

inner purpose if you looked beneath the surface.'*90

Decrying a custom without trying “to penetrate to its' inner

purpose is playing a reckless rebel. All customs are not

bad. They are our crystallised, epitomised, ancient wisdom

and heritage. Some of these may be accepted in toto^ to

others be remodelled and just a few be eschewed if'need be®

R. Prawer Jhabvala discusses whether a nation in chains-

could have her traditions, In Get Ready for Battle. Pitu,
remarks that industrialisation would not prove much fruit­
ful® Premola Singh says that the Indian 'traditional crafts
cannot be allowed to die. Pitu protests that a poor nation

cannot afford to think of such traditions.92 Pitu is not

reasonable. In fact, a nation in bondage must scrupulously

observe her traditions® -

Bhabani Bhattacharya indicates the generation gap

between the old and the young, because of the two polar

'creeds - orthodox Hinduism and Hinduism liberalised under

the Impact of the West. In Music for Mohini. Mohini*s

father and grandmother do not see eye to eye about hex

marriage. One modernized boy, whom Mohini*s father selects,

Old Mother does not approve of. She objects that he has no
respect for the elders in whose presence he smokes and

ssks indecent questions such as whether Mohini can dance

and that Mohini will be a misfit in that fast and un-Indian
92
cricle. Marriage is a complete merger of two individuals
into one identity and the clash of cultural backgrounds
 459^ '

would entail agony. Bhattacharya underlines the-conflict

between orthodox culture and liberalised cultural trends,

between blind and superstitious faith and, awakened socio­

cultural suseptibilities. . In Music for Mohini. Jayadev has

to face the conflict of hurting his mother whose dogmatic,

superstitious and orthodox decisions he has of necessity

to defy. He wonders how misguided faith can gain so much

ground in view of the Hindu quest for Satyam,. Sivam, Sun dram

He has to stop Mohini from offering her blood to appease

the virgin-goddess in a primitive way to be cured of the

curse of barrenness. it is yeoman’s service to clear the

national culture of the cobwebs of barbarous superstitions.'

Bhattacharya also shows how terrific, is the conflict b o m

of one’s spiritual predicament - the traditional values in

the context of new, changing social patterns. In He Who

Rides a Tiger, we are made to witness the process of trans­

formation of Kalo’s social conscience. He has saved his

daughter from a harlot-house, but she is polluted even by

breathing there. "Kalo had not only to deny but to eradi­

cate the values by which he had been bred. He had to cut

94
his social tap-root and give up his inheritance." Sexual

morality and upright character are predominant values in

Indian life and culture1.

\ d^Raja Rao traces the present state of cultural degene­

ration in Indian to. political dependence. ‘ In The Serpent

and the Rope, Savithri reports to Rama from Assam how sad
 460

she feels due to- monotonous downpours of rain and the arti­

ficiality and pomp of the administrative frame^work in post-

Independence India* The India they are building is most-

unlndian. '’Some want it to become like our neighbour China,

and. others like their foster-mother white-England. And :

95
nobody wants-India to be India. ■ What could be a worse

travesty of Indian culture than to shape India on expensive,

foreign models and ways of' life ? R. Prawer Jhabvala
caustically points out that the administrative scene in
today’s India is largely corrupt and this is a blot on
national character and culture. Kanta, in The Nature of
Passion, censures the corrupt officer who has betrayed his
trust. She says she would punish him with death. Chandra,

who is in precisely the same predicament as that officer’s,

96
feels uneasy. The irony is that the foot-rule changes,

corruption has continued and grown as a post-Independence

gargantuan malaise. People have abandoned hopes of getting

clean adminis tratioh.^ Aamir'Ali discusses how the true

Indian culture must be essentially moral, because the men

in the cities had been aping the English. In fact, they

were trying to be as unlndian as possible. Shankar, in

Conflict, thinks of the travesty of Indian culture that

they are making in the cities. He feels that they are
fake Indians. Their patriotism is hollow. They are cowards

and reluctant, to make sacrifices. Jail-going is not such

a hardship, after all.. His Shanti is the true India - a
true villager in the rural setting, the picture of simplicity,
 461

97
poverty and purity, ' If the Western influence is not

properly assimilated, the admixture of East and West might

present a highly incongruous ■way- of life, D. C, Home

criticises the Indian tendency to imitate the Westerner,

especially the Britisher, Samuel, in Hungry Hearts, tells

Ranjit that it is very difficult for the nationalist paper

9

to flourish and that people have lost originality and judge­

ment because of prolonged slavery, Indians would look to

the Western world for approval and approbation and accept

the foreign judgement wholesale, Ranjit, therefore, should

not despair-, if his book is not read. "We’ve thrown away

the foreign yoke but such is the depth of our degradation

that we can*t rely on our judgement. We flock for anything

that is applauded abroad, even if it’s a downright distortion

98
of our life and institutions," This reminds us of how

Tagore was praised to the s-kies, in India, in the wake of

foreign approval and applaud.

The m o d e m age has witnessed a radical degree of "

scientific, and technological advancement in all spheres

including transport and communications. The cultural

insularity could not but be on the anvil owing to frequent,

abiding and constant bicultural confrontations -and occasio­

nally tricultural and even poly-cultural confrontations at

the time of world conferences and meets. Destiny had thrown

India and England together because of the British rule in

India, After Independence, this confrontation has been

voluntary and,' moreover, it is also quite natural that India

 462

should also encounter other national cultures-in her

capacity as an independent member of the world community.

The Indo-Anglian novel does reflect this East-West-Cultural

encounter. Raja Rao presents the impersonal approach

upheld by Indian culture-as noticed'by a sympathetic,

understanding foreigner. Madeleine, in The Serpent and

the Rope, writes to -Rama that he is more interested in the
sonship of their son whom she has borne than in his being
her son. She says that Indian would regard the feminine
as accessory. Rama thinks of the boyrs future and-she of

his present* In India hymns and diet differ, depending',

upon what one wants the child to be. She is content with

his being just a man : her son. Rama*s attitude, she says,
is impersonal. That‘s where the Indian differs from the

European. "You people are sentimental about the invisible.

99
We about the visible." The foundation of Indian philoso­
phical thought is detachment, noninvolvement; one has to be

then impersonal. Raja Rao deals with the confrontation of

two cultures - Indian and European - as symbolised by Rama

and Madeleine respectively in The Serpent and the Rope.

Madeleine does not wish to go to India and Rama nostalgi­

cally recalls Indian scenes even in France and lik$ to

imagine he is in India when he hears at dawn a grave and
long-drawn manthra recited by Madeleine and he thinks he is
on the bank of the Ganges in Hardwar. He muses, "It is
beautiful to live, beautiful and sacred to live and be an
Indian in I n d i a . T h e ties of culture are life-long,
 463

trans-oceanic, trans-spatial, trans-temporal, trans-serial.

Rama might like France but India he breathed. India was

him, he was India.

■R. K» Narayan ably distinguishes between the two

cultures - Eastern and Western - by juxtaposing their

customs, ideals and expectations. Jagan, in The Vendor of

Sweets, is flabbergasted at the breaking of the Mali-Grace

union. He cites the Hindu puranic authority and remarks
that the wife’s place is by her husband, whatever may
happen. Grace instinctively blurts out that they are not
married. Jagan is appalled - how virtuous and good Grace

appears to be and how unreliable she has turned out to be I

He feels that by living in sin they have tainted his ancient

101
home. Such wide margins between the concepts of marriage

signify the polar extremes of both cultures ; trial marria­

ges, pre-marital and extra-marital sexual promiscuity on

the one hand and, on the other, pre-marital impenetrable

reserve of philosophic cultivation and post-marriage compa­

nionship till death should part. B. Rajan brings up the

problem of East-West confrontation in The Dark Dancer. The

Cynthia-Krishnan togetherness indicates the Indo-English

cultural confluence and conflict. Krishnan once asks her
to kiss, but Cynthia does not, he is glad; it would have
been rather cheap. Cynthia has felt that Krishnan has not
been a ‘committed* lover. "You Indians are all alike,"
she reproved him. "It’s the result of being too sensitive.
First you care too much and then you don’t care."
 46 4

Indian character is full of paradoxical contradictions.

This is one plausible explanation out of many,

Nayantara Sahgal points out that the true representative

of India is the peasant - even from a foreigner’s angle,
Sanad, In A Time to be Happy, tells Mclvor how he feels an
alien in his own country. Western education and upbring­
ing has made him un-lndian and he cannot belong anywhere®
Mclvor remarks that the peasant is the true Indian repre­
sentative to whose level he cannot descend, but he can be a
103
link between his country and the rest of the world. If
there is no proper blending of one’s culture and Western

upbringing, it would result in a sense of belonging now­

here® Indian culture must be supplemented by Western

civilization and its progress and not overshadowed by it.

Nayantara Sahgal sounds a bugle-call to action. In the
changing contexts of life, traditions and customs are to

be reassessed, reshaped and even demolished® Dubey, in

Storm in Chandigarh, tells Saroj how when one culture meets

another, the process means loss and gain and change, but
in India the orthodox religion renders impotent the East-

West confrontation of two complementary cultures, Indian

culture resists conciliation® "But it had not happened
here® A monolithic slab of antiquity had survived the
ages. A way of life, wrongly called a religion lay embedded
in it. Against it the intellect floundered and the emotions
were reduced to insignificance.1,104 it is not true to say
that India has not changed at all. Our way of life is, in
 465

fact, overhauled, as it were; fortunately, however, still

the ancient, lasting, invaluable core of culture persists

in India*

Raja Rao suggests how difficult it is to synthesise

two cultures so as not to compel the one to lose its ide­
ntity in the other# Rama, in The Serpent and the Rope,
tells Medeleine that in spite of her being a Buddhist, the
fact is that it is India that has separated them, because
India is impitoyable and, therefore, Buddhism has also to

leave India# One can be converted to Christianity, Buddh­

ism, Islam but not to Hinduism, but can be b o m as a Brahmin,

1Q C
an Indian# He remarks that India' is beyond time and space.

Zeenuth Futehally brings out that the Muslims have the

benefit of many cultures# In Zohra. Hamid tells Zohra how

Indian culture has waned owing to slavery, because Western

things are imposed upon Indians who have become imitators.

■Zohra says that the Muslims of India have the tripartite

heritage of Indian, Arabic and Persian cultures and they

can add to them the new, Western culture and revitalise

the present life. !,We should yet achieve, that unity o f
East and West.- that much desired synthesis."^^ The sense
of synthesis is a prominent characteristic, of Indian culture
: to respect all cultures and absorb the best in than and
harmonise it into the national culture. Nayantara Sahgal
brings out.-the tolerant, synthetic and harmonious character

of Indian culture but also points out that receptivity

should not be at the cost of losing onefs identity. la

 466

This Time of Morning, the Prime Minister of India addresses

the new recruits in the foreign service about the prime

concerns of India. India, a tremendously vital country

has imposed its cultural pattern in other countries,.

They should not give up their ways of doing things because
of the influence of European or American ideology. They
should be, however, always ready to learn but not imitate,
107
India is a land of firm cultural faith - humble
enough to learn but proud enough not to lose its own
cultural pattern.

^ P r a w e r Jhabvala satirises the foreign visiting

/'
j Professors, Indologists and Indian—culturenthusiasts who

* laud Indian rural Ixfe and culture after living a posh life

\ only in metropolitan cities. Prof. Hoch, in To Whom She

glowingly suggests that their cultural pageant must

show the Indian village life in all its beauty and simpli­

city. He says that the cities are defiled by evil Western

influences, but the1 villages are unchanged, unruffled.108

This shows how the Government propaganda conducted by

Culture Committees, programmes, diases etc. is'bogus.

This has become an outlet and platform for the sophisticated

idle, pompous, exhibitionist, aristocratic influential
people. Jhabvala, suggests that the foreigners who wished
to make India their home should adapt themselves to the

environment. Clarissa, in A Backward Place, advises Etta,

whose married life is a failure — to cultivate acceptance

and adjustment in life as Judy has done. Otherwise, one

 467

would get finished. She stresses the peculiarity of the

civilisation. **One either merges with Hindu Civilization

or is drowned by it ! " 1 0 9 This reveals the all-absorbing

catholic character of Indian life and culture. Bhabani

Bhattacharya shows how the props of spirituality are eval­

u a t e d by the Westernised in the spirit of the New Age.

Bhashkar, in Shadow from L a d a k h , remembers how Satyajit

stamps the Zest for living as vice. The real vice is in

stagnation and immobility. sHe analyses ; "Vice in this

country lay choked in taboos, inhibitions - the rickety

props of spiritual India . ! . . . . . ” 1 10 This is a plea for

liberal living based on material advancement. The process

of revaluation of all facets of life has been still going

on in independent India and even the ancient spiritual

heritage has been on the anvil of utility-test.

Thus, Indian fiction in English deals with the diverse

I characteristics of Indian culture- - its stress on the

I internal, asceticism, unity in diversity, simple living

I and high thinking, Karma and other worldliness, retirement

I trom and renunciation of worldly life in quest for truth.

/ Its peculiar and outstanding qualities are clearly brought

! put - Indian culture is sweet and tender, catholic, hospi-

j
i
table.and deep and it fills the hearts of its votaries

l with tranquillity and equanimity and nurtures a spirit of

I
l resigned and fatalistic acceptance. Its basis is implicit

\ faith which sometimes degenerates into meek submissiveness.

\
■Indo-Anglian fiction traces the impact of Indian culture
 468

on m a r r ia g e and d i v o r c e and shows how p a r e n t s g e n e r a l l y

l a r r a n g e th e .m a rria g e s o f t h e i r so n s and d a u g h te r s and how
1a d iv o r c e i s seldom r e s o r t e d t o , even when t h e hu sb an d and
W if e a r e l i k e , p o l a r e x i s t e n c e s * In d ia n s a tta c h g r e a te r
y a lu e t o t h e s p i r i t th a n t o t h e body and s e x u a l l e v i t y i s
i^ot b r o o k e d . R e s p e c t f o r e l d e r s and f o r woman i s c o n s id e ­
r e d t o be a m u st f o r th e t r u l y c u l t u r e d . The, I n d ia n , w ife
fnas v e r t i c a l a s c e n t o f i d e a l i s m b e f o r e h e r — s h e m ust be
c h a s t e , o b e d i e n t , s e l f - e f f a c i n g , a l l —e n d u r i n g , d e v o ted to
' h e r h u sb an d a n d f a m i l y . The In d o - A n g lia n n o v e l i s t , how ever,
. 'i n d i c a t e s t h a t she i s n o t a l l N o ra, b u t now s h e i s a l s o n o t
a l l S i t a . - t h i s i s b e c a u s e o f t h e new winds o f change from
t h e W estern d i r e c t i o n .

j The n o v e l i s t a l s o s u g g e s t s t h e c o n f l i c t between- t r a d -
f i t i o n and m o d e r n ity , b u t r i g h t l y h o ld s t h a t n o t a l l t r a d i -
^ t i o n s c o u ld be j u s t i f i e d . He t a k e s s t o c k o f awakened
i s o c i o - c u l t u r a l s u s c e p t i b i l i t i e s o f h i s tim e s and a d v o c a te s
t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s be r e —a s s e s s e d i n t h e l i g h t o f
modern s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e s . The p o s t- I n d e p e n d e n c e
c u l t u r a l d e g en e ra tio n i s tr a c e d to p o l i t i c a l u n s c r u p u lo s ity
and c o r r u p t i o n and a l s o to s e l f - d e r o g a t o r y a p in g o f t h e
West. He b e l i e v e s t h a t th e W estern i n f l u e n c e s h o u ld be
p r o p e r l y a s s i m i l a t e d , o t h e r w i s e I n d i a n s would b e u n l n d i a n -
n e v e r t r u e to t h e m s e l v e s . They s h o u ld n o t be c u l t u r a l l y
c o n q u ered — as th e y c e r t a i n l y were n o t even i n p r e —In d e p e ­
n d en ce t i m e s . The I n d o - A n g lia n n o v e l i s t p o s e s t h e problem
o f E a s t-W e s t e n c o u n t e r . Thought he g e n e r a l l y seems to
 469

a d m it t h e f a i l u r e o f co m m uni c at io n, u n d e r s t a n d i n g , d i a l o g u e
between E a s t and West, he does n o t r u l e o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
o f c u l t u r a l c o n c i l i a t i o n and s y n t h e s i s * Anyway, he would
l i k e to e n c o u r a g e en de a vours f o r p ro m ot in g i n t e r - c u l t u r a l
harmony on t h e b a s i s o f m u t u a l r e g a r d . I n d e p e n d e n c e has
c e r t a i n l y h e l p e d him i n s h e d d i n g h i s - what onc e seemed t o
be i n e r a d i c a b l e - s e n s e o f d i f f i d e n c e and i n f e r i o r i t y . He,
how ever, h a s n o t been a b l e t o c a s t o f f h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s -
ness. B e f o r e I n d e p e n d e n c e , he was c o n s c i o u s o f h i s s l a v e r y
and i n f e r i o r i t y and now o f h i s e q u a l i t y w i t h o t h e r s and of -
h i s d e s p e r a t e e a g e r n e s s f o r a s s e r t i n g and e s t a b l i s h i n g i t .

NOTES AND PREFERENCES

1 K. M. P a n i k k a r , E s s e n t i a l F e a t u r e s o f I n d i a n C u l t u r e ,
B h a r t i y a Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1967, p . 2®

2 R a j a Rao, The S e r p e n t and t h e Rope. Joh n Murray,

London, 1960, p . 195,

3- Lam bert M a s c a r e n h a s , So r ro w in g L i e s My L a n d . Hind

K i t a b s , Bombay, 1955, p . 3 7 .

4 Bhabani B h a t t a c h a r a y a , Shadow from L a d a k h . O r i e n t ,

P a p e r b a c k s , D e l h i , 1966, p® 3 5 .

5 R a j a R ao , The S e r p e n t and t h e Ro pe , p® 55 7 .

6 N a y a n t a r a S a h g a l , A Time t o be Happy. J a i c o , Bombay,

1963, p , 184.

7 K. S. Nayak, Campus on F i r e . C u r r e n t Book House,

.Bombay, p . 6 2 .

8 A n i t a D e s a i , Voices i n t h e C i t y . P e t e r Owen, London,

1965, pp® 132-133.
 ^-70

9 B h a t t a c h a r y a , Shadow from L a d a k h . . d . 156.

10 Kamala Markandaya, A H a n d f u l o f R i c e . O r i e n t
P a p e r b a c k s , D e l h i , 1966, p . 211.

11 R a j a ftao, The S e r p e n t and t h e Rope. o . 2 48.

12 B ha bani B h a t t a c h a r y a , So Many H u n q e r s . J a i c o .
Bombay, 1964, p . 111.

13 Veena P a i n t a l , S e r e n i t y i n S to rm . A l l i e d P u b l i s h e r s
Bombay, 1966, p . 304.

14 R. K. N a r a y a n , The Ve ndo r of S w e e t s . I n d i a n Thought

P u b l i c a t i o n n , Mysore, 1967, p . 13.

15 Bhabani B h a t t a c h a r y a , He Who Rides a T i a e r . J a i c o ,

Bombay, 1955, p® 39.

16 Ze enuth F u t e h a l l y , Z o h r a , Hind K i t a b s L t d . . Bomb a y ,

1957, p 8 198.

17 R. P r a w e r J h a b v a l a , Get Ready f o r B a t t l e . John

M u rr a y , London, 1962, p . 160.

18 B h a t t a c h a r y a , Shadow from Ladakh, d. 309.

19 H i l d a R a j , The House o f Ramiah, Lucknow Pub. t

House, Lucknow, 1967, p» 2 8 .

20 Bhabani B h a t t a c h a r y a , A Goddess Named Gold. O r i e n t

P a p e r b a c k s , D e l h i , I9 6 0 , p . 6 3 .

21 I b id ® , p . 212®

22 F u t e h a l l y , Z ohra, p . 198®

23 B h a t t a c h a r y a , A Goddess Named Gold. d „ 115.

24 S® F . Dhanda, Surgeon Goes t o War. o . 157.

25 Khushwant S i n g h , I s h a l l n o t h e a r t h e n i g h t i n g a l e .
John C a l d e r , London, 1959, p . 6 .
 471

26 N e r g i s D a l a i , M i n a r i . P e a r l Pub. L t d . , Bombay,
1967, p . 22.

27 B h a t t a c h a r y a , Shadow from La da kh, p . 2 1 5 .

28 FU P r a w e r J h a b v a l a , A Backward P l a c e , O r i e n t
P a p e r b a c k s , D e l h i , 1965, pp* 2 2 8 - 2 2 9 .

29 Mulk R a j Anand, The R o a d , K u t u b - P o p u l a r , Bombay,

1961, p . 9 3 .

30 R. K. N a r a y a n , Waiting f o r t h e Mahatma. I n d i a n
Thought P u b l i c a t i o n s , My sor e, 1964, p . 141.

31 A n i t a D e s a i , Cry, t h e P e a c o c k , A Rupa P a p e r b a c k ,
Bupa & C o ., Bombay, p . 6 2 .

32 J h a b v a l a , Get Ready f o r B a t t l e , p. 167.

33 Markandaya, A H a n d fu l o f R i c e , p . 182.

34 R. P . J h a b v a l a , To Whom She W i l l , George A l l e n

& Unwin L t d . , London, 1956, p . 2 8 .

35 M a r k a n d a y a . ' A H a ndfu l o f R i c e , p . 49.

36 I b i d . , p . 133,

37 N a y a n t a r a S a h g a l , S to rm i n C h a n d i g a r h . C h a t t o &
Windus, London, 1969, p . 12.

38 I b i d . , p. 79.

39 S.Y.Krishnaswamy, K a l y a n i ' s Husband. H i g g i n ­

bo th a m s , Mad ras, 1957, p . 168®

40 Anand L a l l , Se aso ns o f J u p i t e r , J o n a t h a n Cape,

London, 1958, p . 20 7 .

41 N a r a y a n , The Vendor o f S w e e t s , p. 126.

42 B h a t t a c h a r y a , A Goddess Named G o ld , p . 232.

 472

43 R. P r a w e r J h a b v 'a la , The N a tu r e o f P a s s i o n , George

A lle n & Unwin L t d . , L ondon, 1956, p , 140.

44 S a h g a l, A Time to be H appy, p* 160.

45 K rishnasw am y, K a l y a n ^ s H usband, p . 129.

46 M arath S . Menon, The S a l e o f an i s l a n d . Rupa & C o .,

Bombay, 1968, p . 133.

47 P u t e h a l l y , Z o h ra . p . 133.

48 B h a t t a c h a r y a , He Who R id e s a T i g e r , p . 6 0 .

49 R. K. N a ra y a n , The G u id e . I n d i a n T h o u g h t P u b . ,
M ysore, 1966, p . 124.

50 Kamala M arkandaya, Some I n n e r F u r y . Ace Books, The

H arb o ro u g h P u b . Co. L t d . , London, 1960, p . 5 .

51 B. S . N ir o d y , N a n d i n i . P u b l i c a t i o n s D i v i s i o n s ,
Government o f I n d i a , D e l h i , 1967, p . -45.

52 R. P ra w e r J h a b v a l a , The H o u s e h o ld e r . Jo h n M urry,
London, I9 6 0 , p . 179.

53 P adm ini S e n g u p ta , Red H i b i s c u s . A s i a , London,

1962, p . 11 .

54 Veena P a i n t a l , S e r e n i t y i n Storm , p . 6 2 .

55 B. R a j a n , The Dark D a n c e r . Heinemann, London,

1959, p . 2 4 .

56 B h a t t a c h a r y a , A Goddess Named G o ld , p . 6 5 .

57 S a n th a Rama R ao, P^emember t h e H o u se , V i c t o r

G o lla n c z , London, 1956, p . 6 7 .

58 Kamala M arkandaya, A S i l e n c e o f D e s i r e . A F o u r
S q u a re E d i t i o n , 1966, p . 140.
 473

59 K. N a g a r a j a n , C h r o n ic le s o f Kedaram, p» 9 3 .

60 I b i d . , p . 1.21 •

61 B h a t t a c h a r y a , A Goddess Named G o ld , p . 5 6 .

62 I b i d . , p . 60.

63 Romen B asu , A House F u l l o f P e o p l e . G. C. Ray,

N avana, C a l c u t t a , 1968, p . 44.

64 Mulk R a j Anand, P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d i a n P r i n c e .
H u tc h in s o n , London, 1953, p . 7 6 .

65 R a ja R ao , The S e r p e n t and th e Rope, p p . 1 5 6 -1 5 7 .

66 M arkandaya, Some I n n e r F u r y , p . 6 5 .

67 Manohar M alg o n k ar, The P r i n c e s . Hamish H a m ilto n ,

London, 1963, p . 3 30.

68 An and, P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d i a n P r i n c e , p . 3 40.

69 Anand, The R oad, p . 6 2 .

70 Mulk R a j A n a n d ,,The O ld Woman and th e Cow. K utub-

P o p u l a r , Bombay,•1960, p . 150.

71 Khushwant S in g h , 1 s h a l l n o t h e a r t h e n i g h t i n g a l e ,
p . 194.

72 B h a t t a c h a r y a , A Goddess Named G old, p . 4 9 .

73 R . P ra w e r J h a b v a l a , Esmond i n I n d i a . George A lle n

& UnWin L t d . , London, 1 9 5 8 , p . 9 7 .

74 I b i d . , p . 24 8 .

75 J h a b v a l a , Get Ready f o r B a t t l e , p . 16.

76 Anand, The O ld Woman and t h e Cow, p . 7 6 .

 474

77 C. R a j g o p a l a c h a r i , Our C u l t u r e , B h a r t i y a Vidya
Bhavan, Bombay, p . 30®

78 Veena P a i n t a l , S e r e n i t y i n Storm, p® 2 7 2 .

79 Ibid® , p . 21.

80 Anand, The Old Woman and t h e Cow, p® 123®

81 Karr,ala Markandaya, N e c t a r i n a S i e v e . J a i c o
P u b l i s h i n g House, Bombay, 1955, p. 14.

82 I b i d . , p® 2 1 .

83 Mar kandaya, A H a n d fu l o f R i c e , p® 39®

84 R® K. N a r a y a n , Mr. S a m pa th , I n a i a n Thought P u o l i -
c a t i o n s , Mysore, 1966, p . 199.

85 K. A . A b o a s , I n q u i l a b . J a i c o , Bom bay, 1 9 5 5 , p . 8 1.

86 Anand, P r i v a t e L i f e o f an I n d i a n P r i n c e , p . 13.

87 M arath S» Menon, The S a l e of an I s l a n d , p® 52.

88 Khushwant S i n g h , I s h a l l n o t h e a r t h e n i g h t i n g a l e ,
p. 78.

89 N a y a n t a r a S a h g a l , T h i s Time of M o r n in g , V i c t o r
G o l l a n c z , London, 1965, p® 70®

90 B h a t t a c h a r y a , So Many H u n g e r s , p. 8 .

91 J h a b v a l a , Get Ready f o r B a t t l e , p . 8 6 .

92 B h a t t a c h a r y a , Music f o r M o h i n i , p. 50.

93 I b i d . , p. 220.

94 B h a t t a c h a r y a , He Who R i d e s a T i g e r , p . 7 3 .

95 R a j a R a o , The S e r p e n t and t h e Rope, p® 34 5,

96 J h a b v a l a , The N a tu r e o f P a s s i o n , p . 151.

97 Aamir A l i , C o n f l i c t , N a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n &
P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d . , Bombay, 1947, p . 12 6 .

98 D. C. Home, Hungry H e a r t s . K a t h a s h i l p a , C a l c u t t a
1965, p . 2008

99 R a ja R ao , The S e r p e n t and t h e R o p e, p . 3 9 .

100 I b i d . , p. 306. •

101 N a ra y a n , The Vendor o f S w e e ts , p . 141.

102 B. R aj a n , The Dark D a n c e r , p . 152.

103 S a h g a l, A Time t o be H appy, -p. 148.

104 S a h g a l , Storm i n C h a n d i g a r h , p . 9 2 .

105 R a ja R a o , The S e r p e n t and t h e Rope, p . 3 3 6 .

106 F u t e h a l l y , Z o h ra, p . 2 1 3 .

107 S a h g a l, T h is Time o f M o rn in g , p . 5 4 .

108 J h a b v a l a , To Whom She W i l l , p . 3 9 .

109 J h a b v a l a , A Backward P l a c e , p . 2 5 .
\

110 B h a t t a c h a r y a , Shadow from L adakh, p . 6 0 .

 476

CHAPTER XI

CONCLUSION

Indian f i c t i o n in E nglish is about a cen tu ry old.

I t s t a r t e d u n d e r two r a t h e r incom patible in flu e n c e s :

. t h e l o v e f o r t h e l a n g u a g e was i m b i b e d f r o m t h e B r i t i s h i n

I n d i a and t h e d e s i r e to p r e s e n t and i n t e r p r e t I n d i a n l i f e

in f ic tio n a l t e r m s f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f a much l a r g e r a u d i ­

ence t h a t a v a ile d i t s e l f of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l medium t h a n

an a u d i e n c e w h i c h an I n d i a n v e r n a c u l a r c a n c a t e r t o * In

the early s ta g e s , th e rem arkable fe a tu re s w e r e an u n s u r e

g r i p o f t h e a l i e n l a n g u a g e a n d an u n c o n s c i o u s i n c l i n a t i o n

to f l a t t e r t h e B r i t i s h by i m i t a t i o n by w r i t i n g readable

sto ries on t h e themes which would n o t b e u n i n t e r e s t i n g to

the an g lic ise d . A growing a s p i r a t i o n f o r a c h ie v in g th e

c o u n t r y ’ s fre e d o m and t h e l o v e - h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p with the

ru lin g race f u rth e r com plicated th e s i t u a t i o n , but this

n u rtu re d the n ext sta g e o f f ic t io n a l developm ent. The

I n d o - A n g l i a n n o v e l i s t h a d n o t come i n t o h i s own, b e c a u s e

he had n o t been a b le to sh e d h i s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s and

sense of in f e r io r ity * M oreover, to d e p ic t In d ia n l i f e in

its v ariety a n d s u b t l e t y i n E n g l i s h d e ma nd ed a n ' i n t i m a t e

know ledge o f E n g l i s h and o f t h e n u a n c e s o f e x p r e s s i o n .

The f i r s t - r a t h e r f a i n t b u t d e f i n i t e - n o t e s o f

p ro te s t of resu rg en t nationalism against a lie n dom ination

were a u d ib l e i n 1909 i n H i n d u p o r e and The P r i n c e o f D e s t i n y ,

 477

w hi c h b e c a m e , u n d e r Mahatma G a n d h i ' s p o t e n t i n f l u e n c e ,

q u i t e c l e a r and p e r s i s t e n t , i n Kan d a n , t h e P a t r i o t a b o u t
a q u a rte r century la te r* The G a n d h i—m a g i c h a d begun t o
o p e r a t e and b y t h e m i d - t h i r t i e s t h e s e n o t e s became b o l d ,
i m p a t i e n t and f u r i o u s . The I n d o - A n g l i a n n o v e l , a t long
l a s t , h a d b e e n coming i n t o i t s own w i t h t h e e m e r g e n c e o f
Anand, N a r a y a n and R a j a Rao« The Xndo—A n g l i a n n o v e l i s t

was a w ar e o f h i s p e c u l i a r p r o b l e m s and e n d e a v o u r e d t o f a c e

t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f c r e a t i n g l i t e r a t u r e i n an a l i e n l a n g u a g e .
Meenakshi M ukherjee has f e l i c i t o u s l y term ed I n d i a n f i c t i o n

in English - 'T he Tw ice-born f i c t i o n * . This i s apt,

because th e Indo-A nglian n o v e l i s t ' s s e n s i b i l i t y i s shaped

by two p o t e n t f o r c e s v i z , , t h e i n d i g e n o u s c o n t e n t and t h e

a lie n form. T h i s s e n s i b i l i t y was f o r k e d , am bivalent,

j! b i f o c a l a n d d u a l i s t i c . He h a d t o p r e p a r e an amalgam o f

1 t h e W e s te r n f o r m and t h e . I n d i a n c o n t e n t . T h i s wa s, i n d e e d ,
an a r d u o u s t a s k and wo uld r e s u l t i n an a r t i s t i c im balance
o f t o o much s t r a i n e i t h e r on t h e one o r on t h e o t h e r .

T h e r e h a s b e e n a good d e a l o f e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n and some

n o v e l i s t s h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l and some o t h e r s o f t h e
y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n a l s o b i d f a i r t o do s o .

In such a s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t as i n d i c a t e d a b o v e ,
i n d e p e n d e n c e w oul d form a v i t a l and r e w a r d i n g lime of
d e m a r c a t i o n b e t w e e n two d i s t i n c t p h a s e s o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s

literatu re. The d i f f e r e n c e , o f co u rse, i s between t h e -

s ta g e s of i n i t i a t i o n and m a t u r i n g , b e t w e e n t h e s e e d and

th e blossom , Pre-Independence Indo-A nglian l i t e r a t u r e

 478

o r i g i n a t e d u n d e r t h e B r i t i s h p a t r o n a g e and t h r o v e u n d e r

t h e c y c l o n i c im p a c t o f th e campaign f o r freedom s p e a rh e a d e d

by t h e Mahatma who was a m i r a c l e * P o s t —I n d e p e n d e n c e I n d o —

Anglian l i t e r a t u r e , e sp e c ially f ic tio n , received i t s grea­
t e s t i m p e t u s fr o m t h e l o n g a w a i t e a winds o f l i b e r t y . An

a n a l y s i s o f I n d o - A n g l i a n f i c t i o n b e f o r e and a f t e r I n d e p e n ­

d e n c e shows t h a t t h e m o s t momentous e v e n t o f I n d e p e n d e n c e
| h a s h a d a d e f i n i t e i m p a c t on I n d i a n l i f e and l i t e r a t u r e .

| The p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e e r a m a rk s t h e p e r i o d o f b e g i n n i n g and

1 e a r l y growth o f I n d i a n f i c t i o n i n E n g l i s h and i t n a t u r a l l y ,
i therefore, reflects the e s s e n t i a l roughness, im m aturity,

j n a i v e ^e » a b s e n c e o f d e l i b e r a t e t e c h n i c a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n

• a nd o f a r t i s t i c t h e m a t i c o r g a n i s a t i o n . It, h o w e v e r , seems
! t o e s t a b l i s h some s o r t o f harmo ny b e t w e e n t h e O r i e n t a l
t h e m a t i c c o n c e r n s and t h e O c c i d e n t a l a r t - f o r m s .

The d e p i c t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y i n p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e I n d i a n
f i c t i o n i n E n g l i s h i s u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d and t r a d i t i o n a l ,

because lik e o th e r Indian s o c ia l i n s t i t u t i o n s v iz . c a s te ,

m arriage, t h e f a m i l y a l s o d i d n o t come u n d e r s u c h s t r e s s e s

and s t r a i n s as t h e y " a l l d i d a f t e r 1947 owing t o t h e i m p a c t

o f W e s t e r n i s a t i o n , m o d e r n i t y and f r e e d o m . R. K. N a r a y a n

and K. N a g a r a j a n e x p r e s s e d t h e i r f a i t h i n t h e ' t r a d i t i o n a l
values governing th e fa m ily , b u t also su g g este d , as f o r

instance, i n N a g a r a j a n * s Athawar-; H o u s e , how t h e s e p a r a t i s t

t e n d e n c i e s n a d be gu n t o a f f e c t t h e s o l i d a r i t y o f l a r g e
jo in t fam ilies. N a r a y a n , b e f o r e 1947, d e a l t w i t h t h e
r a m i l y I n i t s m o n o - t i e r s t r u c t u r e and a s s e r t e d t h e a n c i e n t
 479

c u l t u r a l v a l u e s e n a b l i n g t h e f a m i l y to s u r v i v e i n the
t e e t h even of a g r a v e c r i s i s . R a j a Rao seems t o p u t
a s i d e t h e f a m i l y c l a i m s i n f a v o u r o f more u r g e n t and v i t a l
national concerns, Anand l o o k s a t t h e f a m i l y from t h e
v i e w - p o i n t o f e c o n o m i c - p o l i t i c a l im p a c t and shows i t s
g e n e r a l d e c l i n e on a c c o u n t o f i n d u s t r i a l p r o g r e s s ,

> The I n d o - A n g l i a n n o v e l a f t e r 1947 i n d i c a t e s t h a t

j cumbrous f a m i l y u n i t s a r e now q u i t e o u t o f t h e con tem porar y
* so cia l context. These n o v e l i s t s d e a l w it h d i f f e r e n t
a s p e c t s o f t h e f a m i l y , b u t t h e i r a t t i t u d e i s d e t a c h e d and
objective. Even t h o s e n o v e l i s t s who g e n e r a l l y u p h o l d
I n d i a n c u l t u r e and t r a d i t i o n a l s o seem t o a d m it t h a t t h e
days of l a r g e j o i n t f a m i l i e s a r e gone f o r e v e r , Naray an ,
t h e h i g h - p r i e s t of t h e s o l i d a r i t y o f t h e f a m i l y , t e s t i f i e s
t o t h e slo w b u t s t e a d y d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e f a m i l y i n The
Vendor o f S w e e t s . I n h i s l a t e s t n o v e l , The P a i n t e r o f
S i g n s , he goes a -step f u r t h e r and a c c o r d s c e n t r a l i t y to
t h e theme o f f a m i l y c o n t r o l . Of c o u r s e , t h e s u b t l e t o n e
of h i s i r o n y c a n n o t be m i s s e d . Anyway, t h i s shows t h e
n o v e l i s t ’ s g r e a t e r r e g a r d f o r t h e c o n te m p o r a r y s o c i a l
s c e n e th a n f o r h i s p e r s o n a l v i e w s . The w id e n in g g e n e r a t i o n
j - gap i s a l s o c r i t i c a l l y s u r v e y e d . These n o v e l i s t s seem
I
ij t o b e l i e v e t h a t though t h e l a r g e j o i n t f a m i l y h a s l o s t i t s
sway, t h e f u n d a m e n t a l I n d i a n f a m i l y v a l u e s a r e n o t going
t o be f u l l y wiped o u t . B e s i d e s N a ra y a n , E a r a t h S. Menon
( The Wound of S p r i n g ) , Romen Basu ( A House F u l l o f P e o p l e ) ,
A t t i a H o s a i n ( S u n l i g h t on a Broken Column') s e r i o u s l y
 480

s t u d y t h e s o c i a l changes a f f e c t i n g t h e c o u r s e of th e ,
family in f u t u r e .
i

In pre-Independence tim e s , the c a s t e system i s t r e a t e d

i n a t r a d i t i o n a l and o r t h o d o x manner* The two p o i n t s
r e l a t e d t o t h i s theme t h a t u s u a l l y r e c u r a r e t h e d e g e n e ra ­
t i o n and d e v a l u a t i o n of t h e Brahmin, e s p e c i a l l y t h e p r i e s t ,
and t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e h i g h c a s t e s t o u n t o u c h a b l e s * These
n o v e lis ts c le a r ly resent c as te d iscrim in atio n s, oppressions,
o s t r a c i s m s and e xco m m u n ic a ti o n s , b u t t h e y do n o t la unch
t h e i r a t t a c k a g a i n s t them as f u r i o u s l y as i s done i n l a t e r
fiction. They show t h e l o o s e n i n g o f c a s t e bonds r e g a r d i n g
interdining. B e f o r e 1947, an i n t e r - c a s t e o r i n t e r - c o m m u n i t y
m a r r i a g e was a lm o s t a t a b o o . However, Umrao B aha dur and
D. F . K a ra ka p o r t r a y such m a r r i a g e s i n t h e i r n o v e l s with
cinem atographic e ase. N a g a r a j a n and K. A. Abbas d e p i c t
i n t e r - c a s t e m a r r i a g e s and t h e c o n s e q u e n t s o c i a l r e a c t i o n s
i n a more c o n v i n c i n g and p s y c h o l o g i c a l m a n n e r . A f t e r 1947,
t h e c a s t e - d i s t i n c t i o n s and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s h a v e p r a c t i c a l l y
d i s a p p e a r e d , e x c e p t i n m a t r i m o n i a l a l l i a n c e s and e l e c t i o n s .
The Gandhi m a g ic , economic s t r i n g e n c y , i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n
and u r b a n i s a t i o n a r e t h e m a j o r f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e made t h e
c a s t e system l o s e i t s g r i p . Only a f e # o r t h o d o x Hindus
s t i l l o b s e r v e a l l c a s t e - i n j u n c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t a k i n g fo od
etc. The p o s t - I n d e p e n d e n c e I n d o - A n g l i a n n o v e l f a i t h f u l l y
traces these re la x a tio n s in c a s te -re g u la tio n s .

These n o v e l i s t s ha ve s u b t l y p o i n t e d o u t t h e i r o n y of
 481

t h e lo w e r c a s t e s t h e m s e l v e s w is h in g t o r e t a i n t h e c a s t e
s yst e m and t o r e a c h t h e h i g h e r rungs o f t h e c a s t e l a d d e r .
T his f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e s t h i s p e c u l i a r I n d i a n s o c i o - l o g i c a l
prob lem which i s viewed w i t h a l l g r a v i t y by t h e n o v e l i s t s .
The p i t y i s - t h i s i s n o t m e r e l y a s o c i o l o g i c a l problem
b u t a r e a l r e l i g i o - s o c i o l o g i c a l one which makes c o n f u s i o n
worse c o n f o u n d e d . I n d e p e n d e n c e has l i b e r a l i s e d t h e I n d i a n ' s
g e n e r a l o u t l o o k on l i f e and n o u r i s h e d i n him a s p i r i t o f
c o s m o p o l i t a n humanism. He a s p i r e s t o be a w o r l d c i t i z e n
and t o e v o l v e a P a n - I n d i a n s o c i a l o r d e r and t h i s he c a n n o t
hope t o a c h i e v e u n l e s s he begjrins to be c h a r i t a b l e a t home,
l
The I n d i a n n o v e l i n E n g l i s h f a i t h f u l l y r e f l e c t s t h i s s o c i o -
j l o g i c a l m e ta m or phos is and seems t o s u g g e s t t h a t s l o w l y b u t
i

| s t e a d i l y t h e c u r s e of c a s t e i s m has been w e a ri n g o u t . The

I
i

! n o v e l r e v e a l s t h e p e r s p e c t i v e i n which t h e f o r e i g n e r
r e g a r d s t h e Hindu c a s t e s y s t e m and comments on t h e p o p u l a r
m i s c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e f o r e i g n e r - t h i s s p e a k s of t h e p o s t -
I n d e p e n d e n c e s p i r i t of f r a n k c r i t i c i s m and s e l f - d e f e n c e .

The p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e I n d o - A n g l i a n n o v e l r e f l e c t s t h e
c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t o f s o c i e t y r e g a r d i n g t h e problem
l/
of m arriage. However, now and t h e n , a D utt or.M ad hav ia h
would e x p r e s s h i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y views on t h e prob lem of
widow r e m a r r i a g e , Anand and Narayan s a t i r i s e t h e dowry •
e x t o r t i o n i s t s in t h e i r d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s , A d a u g h t e r was
r e g a r d e d as a ' m i g r a t o r y b i r d ' , b u t a l s o as an u n e n v i a b l e
liab ility . An a r r a n g e d m a r r i a g e was th e g e n e r a l r u l e and
a " c h o i c e - m a r r i a g e " an e x c e p t i o n , S. M. M i t r a , Umrao
 482

B aha dur , K a r a k a and Abbas t r e a t an i n t e r - c a s t e o r i n t e r ­

r a c i a l m a r r i a g e w i t h sympathy* N a g a r a j a n d e p i c t s an i n t e r ­
p r o v i n c i a l m a rria g e , sym b o lisin g the s u b s t i t u t i o n o f old
o r t h o d o x s o c i a l ' v a l u e s by new l i b e r a l o n e s .

M a r r i a g e , b e i n g a d e l i c a t e t e x t u r e o f s e n t i m e n t s of
l o v e , has come t o assume a v e r y complex fo r m i n modern
tim es. I n I n d i a , i t i s i n t e g r a l l y merged w i t h c o n s i d e r a ­
t i o n s of t h e f a m i l y , c a s t e , r e l i g i o n , money, an d, t h e r e f o r e ,
most m a r r i a g e s , u n t i l r e c e n t l y , u s e d to be a r r a n g e d
m arriages. The n o v e l p o r t r a y s In d o - W e s t e r n m a r r i a g e s and
t h e i r p ro b le m s and g e n e r a l l y i n d i c a t e s t h e c l a s h o f c u l t u ­
r e s and t h e c o n s e q u e n t f a i l u r e o f m a r r i a g e . In d e p e n d e n c e
ha s b r o u g h t i n i t s wake t h e c l a i m s and c o m p u ls io n s of
m o d e r n i t y i n a new s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e and t h i s has
ha d a g r a v e i m p a c t on t h e e n l i g h t e n e d and t h e W e s t e r n i s e d .
The I n d o - A n g l i a n n o v e l r e f l e c t s t h i s new s p i r i t and i s
u n d i s g u i s e d l y c r i t i c a l o f f a c t o r s h a v in g a d v e r s e b e a r i n g
on m a r i t a l h a p p i n e s s . I t also rev eals t h a t the age-old
c u l t u r a l bonds axe l o o s e n i n g b u t n o t b r o k e n . The t u g - o f -
war between t h e f o r c e s o f t r a d i t i o n and m o d e r n i t y i s
o s t e n s i b l e i n the a t t i t u d e o f t h e o l d e r a n d y o u n g e r g e n e r ­
ations to m a rria g e . The young r e v o l t a g a i n s t a u t h o r i t y
and want t o r e s h a p e t h e c o n c e p t of m a r r i a g e i n t h e l i g h t
o f c h an gin g ways of l i f e . This i n d ic a te s t h e i r s o c ia l
a w a r e n e s s , b u t t h e p r o c e s s o f r e - a s s e s s m e n t and r e - e s t a b l ­
is h m e n t of s o c i a l v a l u e s must e s s e n t i a l l y be a t a r d y one.

Mulk Raj Anand’ s p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e f i c t i o n o b s e r v e s

 483

t h e s a d l o t o f t h e p a r i a h w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g and compassion®

Though h i s v i e w s on t h e l o w l y a r e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e G a ndhia n

p h i l o s o p h y , he does n o t h e s i t a t e ro c r i t i c i s e w ha t he t h i n k s
t o be t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h a t p h i l o s o p h y ® R. K. N a ra ya n

i s t h e s am e s y m p a t h e t i c ’b u t u n a f f e c t e d o b s e r v e r o f m i d d l e
class l i f e . R a j a R.ao shows how a l l t h e t h r e e s o c i o - e c o n o ­
mic c l a s s e s ca n u n i t e u n d e r t h e shadow o f a n a t i o n a l c r i s i s .
There i s sympathy t o r th e s u f f e r i n g underdogs i n Jogendra
S i n g h ’ s Kamni - as a l s o i n B h a t t a c h a r y a ’ s p o s t - I n d e p e n d e n c e

n o v e l , He_Who _ R i d e s a T i g e r ., b u t t h e l a t e r n o v e l h a s an

artistic and w e l l - p l a n n e d s o c i o l o g i c a l import® Thes e p r e -

1947 n o v e l i s t s show how t h e ways o f l i f e o f t h e w e a l t h y

and t h o s e o f t h e p o o r a r e p o l e s apart® T he y seem t o show

how t h e u n d e r d o g s c a n n o t s h e d t h e i r d e e p - r o o t e d d i f f i d e n c e
as w e l l as c l a s s - c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

The p o s t - I n d e p e n d e n c e I n d o - A n g l i a n n o v e l n o t i c e s t h e
c h a n g e i n t h e a t t i t u d e o f o n e c l a s s t o w a r d s a n o t h e r and

e x p r e s s e s i n una m bi guo us t e r m s t h a t c l a s s - d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s

and t y r a n n i e s m u s t go® I t views w ith sympathy th e r e v o l t

o f the younger g e n e ra tio n a g a i n s t u n j u s t c la s s - c o n c e p t s

h u g g e d by t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n as a l s o t h e a w a k e n in g o f
a new c l a s s - a w a r e n e s s among t h e d o w n tr o d d e n b u t i t also
does n o t f a i l to b r i n g o u t t h e i r r e t a l i a t o r y acrimony
a g a in s t the upper c la s s e s . These n o v e l i s t s appreciate t h e i r
e n d e a v o u r s f o r t h e b e t t e r m e n t o f t h e i r ways o f l i f e . On

t h e whole, th e se n o v e lis ts f e e l involved in the p ro cess

o f e v o l v i n g a P a n - I n d i a n s o c i o - e c o n o m i c o r d e r f o u n d e d on
 484

humanist s o c i a l i s m , '

I n t h e p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e p e r i o d , p o l i t i c s had come
t o mean c h i e f l y I n d i a ' s f i g h t f o r fr e e d o m . To w r i t e a b o u t
p o l i t i c s i n f o r t h r i g h t t e r n s would be t a n t a m o u n t to i n c u r ­
ring the charge of s e d i t i o n . The n o v e l i s t s e x p r e s s e d t h e i r
u n r e s t i n a s u g g e s t i v e and i n d i r e c t m a n n e r , G andhiji's
n o n - v i o l e n t t e c h n i q u e e n a b l e d them t o d e p i c t t h e p o l i t i c a l
predicam ent. The P r i n c e o f D e s t i n y by Ghosh and Hindupore
by M i t r a , w r i t t e n i n p r e - G a n d h i p h a s e , d e s e r v e to be ment­
i o n e d a g a i n as a l s o V e n k a t a r a m a n i ' s Kandan, t h e P a t r i o t
and R a j a R a o ' s K a n t h a p u r a , w r i t t e n i n p o s t - G a n d h i p h a s e .
f o r t h e i r a u th e n tic ity of content despite t h e i r ra th e r
2 D, G. M u k h e r j i ' s My B r o t h e r ' s Pace
naive tech n iq u e,
i n t r o d u c e s a p r i e s t who u s e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e modern
p o l i t i c a l myth o f G a n d h i j i i n t o t h e t e x t u r e o f h i s p u r a n i c
narration. I t seems p r o b a b l e t h a t R a j a Rao m i g h t have
a d o p t e d t h i s modern myth-making from M u k e r j i and made i t
a l l h i s own by h i s c r e a t i v e a d a p t a b i l i t y . Some o f t h e s e
n o v e l i s t s c a n n o t keep o u t t h e s e c t a r i a n t o n e o f w r i t i n g
from t h e i r n o v e l s ( e . g . J o g e n d r a Singh and Umrao Bahadur)
and s u r v e y t h e I n d i a n p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n from t h e I n d i a n
a n g l e o n l y ( e . g , S. M. M i t r a ) . R a j a R a o ' s K a n t h a p u r a i s
the f i r s t s i g n i f i c a n t Indo-Anglian p o l i t i c a l novel t h a t
e v i n c e s p e r f e c t harmony b e tw ee n t h e m a t i c v a l i d i t y and
te c h n ic a l awareness.

A f t e r 1947, many n o v e l s ha ve t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n
o f I n d i a b e f o r e o r a f t e r I n d e p e n d e n c e as t h e i r background
 485

and in few of these novels, the political theme is

treated as the central theme. The political novelist must

see to it that his political views do not vitiate the truth,
he must substantiate that a moral order is beyond mere poli­
tical ’commitment', which would grievously impair the artisic

integrity of a novel as seems to be the case, for instance,

in D. C. Home’s Floods along the Ganges. Some Inner Fury and

I shall not hear the nightingale present a more suggestive

and artistically objective picture of the 1942 situation.

Gandhiji aimed at establishing a more order even in the

sphere of politics and, therefore, Gandhian novelists are

blessedly free from the peril of thorough ’commitment’.

Zeenuth Futehally and Attia Hosain show interaction between
communalism and Gandhism and present the nationalist Muslim’s
outlook on Indian politics before Independence. Khushwant
Singh, Malgonkar and Raj an (and recently, Ghaman Nahal in
Azadi) are fairly objective and dispassionate and lay bare
the homicidal brutalities of Partition riots. Malgonkar’s
A Bend In the Ganges does not seem to succeed as much as

one would expect owing to its technical flaw of shifting

focus. Rajan’s professional hyper-sophistication it his cre­

ative undoing. Anand comments on the post-Independence poli­

tical situation in a disillusioned and desultory vein. Naya-
ntara Sahgal’s This Time of Morning and Storm in Chanaiqarh
depict real contemporary political situations and scenes :

viz. the ambassadorial milieu and linguistic divisionism.

Markandaya, Anita Desai, Dilip Hiro, Timer! Murari and a few
 486

o t h e r s i n d i c a t e t h e a b s e n c e o f g e n u i n e d i a l o g u e i n th e
I n d o - E n g l i s h e n c o u n t e r by p r e s e n t i n g t h e p l i g h t o f I n d i a n
expatriates.

The p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e I n d i a n n o v e l i n E n g l i s h does
n o t p r e s e n t any r e a l i s t i c o r c o n v i n c i n g p i c t u r e o f t h e
^ i n c e l y Order. I t g e n e r a l l y d e a l s w it h t h e c o u r t i n t r i g ­
ues and c o r r u p t i o n and n e u r o t i c p r i n c e s 1 d i s t o r t e d and
m a s o c h i s t s e n s e o f s e x and t h e c o u r t i e r s who a r e mere
p a n d e r e r s and p r o c u r e r s . The Memoirs o f a M a h a r a j a ' s
M i s t r e s s by an anonymous a u t h o r i l l u s t r a t e s how ra nk bad
n o v e l s mo st o f t h e s e w e r e . S» K. Gho sh's The P r i n c e o f
D e s t i n y and S* M. M i t r a * s H in d u p o r e - b o t h w r i t t e n as e a r l y
as 1909 - a r e e x c e p t i o n s , d e p i c t i n g how some o f t h e s e
p r i n c e s were l i b e r a l and humane i n t h e i r o u t l o o k and y e a r n e d
t o s e e t h e i r c o u n t r y f r e e from t h e a l i e n b o n d a g e . A fter
Independence, t h e canvas i s w id e r and more crowded i n t h e
n o v e l s on t h i s theme and t h e r e i s a t o n e o f g r a v i t y r a r e l y
d is c e rn ib le in th e pre-Independence e r a . The n o v e l , a f t e r
1947, d e p i c t s t h e p r i n c e l y w o r l d i n a l l i t s v a r i e t y and
c o m p l e x i t y , gla mou r and gloom - t h e p e r s o n a l as w e l l as
th e p u b lic involvements o f t h e n a t i v e r u l e r s . I t describes
t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n a t t h e ti m e o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , th e
r e p r e s s i v e m e as u re s o f t h e p r i n c e s t o c urb t h e n a t i o n a l i s t
movement, t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e M e r g e r a t f i r s t and
th e n t h e i r h e l p l e s s a c c e p t a n c e o f i t and t h e i r ' t r a g e d y *
a f t e r t h e i r b e i n g d i v e s t e d o f t h e i r r o y a l p o w e r. These
w r i t e r s a r e f a i r l y o b j e c t i v e and r e a l i s t i c i n t h e i r t r e a t -
 487

ment and p s y c h o - a n a l y t i c a l i n t h e i r m e th o d . There i s a

v i t a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c o n c e r n s o f t h e n o v e l i s t s i n
p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e and poQt-Independenc.e t i m e s «
/ '
V
The I n d i a n e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e f o r e i g n e r , b e f o r e
I n d e p e n d e n c e , was m a i n l y t h a t w i t h t h e B r i t i s h e r on ac c o u n t
of the B r itis h r u le . This e n c o u n t e r , a f t e r In d e p e n d e n c e ,
ha s a h i g h l y e x t e n s i v e r a n g e , b e c a u s e t h e B r i t i s h e r i s
p r e s e n t e d i n h i s m u l t i p l e r o l e s and as an i n d i v i d u a l * The
p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e I n d o - B r i t i s h r e l a t i o n s h i p was v i t i a t e d by
e x p l o i t a t i o n , m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , p r e j u d i c e s and i n h i b i t i o n s
as r e v e a l e d i n Anand*s C o o l i e and Two Lea ves and a Bud.
I t was n o t p o s s i b l e th e n t o d i r e c t l y d e p i c t t h e v i l l a i n y
o f t h e B r i t i s h r u l e and t h e n o v e l i s t had t o manage t o
denounce a p r o d u c t o r symbol o f Western v a l u e s , from b e h i n d
some s o r t o f a c a m o u f l a g e . The Englishman the n was r e g a ­
r d e d as an u n p r e d i c t a b l e p r o p o s i t i o n . The B r i t i s h e r ' s
: s e n s e of r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y b r e d i n t h e a v e r a g e I n d i a n
s u b m i s s i v e n e s s , c r a v e n n e s s and to a d y i s m . A f t e r 1947, t h e
; s i t u a t i o n ha s been r e v e r s e d . I n d i a n s seem t o be e a g e r t o
| a s s e r t t h e i r e q u a l i t y w it h the E n g l i s h i n a l l c i r c u m s t a n c e s
i and a t a l l c o s t s . This o f t e n r e s u l t j p i n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s -
f n e s s , s e l f - c o m p l a c e n c y and t h e s u p e r i o r i t y complex on t h e
p a r t o f t h e I n d i a n s as a l s o i n m a l i c e , c y n i c i s m and a c e r b i t y
o f t h e B r i t i s h e r s as r e v e a l e d i n M a r k a n d a y a ' s The C o f f e r
^ Dam£» The n o v e l i s t has c o n s i s t e n t l y p o r t r a y e d t h e I r i s h m a n
^ w i t h sy mp at hy, u n d e r s t a n d i n g and r e g a r d i n p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e
;as w e l l as p o s t - I n d e p e n d e n c e t i m e s . C h r is tia n missionary
 488

a c t i v i t i e s h a v e been s u rv e y e d w ith a s e n s e o f grave

concern, b u t th i s does n o t d e t e r him fr o m t r e a t i n g t h e

m i s s i o n a r y s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y on t h e human p l a n e * The b r e a k ­

down o f d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n t h e E a s t a nd t h e West r e l a t i o n s h i p s

on t h e i n d i v i d u a l p l a n e i s in d ic a te d in the p a r tin g o r in

th e f e e l i n g o f estran g m en t of l o v e r s from each o t h e r in a

n um be r o f n o v e l s . The t r e a t m e n t o f t h e e n c o u n t e r o f I n d i a

w i t h t h e W est b r i n g s o u t two r a t h e r i n c o m p a t i b l e l e v e l s o f

socio-cultural c o n s c i o u s n e s s a nd e t h o s . This d e p ic t io n

a c q u ir e s a u t h e n t i c i t y , b e c a u s e th e n o v e l i s t i s supposed to

have su ch r e l i a b l e knowledge of Western l i f e as would h e l p

him i n a s s e s s i n g h i s I n d i a n c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e . H i s a w ar e ­
n e ss o f a W estern au d ien ce m ig h t a ls o be a t t h e r o o t of
th is, makes him h o v e r b e t w e e n two c u l t u r e s , two w o r l d s ,

as s y m b o l i s e d by S a n a d , i n S a h g a l ' s A Time t o b e H a p p y .
The i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y and l o v e - h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h e
Indo-E nglish encounter is r e f l e c t e d in th e f a i l u r e of
i m m i g r a n t s - b l a c k b i r d s i n E n g l a n d and w h i t e b i r d s i n I n d i a
— to f e e l a c c l i m a t i s e d rn t h e i r adopted b u t a l i e n en v iro n ­
m e nt s .

P re -In d e p e n d e n c e Indo-Angli.an n o v e l i s t s a ffirm the

a v e r a g e H i n d u ’ s f i r m n e s s o f f a i t h which c o u n t e r a c t e d t h e

m issionary o v e rtu re s f o r co n v ersio n . They c r i t i c i s e the

H in d u 's m erely r i t u a l i s t i c and h y p o c r i t i c a l o b s e r v a n c e o f

r e l i g i o n by t h e i r g e s t u r e o f a t r u l y r e l i g i o n s s e n s e by

b u i l d i n g o r p h a n a g e s and h o s p i t a l s . T h e y ^ H in d u is m i s t h e

b e s t r e l i g i o n i n t h e w o r l d as a l s o h i s s u p e r - s t i t i a u s n e s s ,
 / 489

a c t i v i t i e s \ h a v e been s u rv e y e d w ith a s e n s e o f / g r a v e c o n c e rn ,
b u t t h i s d ie s n o t d e t e r him from t r e a t i n g tlfe m is s io n a r y
s y m p a t h e tic a lly on th e human p l a n e . The breakdow n o f d ia l*
\ /
ogue b etw een fyie E a d t .and th e West r e l a t i o n s h i p s on th e
\ /
i n d i v i d u a l p la n e i s 'i n d i c a t e d i n t h e p a r t i n g o r in th e
f e e l i n g o f e s tra h g m e n t o f l o v e r s f r ^ each o t h e r i n a num­
b e r o f n o v e ls . l \ e tr e a tm e n t o f t h e e n c o u n te r o f I n d i a
1 \ J
w ith th e W est b r in g s o u t two r a t j a e r in c o m p a tib le l e v e l s
o f s o c i o c u l t u r a l c o n s c io u s n e s s /and e t h o s . T h is d e p ic tio n
a c q u ir e s a u t h e n t i c i t y , / b e c a u s e th e n o v e l i s t i s su p p o se d
to h av e such r e l i a b l e know ledge o f W estern l i f e as would
h e lp him in a s s e s s i n g hi i ss \ l n d i .an
; c u ltu ra l h e r ita g e . H is
L
a w are n e ss o f a W estern a u d ie n c e m ig h t a ls o b e a t th e r o o t
of th is . T h is makes hirp hover: betw een two c u l t u r e s , two
w o rld s , as s y m b o lis e d by Sana®, in S a h g a l’ s A Time to be
H appy. The i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y a n d \lo v e - h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p in
th e I n d o - E n g lis h e n c o u n te r i s r e f l e c t e d i n th e f a i l u r e of
im m ig ran ts - b la c k b i r d s i n E n g lan d and w h ite b ir d s i n In d ia n
- to f e e l a c c l i m a t i s e d i n t h e i r a d o p te d b u t a l i e n e n v iro n
m e n ts .

P re-In d ep en fd en ce In d o -A n g lia n n o v e l i s t s a f f ir m th e
a v e ra g e H in d u ’ ^ fir m n e s s o f f a i t h w h ic h \c o u n t e r - a c te d th e
m is s io n a r y o v e r t u r e s f o r c o n v e r s io n . Thky c r i t i c i s e th e
/ \
H in d u ’ s m e re ly r i t u a l i s t i c and h y p o c r i t i c a l o b s e rv a n c e o f
r e l i g i o n b y ^ t h e i r g e s tu r e o f a t r u l y r e l i g i o n s s e n s e by
l
b u ild in g d rp h a n a g e s and h o s p i t a l s .
\
They a l s o \ c r i t i c i s e
th e H in d u ’ s a r r o g a n t f e e l i n g t h a t H induism i s th e b e s t
r e l i g i o n i n th e w o rld as a l s o h i s s u p e r s t i t i o u s n e s s ,
\
 490

b lin d f a i t h and ty ra n n ie s p r a c tis e d in th e name of r e l i g io n .

There i s some se rio u s e f f o r t to comment on th e concept of
Karma. They s a t i r i s e th e Brahmin p r i e s t and th e C h ristia n
m issionary e q u a lly . Anand and Raja Rao disapprove o f the
t r a d i ti o n a l forms o f r e l i g i o n . Humanism i s Anand*s new
f a i t h as th e Gandhian campaign fo r freedom i s R aja Rao‘ s .

The p o st-independence Indo-A nglian novel n o t only

b rin g s o u t th e modern s p i r i t o f q u estio n in g and^f-c-epticism
b u t also em phasises th e value o f a r e a l f a i t h in l i f e .
I t warns a g a in s t f a i t h d eg en eratin g in to f a ta lis m o r fana­
tic is m . I t shows t h a t th e p o p u lar Western conception of
Karma as mere fa ta lis m is m islead in g and i n c o r r e c t . The
fo re ig n e r may favourably o r ad v ersely r e a c t to Hinduism,
b u t he can n e v e r dism iss i t as n e g lig ib le . T his a n a ly tic a l
i n te r p r e t a t i o n of r e lig io u s philosophy i s a p o s itiv e boon
o f th e post-Independence e r a . On th e whole, th e s e n o v e li­
s t s i n t e r p r e t r e l i g io n bro ad ly but sometimes r a t h e r lo o s e ly .
T h eir a t t i t u d e seems to be one of r a tio n a l in q u iry and
d is p a s s io n a te re v a lu a tio n ; not one of s e r v i l e acceptance
as in th e p receding age; i t i s g e n e ra lly f e a r l e s s a nd
r a d i c a l , b u t sometimes c a su a l and even im pudent. They
seem in c lin e d to i n s t i t u t e dem ocratic and hum anitarian
v alues to evolve a new so c io -rre lig io u s conscience and to
r e o r ie n t th e t r a d i t i o n a l r e lig io u s values by e s ta b lis h in g
new forms o f r e l i g io n .

In d ian n o v e lis ts w a itin g in E nglish b e fo re In d e p e n ^

dence d e p ic t In d ian c u ltu r e from t h e t r a d i t i o n a l view -
 491

p o in t. They show now most In d ia n s t r e a t g u e sts as sacred

and s t r i v e to p r o te c t th o se who seek s h e l t e r . They i l l u ­
s t r a t e how In d ia n c u ltu re honours woman and p riz e s h er
c h a s tity beyond anything in th e w orld. A s t r e s s on
brahmaeharya and r e s t r a i n t o f senses i s an o u tstan d in g
t r a i t o f In d ia n c u ltu re ; some i d e a l i s t i c young persons
took a vow o f brahm a-charya t i l l In d ia won h e r freedom
as re v e a le d , f o r in s ta n c e , in Kandan. th e P a t r i o t . These
authors p re s e n t a very glowing b u t s im p lis tic p ic tu re of
In d ian c u ltu r e which sometimes b e tra y s t h e i r consciousness
o f th e burden on them to j u s t i f y and a s s e r t the s u p e r io rity
o f,In d ia n c u ltu r e .
/
Indo-A nglian n o v e lis ts a f t e r Independence i l l u s t r a t e
th e t r a d i t i o n a l ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f In d ian c u ltu r e - i t s
emphasis on th e in te r n a l r a t h e r than the e x te r n a l, a s c e t­
icism , u n ity in d iv e r s ity , sim ple liv in g and h igh th in k in g ,
re s p e c t f o r e ld e rs and women, re g a rd fo r a l l r e lig io n s ,
f a i t h in Karma and o th e r-w o rld lin e s s , s p i r i t o f resig n ed
and f a t a l i s t i c acceptance, d e s ir e fo r c o n c ilia tio n , and -
s y n th e s is . T ra d itio n a l arranged m arriages a re honoured
and an i n t e r - c a s t e m arriage o r a d ivorce i s looked down
upon. These n o v e lis ts seem to su g g e st t h a t th e modem
In d ian woman i s n o t a l l Nora, but i s a lso not ^ all S i t a .
They d e p ic t th e c o n f l i c t between a u th o rity and r e v o lt and
do n o t th in k a l l t r a d itio n s to be f a u l t l e s s . They are
aware of th e awakened s o c io - c u ltu r a l s u s c e p t i b i l i t i e s of
th e p re s e n t age and seem to recommend t h a t th e tr a d i ti o n a l
 492

values be re a s s e s s e d . They view w ith concern th e p o s t-

\

Independence c u lt u r a l d e g e n e ra tio n . They f e e l t h a t the

Western in flu e n c e should be p ro p e rly a s s im ila te d . O ther­
wise In d ian s would lo s e t h e i r i d e n t i t y . They admit th e
lack o f u n d erstan d in g between th e E ast and th e West and
y e t some of them are o p tim is tic about the p o s s i b i l i t y of
c u ltu r a l c o n c ilia tio n and s y n th e s is . They seem to have
r i d them selves o f t h e i r se n se o f d iffid e n c e and in f e r i o ­
r i t y but s t i l l not of s e lf-c o n s c io u s n e s s .

A com parative study of th e pre-Independence and p o s t-

Independence works of some n o v e li s t s , who s t a r t e d w ritin g
w ell b e fo re Independence and have continued to w rite sin c e
th e n , would re v e a l how Independence produced changes in
t h e i r them atic s e le c tio n and tre a tm e n t, modes o f ex p eri­
m entation and o v e ra ll a tt i tu d e s and approaches. The
e a r l i e r novels of Mulk Raj Anand show th a t h is w ritin g i s
marked by fre s h n e s s , s p o n ta n e ity , o r i g i n a l i t y , v ig o u r,
vehemence and v i t a l i t y . He seems to be r e l a t i v e l y fre e
from id e o lo g ic a l p re -o c cu p a tio n s which ovex-weigh h is a r t
in th e l a t e r n o v e ls , d e s p ite th e themes p r a c t i c a l l y rema­
in in g th e same. I t i s i r o n ic a l t h a t Independence turned
Anand in to an O th ello th a t had l o s t h is o c cu p atio n !
In s te a d of p r o f ita b ly employing h is in c is iv e s o c io - p o lit­
i c a l awareness and r e a l i s t i c a r t i s t i c method, he p re fe rre d
to g e t l o s t in th e la y e rs of d i s t a n t rem iniscences of h is
e a rly l i f e . His Seven Summers. Morning Face and Confession
o f a Lover do n o t show any th em atic advance on th e e a r l i e r
 493

n o v e ls , b u t a r t i s t i c a l l y th e y h o ld o u t a p r o m is e . A nand's
p o s t-In d e p e n d e n c e n o v e ls do n o t r e v e a l any f r u i t f u l a r t i ­
s t i c o r th e m a tic c h a n g e , p ro b a b ly b e c a u s e h i s c r e a t i v e
im p e tu s as w e ll as th e t o p i c a l i t y o f h i s 'p ro b le m * themes
h a d n e a r ly worn o u t .

T h ere i s n o th in g v e ry s p e c t a c u l a r a b o u t R. K. N aray an ,
t h e champion o f th e 'a v e r a g e '. Though h i s o b j e c t i v i t y i s
la u d e d by a l l c r i t i c s a l i k e , i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o o b s e rv e
t h a t th e s p r in g s o f h i s i n s p i r a t i o n w ere a u t o b io g r a p h ic a l.
H is ra n g e i s n o t v e ry wide b u t h i s s im p le them es - s t u d i e s
o f th e m i d d l e - c l a s s fa m ily l i f e - c o u p le d w ith h i s u n p re ­
t e n t i o u s b u t a d e q u a te comic s t y l e f u r n i s h him w ith a b ro a d
b a s e o f mass a p p e a l, N a ra y a n 's f i c t i o n a l w o rld , b e fo re
1947, i s a s im p le one s m o n o - tie r e d fa m ily y a rn s ? fe w e r
f C h a r a c te r s , i n c i d e n t s , s u b s i d i a r y th e m e s. H is p o s t -
{ In d e p e n d e n c e f i c t i o n a l w o rld i s e s s e n t i a l l y , c o m p a ra tiv e ly
com plex : s t o r i e s r e l a t e d to more th a n one fa m ily ? a l a r g e r
number o f c h a r a c t e r s and i n c i d e n t s ; m u l t i p l e th e m a tic
s t r a i n s su ch as money, l o v e , s e x , pow er, a r t , r e l i g i o n ,
c o r r u p t i o n , g e n e r a tio n - g a p and t h e c ru m b lin g fa m ily l i f e
a lo n g w ith th e human w eak n esses o f a v e ra g e men and women,
r e f l e c t i n g th e p o s t-In d e p e n d e n c e s o c i a l sc e n e ? e x te n s io n
o f t h e M algudi l o c a l e ; s o p h i s t i c a t e d te c h n iq u e c u lm in a tin g
i n a b i f o c a l mode o f n a r r a t i o n and a c h ie v e m e n t o f new
d im e n sio n s i n th e a r t o f tr a g i- c o m e d y . N a ra y a n , p e rh a p s
th e m ost o b j e c t i v e In d o -A n g lia n n o v e l i s t , i s a re m a rk a b le
exam ple of an a u th o r whose p o s t-1 9 4 7 f i c t i o n f a i t h f u l l y
\
 494

and a r t i s t i c a l l y r e f l e c t s t h e changes b r o u g h t a b o u t by
Independence®

R a j a Rao w r i t e s e c o n o m ic a lly b u t b r i l l i a n t l y . H is
w r i t i n g r e v e a l s h i s commitment to v a lu e s o f a r t a l o n e .
H is m e la n c h o ly , p h i l o s o p h i c p r e o c c u p a t i o n s and co m p assio n ,
s y m b o lic e x p r e s s i o n , m yth-m aking f a c u l t y , n o s t a l g i c lo v e
f o r t h e p a s t - t h e s e e le m e n ts a r e n o t i c e a b l e i n h i s f i c t i o n
a l l throughout® H is t h e m a t i c c o n c e r n , b e f o r e In d e p e n d e n c e ,
was a r d e n t Gandhian p a t r i o t i s m and h e was n e a r e r t h e r e a l ­
i t y th a n e v e r a f t e r w a r d s . H is f i c t i o n , b e f o r e In d e p e n d e n c e ,
is o s te n s ib ly u n s o p h is tic a te d because o f h is re g a rd f o r
Gandhian ways o f l i f e and t h e c o m p u lsiv e immediacy o f h i s
p a t r i o t i c concern, H is th e m e sa n d t e c h n i q u e , b e f o r e In d e ­
p e n d e n c e , a r e e x t e r n a l , c o n c r e t e , p a t r i o t i c , s im p le and
o b j e c t i v e , w h ereas t h e s e , a f t e r In d e p e n d e n c e , a r e i n t e r n a l ,
s o p h i s t i c a t e d , complex and s u b j e c t i v e . R a j a Rao*s e t h e r e a l
s u b l i m i t y , l o f t y c o n c e p t o f t h e n o v e l i s t ’ s c r a f t and r e s p ­
o n s i b i l i t y , g r a v i t y o f h i s them es and t e c h n i c a l e x p e rim e n t­
a t i o n and h i s u n iq u e e q u ip m e n t and a t t a i n m e n t h o l d o u t a
hope t h a t h i s f u t u r e f i c t i o n w i l l . e n a b l e I n d i a n w r i t i n g i n
E n g l is h to e a r n an esteem ed a n d p e rm a n en t p o s i t i o n i n t h e
r e p u b l i c o f w o rld l i t e r a t u r e .

K. N a g a r a ja n i s o n ly n e x t to th e g r e a t 'h u m b le 1 m a s t e r ,
B. K. N a ra y a n , i n h i s o b j e c t i v e and d i s p a s s i o n a t e a r t as
a n o v e list. H is p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e n o v e l , A thaw ar H o u se,
and h i s p o s t - I n d e p e n d e n c e n o v e l , C h r o n ic le s o f Kedararo
 495

both tra c e the p ro ce ss o f s o c ia l change a ff e c tin g a j o in t

fam ily and a town r e s p e c tiv e ly . Athawar House i s a sim ple
study of only one j o i n t fa m ily , w ith a few sim p le , usual
c h a ra c te rs , sto c k s i t u a t i o n s , th e th ir d person s in g u la r
mode o f n a r r a tio n and a sim ple b u t adequate s ty le d
C hronicles of Kedaram has th em atic v a rie ty and complexity
and i t s canvas i s w ider, w ith q u ite a few i n t e r e s t i n g ,
a r t i s t i c and r a t h e r complex c h a ra c te rs and in c id e n ts , th e
f i r s t person s in g u la r mode of n a rra tio n and a W ellsian
sense of humour. His ardour fo r Gandhian philosophy is
ev id e n t in both of th e se n o v e ls , but p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e
l a t e r one. As B. Damodar Rao s t a t e s , ’N a g a ra ja n 's novels
do n o t develop in to rur^_away s u c c e s s e s .1 These novels
are u n sp e c ta c u la r b u t sound. L ike R. K, N arayan, N agarajan
too i s a re g io n a l n o v e lis t b u t on a modest l e v e l . His
themes a re c h ie f ly th e fa m ily , r e lig io n and Gandhian
n a t i o n a l i s t p o l i t i c s and he tr a c e s how th e s e a re undergo­
in g ra d ic a l changes owing to th e W esternised mode of l i f e .
N agarajan deserves the b e n e f it o f th e p ro c e ss of c r i t i c a l
re v a lu a tio n .

Some r e c e n tly p u b lish ed Indo-A nglian novels p o in t to

th e exten sio n o f them atic range and exp erim en tatio n in th e
sphere of te c h n iq u e . The P a in te r o f S ig n s. Narayan*s
1 l a t e s t Maigudi C h ro n icle, has as i t s theme an unconsummated,
r a th e r q u iz z ic a l lo v e s to ry a g a in s t the background o f a
h e c tic fam ily planning compaign. I t i r o n ic a l l y r e f l e c t s
ex cessiv e and fu rio u s propaganda launched by the C entral
 496

Government f o r two c h ild f a m ilie s , c u t to siz e * N arayan's

ir o n ic a l s ta n c e i s c le a r ly re v e a le d in th e f a c t t h a t th e
impending m arriage between Dizzy and Piaman - w ith D izzy's
c o n d itio n t h a t they should have no c h ild re n accepted by
Raman - does n o t come o ff a f t e r a l l . R aja Rao, l i k e Narayan,
breaks h is long s ile n c e w ith h is Comrade K i r i l l o v , caught
in a contemporary predicam ent o f em otional n a tio n a l p u lls
under the s t r e s s of h is i n t e l l e c t u a l M arxist obsession*
This r a th e r s h o r t novel d e p ic ts th e tu g -o f-w ar in th e h e a r t
o f th e p ro ta g o n is t between h is am bivalent In d ia n n e ss and
u n lndian p o l i t i c a l id eo lo g y , Mulk Raj Anand*s Confession
o f a Lover has the to n a l sameness t h a t one has come to
a s s o c ia te w ith th e already p u b lish ed two volumes of the
seven-volumewlong a u to b io g ra p h ic a l e x trav ag an za. I t s them­
a t i c am plitude and in te n s ity o f range cannot be ig n o red in
view o f th e a u th e n tic ity of a c tu a l e x p erien c e.

R, Praw er Jhabvala*s A New Dominion i s a s a t i r i c a l p ic ­

tu r e o f th e s p i r i t u a l cra ze o f the West as i l l u s t r a t e d in
the pseudo - s p i r i t u a l quest of th re e a lie n young women
Lee, M argaret and E vie, loo k in g forw ard to a fa k e Sw am iji's
b rin g in g balm to t h e i r a g ita te d s o u ls . L e e 's sex u al i n t i ­
macy with th e Swami supposed to b rin g about a t o t a l s p i r i ­
tu a l 'm erg er 11 in d ic a te s h e r h u g q |e lf - d e c e it. The au th o r’ s
d e p ic tio n of the ta n g le of th e G u ru -d isc ip le re la tio n s h ip
in th e East-W est confarontation, in d ic a te s h e r r a t h e r harsh
and even onesided d iagnosis o f th e i l l s o f contemporary
l i f e and the ir o n ic v is io n of a s o c ia l r e a l i s t . The
 497

I n d i a n s Mrs. J h a b v a l a p r e s e n t s i n t h i s n o v e l a r e h y p o c r i ­
t i c a l , c a l l o u s , s e x - h u n g r y , - w i t h o nly a few e x c e p t i o n s -
which i s r a t h e r an u n j u s t p i c t u r e from an i n s e n s i t i v e
W esterner’ s v ie w p o in t. The n o v e l marks a d e f i n i t e advance
on i t s f o r e r u n n e r s i n r e s p e c t o f t e c h n i q u e . R. Prawex
J h a b v a l a ’ s H e a t and Dust s pa ns t h e h i s t o r i c a l ( O l i v i a ' s
story) and t h e c o n te m p o ra r y ( t h e n a r r a t o r , O l i v i a ' s g r a n d -
d a u t h e f s s t o r y ) by a l t e r n a t i n g swi ngs from t h e one to t h e
other. This n o v e l i s a p r o b i n g k i n d , l i n k i n g up t h e s o c i o ­
l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t p r e v a i l e d i n a s m a l l I n d i a n town a
q u a r t e r c e n t u r y b e f o r e and a f t e r In d e p e n d e n c e and d e l i n e a t e s
th e n a tu re o f Anglo-Indian r e l a t i o n s h i p in a l l i t s in tim acy.
J h a b v a l a has c e r t a i n l y e x c e l l e d h e r s e l f i n h e r t h e m a t i c
p r e s e n t a t i o n and t e c h n i c a l p e r f e c t i o n , d e s e r v e d l y b a g g i n g -
t h e p r e s t i g i o u s B o o k er P r i z e f o r 1975.

Kamala M a r k a n d a y a ' s The' Nowhere Man d e p i c t s t h e p r o b ­

lems o f t h e Im m i g r a n t s i n E n g l a n d , a g g r a v a t e d by r a c i a l
p r e j u d i c e and h a t r e d . D i l i p H i r o ' s A T r i a n g u l a r View. A n i t a
D e s a i ’ s By e -B ye, B l a c k b i r d . T i m e r i M u r a r i ' s The M a r r i a g e .
R e g i n a l d and J a m i l a Massey’ s The Im m ig ra nts d e a l w i t h the
l o v e - h a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p of I n d i a n e x p a t r i a t e s w i t h En gla nd.
These n o v e l s a l s o e x p r e s s t h e theme o f s o c i a l o s t r a c i s m
and i s o l a t i o n and E x i s t e n t i a l i s t m e l a n c h o l i a and p s y c h e d e ­
l i a , b r e d and a c c e n t u a t e d by t h e f a i l u r e o f l o v e and
m arriage. The f a i l u r e o f m a r r i a g e i s a l s o the. theme o f
Chaman N a h a l ' s My True Fa c es and N a y a n t a r a S e h g a l ’ s Storm
i n Chandigarh and The Day i n Shadow which a l s o p r o b e s i n t o
 498

th e p o s t-d iv o rc e dilem m atic s i t u a t i o n from th e view point

o f a h y p e r-s e n s itiv e divorced woman hampered by c h ild re n
and bleak f in a n c ia l p ro s p e c ts .

A nita D esai’ s Ih e re s h a l l we go t h i s summer,? also

d e lin e a te s th e same theme, b u t th e re is no re le a s e from
th e bonds of m arriage in th e form o f d iv o rc e . A n ita, with
h e r unique t a l e n t and in h e re n t s e n s i b i l i t y and awareness
o f n o v e lc r a f t, views t h e _ in te r io r lan d scap e, ex p lo res th e
e stra n g e d , p sy c h ed e lic consciousness and ta p e -re c o rd s th e
i n t e r i o r inharm onious no tes and murmurs. To S i t a , h e r
•pilgrim age* to the is la n d o f Manor! has a tw o -fo ld meaning
: an escape from th e a t r o c i t i e s of ’ c iv ilis e d * l i f e and a
re tu rn to th e, la n d o f innocence. This modern S i t a , however,
re tu rn s with h e r husband, Raman, back to h e r s o p h is tic a te d
groove. This i s involved w ritin g sc*t i t s very b e s t, hdt
i t c e r ta in ly , a t tim e s, b e tra y s conscious e f f o r t . The
n o v e li s t ’ s a d o ra tio n of V irg in ia Woolf and h e r a r t is
apparent in th e symbolic p a r a l l e l s between t h i s novel and
Mrs. W oolf's To fh e L ig h t House.

A nita D esai*s F ire on the Mountain d e p ic ts Nanda Kaul’ s

r e le a s e from th e c la im s, demands and burdens of a s o p h is t­
ic a te d e x is te n c e in an e l i t e s o c ia l s e t-u p and h e r reh ab i­
l i t a t i o n in h e r Simla V illa p o ise d , as i t w ere, between
th e snows o f th e d i s t a n t Himalayas above and th e s u l t r y ,
dusty p la in s below . She has been try in g to h e a l h e r
psychic b ru is e s in h e r tre a s u re d s p i r i t u a l alo n en ess and
 499

e n v iro n m e n ta l a l o o f n e s s . Then comes R ak a, h e r g r e a t - g r a n d

d a u g h t e r , as a p e r t u r b i n g i n f l u e n c e i n h e r s e c l u d e d l i f e .
R ak a ’ s need f o r s o l i t u d e i s as u r g e n t and c o m p u ls iv e as
N a n d a 's and y e t t h e two o f them l i v e t h e i r s e p a r a t e l i v e s ,
d r i f t i n g away from each o t h e r i n t h e i r d i s p a r a t e w o r ld s .
T hen, a l s o b a r g e s i n h e r fo rm e r f r i e n d , I l a Das, old',
l o n e l y and b e r e f t o f lo v e - o n c e - r i c h b u t n o w - tu r n e d -
a lm o st-d e stitu te . The c lim a x i s overw helm ing i n i t s
im p a c t - H i Das i s m u rd ered and r a p e d and Nanda d ie s o f
sh o ck when s h e knows o f I l a ‘ s grim and d a rk doom and Raka,
i n s h e e r ig n o r a n c e o f t h e t h i c k e n i n g gloom o f d e a t h ,
i g n i t e s a f i r e on t h e m o u n tain which i s r e p l e t e w ith
sy m b o lic i m p o r t . The n o v e l i s an u n f o r g e t t a b l e p o r t r a i t
o f o l d age - i t s i s o l a t i o n , i t s b u r d e n , i t s gloom .
/
I
M ark an d a y a's 3 a d o p ts a .
1- new method o f n a r r a t i o n j i t i s t h e u s u a l o m n i s c i e n t mode
b u t e v e r y t h i n g i s s i f t e d th r o u g h S a r o j a ' s grow ing s e n s i b i ­
lity . Som etim es, S a r o j a m e n t a l l y r e c a p i t u l a t e s h e r
c o n v e r s a t i o n s w ith o t h e r s , m o s tly w ith h e r c o - p r o t a g o n i s t
s i s t e r L a lith a . These c r i s p , p i t h y c o n v e r s a t i o n s a r e
re c o rd e d in th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v e in o f th e v i l l a g e r s .
Markandaya s t a r t e d w ith a s t o r y s e t i n a v i l l a g e and has
.re v e r te d to i t in h e r l a t e s t novel to b rin g out th e
o n s l a u g h t o f t h e m a t e r i a l and u r b a n c i v i l i z a t i o n on t h e
a g ra ria n c i v i l i z a t i o n . The n o v e l , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , does n o t
succeed l i k e h e r N e c ta r in a S ie v e .
 500

N ay an tara* s A S i t u a t i o n i n New D e lh i d e a ls w ith th e

l i f e , !^ a r e e r ^ a n d l o v e - a f f a i r s o f D eb i, a m i n i s t e r i n th e
C e n tr a l G overnm ent. H er b r o t h e r S h i v r a j , a g r e a t n a t i o n a l
l e a d e r , i s dead b u t h i s p o t e n t i n f l u e n c e i s s t i l l o liv e
and D ebi i s u n d o u b te d ly b e n e f i t e d by i t . D r. Usman A ll’ s
f a s c i n a t i o n f o r D ebi and M rs. A l i ’ s je a lo u s y add a m easure
o f i n t e r e s t t o th e s t o r y as does th e s u b - p l o t o f R ish ad -
D ebi’ s son - whose t e r r o r i s t a c t i v i t i e s as w e ll as h i s
lo v e f o r S u v a rn a p riy a end w ith h i s d e a th i n a g re n a d e
e x p lo s io n . The d e p ic t io n o f th e c o n tem p o rary D e lh i l i f e ,
e s p e c i a l l y , t h e m i n i s t e r i a l as w e ll, as t h e U n i v e r s i t y
sc e n e , h as a to n e o f a u t h e n t i c i t y b e c a u s e o f th e n o v e l i s t ’ s
p o l i t i c a l b a ck g ro u n d and a s s o c i a t i o n s .

N e rg is D a la i’ s The S i s t e r s a ls o d e l i n e a t e s th e
m a rita l fo rtu n e s p f q u ite d is s im ila r b u t s o p h is tic a te d
tw in s i s t e r s u n d e r a v e n e e r o f p s y c h o - a n a l y t i c a l p o r t r a i ­
tu re . H e M a t e s t , The I n n e r D o o r, r e v e a ls th e hoax o f a
d e b o n a ir B a lv o g j who, d e s p i t e a l l h i s pomp o f s p i r i t u a l '
’ a t t a i n m e n t ', a llo w s h im s e lf to be se d u c e d by an American
b e a u ty . The n o v e l i s a s c a th in g a t t a c k on th e r e c e n t
A m erican c r a z e f o r Y oga. S a n th a Rama R a u 's The A dventures?
goes beyond I n d ia n c h a r a c t e r s and l o c a l e . I t shows how a
woman manages to s u r v iv e i n a w o rld o f men - i n th e s q u a lo r
and s o r d id n e s s o f p o s tw a r Tokyo and th e i n t r i g u e and
c o r r u p tio n o f S h a n g h a i. T h is i s th e f i r s t ’ n o n - I n d ia n 1
n o v e l, in d e c a d e s , a f t e r o f c o u rs e K a rak a ’ s J u s t F le s h
(1941) a
 501

Arun Jo s h i , l i k e A n ita D e s a i, i s one o f th e m ost

d i s t i n g u i s h e d o f th e yaam ger g e n e r a tio n o f In d o -A n g lia n
w rite rs o f f i c t i o n . H is n o v e ls b r in g o u t t h e them e of
i s o l a t i o n , d is illu s io n m e n t, re n u n c ia tio n , b u t h is th ir d
n o v e l, The A p p r e n tic e , f a i l s to h av e i t s p r o p e r im p a c t on
a c c o u n t o f to o much s t r e s s on t e c h n i c a l v a lu e s u n d e r th e
lo a d o f which th e c r e a t i v e s e n s i b i l i t y seem s to b e s ta g g ­
e rin g .

Chaman M ahal’ s A zadi i s a w o rth y s u c c e s s o r o f B.

Ragan*s The Dafrk D a n ce r, K hushw ant S in g h 's A T r a in to
P a k is ta n and M algonkar* s A Bend i n th e G an g es. A zadi i s
a v ig o ro u s p o r t r a y a l o f th e t r a v a i l s o f a fa m ily p e r s e c u te d
by th e h a u n tin g psycho-com m unal f o r c e s r e l e a s e d by th e
p a rtitio n . The s u b j e c t i s f u l l o f g r e a t d ra m a tic p o s s i b i ­
l i t i e s b u t N ah al i s c h i e f l y i n 't e r s t e d in p o r t r a y i n g how
t h e s e r i o t s a f f e c t t h e f a t e and f o r tu n e s o f t h e fa m ily o f
L a la K'ansjtnRam. The a u t h o r 's d e p ic t io n o f th e communal
r i o t s , l o o t i n g and a rso n a t S i a l k o t and th e c o n s e q u e n t
s u f f e r i n g s o f th e H indus i s q u ite r e a l i s t i c . The p l i g h t
o f th e re fu g e e s Conveys and a t t a c k s on them and t h e naked
p a ra d in g o f th e d is g r a c e d , a b d u c te d and ra p e d w om en-all
th e s e p a s s b e f o r e o u r eyes l i k e a p r o c e s s io n o f u n en d in g
n ig h tm a r e s . The r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f th e r e f u g e s s d e s c r ib e d i n
th e A fte rm a th s u c c e e d s in o n ly m u f f lin g th e v a s t t r a g i c imp­
a c t . T his i s a n o v e l o f e p ic p r o p o r tio n s and i t r i c h l y d e se ­
rv e s th e c o w eted S a h ity a Akadami P r i z e c o n fered L u p o n i t . Cha­
man N ahal*s I n t o A n o th e r Dawn h a s as i t s them e th e .E a s t- W e s t
 502

s y n t h e s i s which s h o u l d s i g n i f y i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m , cosmopol­
i t a n i s m and u n i v e r s a l i s m . The n o v e l s e e k s t o a s s e r t t h e
i d e a l i s t i c , h u m a n i s t i c v a l u e s o f t h e w o rl d as one f a m i l y .
One n a t i o n has t o make good d e f i c i e n c i e s by e m o t i o n a l l y
i n t e g r a t i n g i n t o another f o r mutual f u l f i l m e n t . This i s
i n d i c a t e d by t h e u n io n o f R a v i and I r e n e , s y m b o l i z i n g t h e
In do -A m eri can s y n t h e s i s , i n s p i t e o f t h e i r s u r r a c i a l i n e q ­
u alities. F o r R a v i , who i s f e d up with h i s f a m i l y i n
I n d i a , America i s l i k e a d a m . He s u f f e r s from b l o o d
c a n c e r which means h i s e a r l y d e a t h . The h e r o t h e n look s
f o r w a r d t o awake ning , a f t e r h i s d e p a r t u r e from t h i s
w o r l d , ' i n t o a n o t h e r dawn* I n t h e n e x t w o r l d .

H. S. G i l l ' s Asnes and P e t a l s t e l l s t h e l o v e s t o r y

o f Salma, a Muslim g i r l and C a p t a i n A j i t S i n g h , a s i k h
C a v a lr y O f f i c e r . T h e i r p a r e n t s ao n o t a ppro ve o f t h i s
i n t e r - c o m m u n i t y m a r r i a g e , b u t A j i t ’ s d e a t h chang es h i s
g r a n d f a t h e r ’ s h e a r t and Salma i s a c c e p t e d as d a u g h t e r -
in-law . The n o v e l s t a r t s w it h t h e 1947 p o s t - P a r t i t i o n
exoaus o f Hindu r e f u g e e s from P a k i s t a n , an a t t a c k on
t h e i r t r a i n and t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . The
n o v e l d e p i c t s t h e I nd o- Pa k c o n f r o n t a t i o n and G i l l ’ s
knowledge o f m i l i t a r y methods and manners i m p a r t s a
t o n e o f v a l i d i t y t o t h i s n o v e l . A f t e r h i s Via Geneva t h a t
drew t h e i n s i d e s t o r y of s o p h i s t i c a t e d and r e f i n e d p e r s o n ­
ages manning t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s ,
Aamir A l i ’ s t h i r d n o v e l , Assignm en t i n Kashmir i s a l m o s t
i n t h e v e i n o f s e n s a t i o n a l romances and f a n t a s i e s - s e t i n
 503

vog ue by p a p e r b a c k s w it h l u r i d j a c k e t s sometimes n o t q u i t e
r e l a t e d to t h e t h e m e s . Eg, C o w a s j e e ' s Good Bye t o E l s a
and Veena N a g p a l ' s Karmayogi.

Good Bye t o E l s a i s , how ev er, a n o v e l w it h a d i f f e r e n c e .

I t i s p r o v o c a t i v e and u n i n h i b i t e d i n i t s t r e a t m e n t of s e x .
I t deals with the r o o t l e s s p r o t a g o n i s t ' s search f o r i d e n t i t y .
H is u n h a p p i n e s s r e s u l t s from t h e r u t h l e s s n e s s o f modern
s o c i e t y as a l s o from h i s u n p r e p a r e d n e s s t o be p r a g m a t i c i n
life. A lp ha bet o f L i s t by Kamala Das, t h e well-known I n d o -
A n g li a n p o e t e s s , d e p i c t s a man’ s b e s t i a l s e n s u a l i t y . R a j a ,
a c o r r u p t m i n i s t e r and man, c r e a t e s an a tm o s p h e r e of
p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e and s e n s u a l d e p r a v i t y . He ha s no
s c r u p l e s i n l o v i n g b o t h - a young woman and h e r m o t h e r .
The n o v e l i s t , p r o b ably, r e c e i v e d h e r ' i n s p i r a t i o n * from
N ab okov' s L o l i t a . H e r A D oll f o r t h e C h i l d P r o s t i t u t e
t e l l s t h e t r a g i c t a l e of a p r e - p u b e s c e n t t e e n a g e r who i s
f o r c e d t o l e a d t h e obnoxious l i f e o f a p r o s t i t u t e ,

A s e r i o u s n o v e l i s t s u c h as Romen Basu a l s o f a l l s a p re y
t o t h i s c u r r e n t c r a z e and w r i t e s a c i n e m a t o g r a p h i c romance,
A G i f t o f L o v e . Veena P a i n t a l * s An Autumn L e a f and M id n ig h t
Woman and Veena N a g p a l ' s Compulsion a l s o f o l l o w s u i t . In
s p i t e o f h i s v i g o r o u s s t y l e , R u s k in Bo nd's Love i s a Sad
Song p r o v i d e s a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e o f t h e l u r e of t h e l u r i d . The
t r e n d o f p o p u l a r i t y o f c rim e and s u s p e n s e t h r i l l e r s and adven­
tu re s to rie s depicting lo v e -a ffa irs and i n t i m a t e s e x u a l s c e n e s
b o l d l y and so metimes even b r u t a l l y i n a p s e u d o n a t u r a l i s t i c
mode i s i l l u s t r a t e d by S a j G i l l ' s The R ape . The Golden
 504

Dawni Veena N ag p al* s Com pulspn, S h a k ti M. G u p ta 's Women on

Men. Mayan Ba l s e ' s The S ensuous S a i n t and The S t r a n g e r .
H ild a R a j 's T r a i l o f E v i l . M a lg o n k a r's S h a lim a r .

A word a b o u t M alg o n k ar. H is Spy i n Amber i s o b v io u s ly

a t h r i l l i n g s t o r y o f e s p io n a g e , s p e c i a l l y w r i t t e n f o r th e
screen . H is The D e v i l 's Wind r e v e a ls h i s p e n c h a n t 'f o r
h i s t o r y and r e a s s e s s e s th e s o - c a l l e d Sepoy M utiny o f 185®
from th e I n d ia n p o i n t o f view and d e l i n e a t e s Nana Saheb,
n o t s u p p o r tin g th e B r i t i s h v iew o f him as a v i l l a i n , b u t
as a human b e in g w ith h i s s h a r e o f f o i b l e s and f r a i l t i e s .
The n o v e l i s t b r in g s i n t o p la y h i s m a s te r ly n a r r a t i v e pow er
i n h a rm o n is in g th e h i s t o r i c a l and th e p e r s o n a l th e m e s.
T h is i s th e f i r s t t r u l y h i s t o r i c a l In d o -A n g lia n n o v e l a f t e r
Vimala. R a i n a 's Am bapali ( 1 9 6 2 ) .

The r e v i v a l o f G. V. D esafti and S u d h ir» G h o se m ust be

welcome f o r t h e i r o r i g i n a l i t y and e x p e rim e n ts i n n a r r a t i o n .
D e s a n i's A ll A bout H. H a t t e r r makes u n iq u e r e a d in g , d e s p i t e
i t s p ro n o u n c e d ly “jo y c e a n s t y l e , on a cc o u n t o f i t s l i n g u i s t i c
r e s o u r c e f u ln e s s . I t s c r e a t iv e chaos and v e r b a l in co h eren ce
a r e c e n t r a l to t h e d e s ig n o f th e n o v e l and i t s q u irk y h e r o .
D esan i h as b een r i g h t l y r e v a lu e d and re v iv e d and s o i s
S udhin G hose, whose n o v e ls farm a d i s t i n c t t e t r a l o g y o f th e
a u t h o r 's s p i r i t u a l O d y ssey . H is p e n c h a n t f o r th e f a n t a s t i c
g iv e s f u l l s c o p e to h i s b le n d in g o f th e p a s t and th e p r e s e n t
by m y th s, le g e n d s , f o l k - l o r e and c l a s s i c a l l i t e r a r y a l l u s -
4
io n s . He a d o p ts th e a u to b io g r a p h ic a l m ethod to s u i t h is
 505

purpose. H is c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e te c h n i q u e o f n a r r a t i o n
is sig n ific a n t.

Along w ith t h e s p r e a d i n g o u t o f t h e t h e m a t i c f o l i a g e
o f t h e I n d o - A n g l ia n n o v e l , t h e a r c h i t e c t o n i c aw aren ess
a l s o has grown i n some c o r r e s p o n d i n g m e a s u re . The I n d o -
A n g lia n t e c h n i c a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n shows a d e f i n i t i v e s t e p
in th e d i r e c t i o n o f a r t i s t i c m a tu r ity . A fte r th e i n i t i a l
p i o n e e r i n g f i c t i o n a l e f f o r t s i n t h e p r e - t w e n t i e s e r a , th e
I n d i a n n o v e l i s t i n E n g l is h seems t o be s t r i v i n g to i n v e s t
h i s w r i t i n g w i t h g e n u in e n e s s and a u t h e n t i c i t y which can
o n ly be h a d by a com petent t a c k l i n g o f t h e grammar o f
s ty listic s. He i s im p e l l e d by an i n t e n s e c r a v i n g to be
an ' I n d i a n 1 , t o e x p r e s s h i s ' I n d i a n n e s s 1 which i s n o t a
b u rd e n b u t a n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y , a p a s s p o r t to n a tio n a l
so lid a rity . Ghosfe, M ^tra and V ankataram ani r e v e a l t h e i r
1 Ind&anness* i n t h e i r th e m a tic c h o i c e and e x p r e s s i o n .

Mulk R a j Anand h as t a k e n up t h e g a u n t- s le t t o ad o p t h i s
E n g l i s h to h i s I n d i a n s e n s i b i l i t y and themes and h a s th u s
e v o lv e d a ' d i a l e c t 1 o f E n g l i s h - I n d i a n E n g l i s h w ith a
mixed n a t i v e f l a v o u r o f P u n j a b i , Urdu and H i n d i . T h e re i s
a dichotomy o f s t y l i s t i c e f f e c t s , b e c a u s e Anand1s n a r r a t i v e
o r d e s c r i p t i v e s t y l e d i f f e r s c o n sid e ra b ly in th e d ialo g u es
in h is n o v e ls. He a d o p ts a s i m p l i s t i c s o r t o f s tr e a m of
c o n s c io u s n e s s mode o f n a r r a t i o n i n h i s v e ry f i r s t n o v e l ,
U n to u c h a b le , w h e rein th e w hole s o c i a l r e a l i t y i s f i l t e r e d
 506

through th e n a r r a t o r - Z e r o 's - Bakha's - c o n scio u sn ess.

In most o th e r n o v e ls, he does n o t b o th e r to employ th is
psycho - a n a ly tic a l device o f n a r r a tio n . H is s h o r t s to r ie s
re v e a l h is penchant f o r th e experim ental n a r r a tiv e a r t
based on o r i e n t a l modes of s to r y - t e l l i n g , which along
with w estern p h ilo s o p h ic a l and re fo rm is t in flu e n c e , seem to
have i n s t i l l e d in to him a lo v e f o r preaching and sermoni­
z in g . His s h o r t s t o r i e s a re fo rtu n a te ly fre e from th is
d id a c tic tendency and they i l l u s t r a t e Anand's experim ental
re s o u rc e fu ln e ss and o r i g i n a l i t y in h is n a r r a tiv e tech n iq u e.
His ex ce ssiv e Indianism s in d ialo g u e and d ic tio n tend to
d i s t r a c t c r i t i c a l a tte n tio n from h is lu c id and e f f e c tiv e
n a rr a tiv e and d e s c rip tiv e p a s s a g e s . However, in no c irc u ­
m stances, co u ld h is s t y l i s t i c ex p erim entation be u n d e rs ti-
m ated.

With h is average equipment and average s u s c e p t i b i l i ­

t i e s , Narayan has fashioned f o r h im self an adequate s ty le
in E nglish to ex p ress th e av erag e, E nglish - educated
south In d ian s e n s i b i l i t y . N arayan's technique in th e P re -
Independence novels i s q u ite sim p le . He adopts h e re the
u s u a l, orthodox o m niscient n a r r a tiv e method. In Mr,
Samoath. he employs a more eomplex and a r t i s t i c device of
b ifo c a l n a rr a tio n - the om n iscien t as w ell as th e autobio­
g ra p h ic a l modes. He also makes use o f th e f la s h - back
method fo r t h e f i r s t tim e. He fash io n s f o r h im se lf an
e x te n siv e b if o c a l f la s h back mode of n a rra tio n to span
 507

th e gaps between th e p a s t and th e p re s e n t moments, the

"Rajuness" t h a t has s lip p e d away from him and the "Swami-
hood" th a t i s t h r u s t upon him . In The Vendor o f Sweets.
!
th e re i s a r a t h e r long fla s h -b a c k to d e sc rib e Ja g a n 's
e a r l i e r l i f e , b u t i t i s q u ite re le v a n t and b e t t e r handled
than in Mr. Samoath. He makes use of the myth of Bhasmasura
in The M an-Hater of Malqudi which im parts to the novel i t s
m ytho-poeic c h a ra c te rs His d e p ic tio n of Malgudi as th e
lo c a le of h is novels in v e s ts them w ith a sen se of c o n tin ­
u i ty and c o n sisten c y to h is v is io n . N arayan's very v ir tu e
of averageness sometimes becomes a handicap. F or example,
th e Raju - R osie r e la tio n s h ip , in The Guide. b e tra y s the
inadequacy o f N arayan's l i n g u i s t i c re s o u rc e s . No o th e r
to o l, however, could have done j u s t i c e to N aray an 's sim ple,
average, h o n est and s in c e re v is io n of l i f e .

Raja Rao, one of the g re a t *tr ia E ' in I'ndo-E nglish

f i c t i o n , w rite s w ith a lo rd ly lio n in e l e i s u r e and lu x u ry .
He w rite s only when he m ust, under*”a com pulsive c re a tiv e
u rg e , though he is d e lib e r a te , "committed" a r t i s t , commi­
tte d to a r t a lo n e . He i s an In d ian n o v e lis t in E n g lish ,
c o n sta n tly aware of h is In d ian n e ss and of h is d u tie s and
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as an In d ia n . As e a rly as 1938, he
d e c la re s in h is forw ard to K anthapura s "We cannot w rite
l i k e the E n g lis h . We should n o t. We cannot w rite only
as In d ia n s " . He wanted h is E nglish to be imbued-' v$ith
th e indigenous fla v o u r of h is m other - tongue. For the
Gandhian s e t of fre e d o m -fig h te rs in an a g ra ria n s e t ti n g ,
 508

he a d o p ted t h e mode o f a ‘ grandm other* n a r r a t o r who can

a f f o r d to v e n t h e r ’ K annadism s*. M oorthy, t h e h e ro o f
th e n o v e l, i s an i d e a l i s t i c , youngman - p lu n g e d i n th e
f i g h t f o r freed o m as an a r d e n t G andhian - h e i s a mono­
mania?: c h a rg e d w ith th e p a t r i o t i c z e a l . To e x p r e s s h is
s i m p l i s t i c s e n s i b i l i t y , h i s one - tra c k m in d , d id ' s u i t
R a ja R ao’ s d e s ig n o f th e n o v e l. The In d ia n s e n s i b i l i t y
and th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e w ere am algam ated i n t o a r a r e
a r t i s t i c ‘ a c h ie v e * . I n h i s v e ry f i r s t n o v e l, R a ja Rao
p ro v e d beyond a shadow o f d o u b t t h a t an I n d ia n w r i t e r can
w r ite c r e a t i v e l y i n E n g l is h . The sec o n d n o v e l, g r e a t e r
th a n i t s p r e d e c e s s o r and f o l l o w e r s , The S e r p e n t and th e
R ope, i s a te s tim o n y to R a ja R ao’ s m a g n if ic e n t l i n g u i s t i c
e r p e r im e n ta t io n i n f i c t i o n i n E n g l is h . T h is tim e , he
v e n tu r e d to r e n d e r th e d e c e n c y , decorum and d i g n i t y o f
S a n s k r i t i n t o E n g l is h . The v e d ic and U p a n is h a d ic p h ilo s o ­
p h ic th o u g h t was s p le n d i d ly e x p re s s e d i n th e t y p i c a l R a ja
Rao v a r i e t y , o f E n g lis h , w hich was f a i r l y d i f f e r e n t from
E n g lis h and y e t n o t u n i n t e l l i g i b l y o r g r o te s q u e ly d i f f e r e n t .
T his was a r e f i n e d mode o f p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r e x p r e s s io n g th e
d e f i n i t e l y B rah m in ic and y e t u n m is ta k a b ly c o s m o p o lita n
s e n s ib ility o f tth e h e ro . The n u an ces o f K annada and F ren ch
a ls o w ere a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h i s new compound o f " I n d ia n
E n g lis h " , when th e a p p e a l! a te "In d ia n * d id n o t a t t a c h any
s tig m a , c o n c e s s io n , d e f ic ie n c y o r v u l g a r i s a t i o n to i t . The
C a t and S h a k e s p e a re e x p r e s s e s i t s m ain ly m e ta p h y s ic a l
c o n te n t q u i t e im p r e s s iv e ly a n d so does Comrade K i r i l l o v i t s
 509

M a r x is t th o u g h t- p r o c e s s e s . R a ja Rao has so f a r b een o u r

g r e a t e s t and m o st s u c c e s s f u l l i n q u i s t i c and t e c h n i c a l
e x p e r im e n te r i n m oulding an I n d ia n ** v a r i a n t o f t h e p a r e n t
E n g lis h la n g u a g e .

A p a rt from th e s e th r e e g r e a t In d ia n n o v e l i s t s in
E n g lis h , t h e r e h a v e been c o n s i s t e n t e x p e rim e n ts i n th e
s h a p in g o f th e medium o f a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s io n . G. V. D esani
h a s gone f a r t h e r th a n th e f a r t h e s t and h i s h o ld e x p e rim e n t­
a tio n w ith th e E n g lis h la n g u a g e h as e a rn e d f o r him p r a i s e
from su c h g r e a t c r i t i c s as E l i o t and F o r s t e r . H is A ll
about H. H a tte rr p r e s e n ts queer lin g u is tic c lic h e s ,
id io m s p la tf o r m s p e e c h i f i c a t i o n s , o f f i c i a l e s e , *B abuism s‘ ,
h y p n e n a te d compound w o rd s, m is p la c e d s la n g w o rd s, V ic to r ia n
h ig h so u n d in g and a r c h a ic e x p r e s s i o n s . Such a c o n c o c te d
a d m ix tu re o f I n d ia n E n g lis h i s d e v is e d and em ployed to
p a ro d y t y p i c a l In d ia n is m s o f s t y l e f o r p a ro d y in g i t s e l f
and as a ’ p r o te s t* a g a in s t a ‘ th r u s t* la n g u a g e # T h is h o ld
l i n g u i s t i c in n o v a tio n a d e q u a te ly e x p re s s e s th e c o n fu s e d ,
c r a z e d , q u i z z i c a l and Quixotic p e r s o n a l i t y , s e n s i b i l i t y and
m is a d v e n tu r e s , o f th e E u r a s ia n h e ro o f t h i s re m a rk a b le
n o v e l.

B h a t ta c h a r y a 's s h a p in g o f E n g lis h as a medium o f h is

f i c t i o n a l e x p r e s s io n seems t o re m in d u s o f Mulk R a j Anand*s
e x p e r im e n ta tio n s . He o f t e n t r a n s l a t e s t h e B e n g a li idiom s
and p ro v e rb s i n t o E n g lish to convey th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
c o n v e r s a tio n a l modes o f h i s c h a r a c t e r s . He u s e s some w ord-
 510

compounds in h is own way to im p a rt an In d ian semblance to

h is In d ia n c h ara c te rs'.* e x p ressio n b u t t h is s o r t of coinage
o fte n sounds a b su rd . His dev ice of re d u p lic a tin g a word
by changing th e sound o f an i n i t i a l s y lla b le i s a c h a ra c t­
e r i s t i c a l l y In d ian mode of speech and t h i s device i s used
by o th e r Indo-A nglian n o v e lis ts also® His coining of the
dim inutives of some nouns i s a ls o the n o v e l i s t 's ty p ic a l
way, b u t t h i s a lso o fte n descends in to bad t a s t e e .g . A
f a t h e r addresses h is son as a 'f r o g lin g * . He uses the
s u f f ix *ful* to coin an a d je c tiv a l word, sometimes q u ite
unreasonably when a good enough E nglish a d je c tiv e is
adequately e x p re s s iv e . He changes th e gram m atical o rd e r
of words in in te r r o g a tiv e sen ten c es which i s q u ite r e a l i s ­
t i c in f a i r l y educated c i r c l e s in In d ia . H is use of irony
produces the d e sire d e f f e c t and i s u s e fu l to him in b rin g ­
ing out h is s o c ia l s a t i r i c a l comment#

Khushwant Singh and Chaman N ahal, l i k e Anand, b e lie v e

in c a llin g a spade a spade. They do n o t mince m atters
and t h e i r ex p re ssio n i s f o r c e f u l and d i r e c t . They, l i k e
Anand, make a l i b e r a l use of tr a n s la ti n g th e Punjabi
swearwords, p h ra s e s , idioms and proverbs in to E n g lish .
T h eir language i s adequate to the a r t i s t i c purpose of
rendering th e b r u ta l p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f wide spread
communal m assacres, sexual a t r o c i t i e s and m onstrous
l o o t i n g s ,a f t e r the P a r t it i o n o f t h i s v a s t s u b -c o n tin e n t.
S a sth i B rata and Saros Cowasjee, B ilip H iro , M urari and
a few o th e r younger w rite rs a lso use E nglish b o ld ly - and
 511

sometimes even .crudely in t h e i r d e p ic tio n of sex u al p re ­

m a r ita l, e x tr a - m a r ita l, an arch ic and c h a o tic urges and
a b e rra tio n s ,

Markandaya. and Rajan fa c e a d if f e r e n t problem of

e x p re ssio n . T h e ir long sta y in fo re ig n c o u n trie s has
given than a r a r e 'fe e l* of th e E nglish lan g u ag e. There
commendable m astery of t h i s fo re ig n language o fte n tu rn s
in to a h an d icap . T heir language becomes too m eticu lo u s,
to o lo f ty t&ek o r too s u b tle to be convincing. T h eir
p ro se becomes s t i l t e d and flam boyant and sometimes even
u n i n te l li g i b ly prompous and p e d a n tic . They have p e r fo rce
to s e l e c t such themes and c h a ra c te rs as would b e a r the
weight o f t h e i r o v e r-s o p h is tic a te d se n se . Markandaya! s
The Nowhere Man i s an i l l u s t r a t i o n in p o in t. Of co u rse,
w ith h e r Two V irg in s, she has re tu rn e d to th e In d ian scene
s u c e e fs fu lly b u t we have s t i l l to g e t a novel g r e a te r than
N ectar in a S ie v e from h e r. T h g sg ex p atriate n o v e lis ts are
y e t to save them selves from being A ng licised or Americani­
se d , and sa lv a g e t h e i r In d ia n s e n s i b i l i t y to w hatever
e x te n t p o s s ib le .

, Malgonkar, perhaps th e most read ab le n o v e lis t of the

m ajor Indo-A nglian n o v e lis ts , is known f o r h is p ro fe s s io n a l
competence. He i s a com pelling and powerful s to ry - t e l l e r .
There i s g e n e ra lly a tendency to e v a lu a te M algonkar1s
E nglish as in flu e n c e d by ’ P u b lic School E n g lis h " . His
n a rr a tiv e s k i l l m isleads even'ij h ig h ly p e rc e p tiv e c r i t i c
 512

e
l i k e Mfnakshi Mukherjee to th in k t h a t Malgonkar has
'g e n e r a lly bypassed th e l i n g u i s t i c and s t y l i s t i c problems
in h e re n t in tfee In do-Anglian s i t u a t i o n " . I # a c t, though
he does not d e lib e r a te ly experim ent with th e language lik e
R aja Kao, he does adopt h is language and technique to the
kind o f r e a l i t y he chooses to p o rta'ra y , v i§ . th e p a s t In d ian
sc en e . He i s an upholder o f t r a d i t i o n a l , c o n se rv a tiv e and
a r i s t o c r a t i c v alu e s and experim ents - s p a rin g ly , only when
a b so lu te ly n e c e s s a ry . The m arginal gap between the lin g u ­
i s t i c a c q u is itio n of an E nglish man - Winton - and th a t of
an A nglo-Indian g irl-M ira n d a , in h is Combat of Shadows,
in d ic a te s th e two d i f f e r e n t forms o f E nglish which i s the
m other-tongue o f both as a ls o th e n o v e l i s t 's awareness of
th e Indo-A nglian n o v e l i s t 's problem of e x p re ss io n . In
s h o r t, M algonkar's s e le c tio n o f themes and s o c ia l s t r a t a
of h is c h a ra c te rs su c c e s s fu lly conceal the ‘ seamy' sid e of
h is l i n g u i s t i c and n a rr a tiv e te c h n iq u e .

Ruth Praw er J h a b v a la 's problem i s s t i l l d iffe re n t« £ h e

has to a d a p t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y B r itis h and European
l i n g u i s t i c re so u rce s to th e In d ia n m ilie u . She has also
to In d ia n is e h e r s e l f to acq u ire and In d ian sen sib ility * -S h e
p re fe rs to w rite f o r h e r Vs4stem read ers b u t h e r canvas is
q u ite w ide. Her m ilieu is th e N o rth -In d ian s o c ie ty in
g eneral and th e Delhi s o c ie ty in p a r t i c u l a r . The E a st-
West encounter i s n a tu ra lly a re c u rre n t theme in h e r
fic tio n . She i s a s o c ia l s a t i r i s t and h e r comic v is io n i s
b e s t expressed thraugh h e r u ses o f v arious forms of itoony.
 513

Her technique o f n a rra tio n i s t h a t of an o m n iscien t

o b se rv e r. U nless she f u l ly i d e n t i f i e s h e r s e l f with h e r
p r in c ip a l In d ia n c h a ra c te rs , she cannot adopt and autobio­
g ra p h ic a l mode o f n a rra tio n o r th e stream o f consciousness
tec h n iq u e . T his se rio u s lack of an em pathetic v isio n
c o n s titu te s a se rio u s handicap in h e r way o f a tta in in g a
c o n sid e ra b le a r t i s t i c height#

N ayantara S ahgal4s s t y l e i s q u ite adequate to h e r

m ilieu - th e b u re q u c ra tic , am bassadorial and m in is te r ia l
and top b u s in e s s , tra d e and i n d u s t r ia l c ir c l e s of D elh i.
She has been g rap p lin g with th e problem of m arriage and
m al-adjustm ent, d ivorce and p o s t-d iv o rc e , fre e em otional
and sexual e x tra -m a rita l r e la tio n s h ip s and e x i s t e n t i a l
s tr u g g le s .

A nita D esai*s language is f u l l of K eatsian sensuousness

and onom ato-pojeically m e lliflu o u s and m e ta llic r in g . Hers
is a s t y l e p re-e m in e n tly s u ite d to an o v e rs tru n g , hyper­
s e n s itiv e fem inine s e n s i b i l i t y wrecked by s p i r i t u a l clau­
stro p h o b ia and phantasSm agorical and n ig h tm arish shadows
o f Death. Her imagery runs r i o t but in s p i t e of i t s crush­
in g i n t e n s i t y , i t i s attu n ed to the moribund h e ro in e s in
h e r n o v e ls. The peacock symtfbbl', in Cry, tb e Peacock,
a cc en tu ate s th e o v e rstru n g and overwhjfeemingly tr a g ic
im p o rt. Her employment o f p o e tic symbol im p arts a new
s t y l i s t i c dimension to h e r i n d iv i d u a li s t i c and a r t i s t i c
e x p re ssio n .
 514

Both A nita Desai and Arun Jo s h i can e f f e c tiv e ly

express th e s u b tle nuances of the In d ian thought and psyche.
The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t problems of s p i r i t u a l i s o l a t i o n , f a ilu r e
o f communication, dialogue o r harmonious re la tio n s h ip ,
m ental aloneness and to rm ent, p h y sic a l a lo o fn e s s , disco­
n te n t and u n fu lfilm e n t, i n a b i l i t y to come to term s with
o n e se lf and th e w orld, tu rm o ils w ith in and w ith o u t, s h a t t ­
ered id e a ls and wrecked in n e r landscapes and b abblings of
i n t e r i o r monologues - a l l th e s e a re d e ftly expressed by
th e s e n o v e lis ts in to th e modes of stream of consciousness
te c h n iq u e . This i t s e l f in d ic a te s t h a t A nita D esai and
Aron Jo sh i can handle a p u rely p sy ch o lo g ical novel with,
ease and com petence.

I In c o n c lu sio n , Indo-A nglian w ritin g has in c re a s e d in

volume and g ain ed in q u a lity a f t e r Independence. I t is
p e ra d o x iea l t h a t although E nglish has l o s t i t s fo c a l r o le
as the language of a d m in is tra tio n , i t has e s ta b lis h e d
i t s e l f as a medium f o r l i t e r a r y e x p re ssio n . 5 A fte r
Independence, q u ite a few women n o v e lis ts have come to
^ th e f o r e f r o n t in th e f i e l d . The element of propaganda,
w hatever the m otive, has receded to th e background and
/ d is p a s s io n a te p u r s u it o f a r t has grown. Awareness of a
Western audience i s n o t a lto g e th e r a b se n t. S e lf - c o n s iio -
usness is the o r i g in a l, c a rd in a l s in , th e shadows of which
have s t i l l lin g e re d on. Awareness of the form and te c h n i­
que has c o n sid era b ly in c re a s e d . With th e adeent of freedom,
fhe s p i r i t o f unshackled n a tio n a lism fin d s ex p ressio n in
 515

l i t e r a t u r e w hich h e lp s t h e a u t h o r i n p r o j e c t i n g h i s v i s i o n
o f In d ia n l i f e . They show a grow ing a w aren ess o f I n d i a n
n a t i o n a l p ro b le m s and t h e i r w r i t i n g r e f l e c t s , by and
l a r g e , a new n a t i o n . T h ere i s an a p p r e c i a b l e c h an g e i n
t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o t h e West®

I n d o - A n g lia n f i c t i o n to d a y i s w e ll on i t s way to
m a t u r i t y , th o u g h n o t s t i l l f u l l y m a tu re b e c a u s e o f l i n g e r ­
i n g shadows o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s ® H ow ever, t h e n o v e l i s t s
a r e read y t o m e et t h e c h a l l e n g e t o be ju d g e d a c c o r d in g to
i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i t e r a r y s t a n d a r d s and f i c t i o n w r i t i n g i s no
l o n g e r p u r s u e d as a p a s tim e b u t h as become a s e r i o M
v o c atio n .

* ® e
 516

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1 I n h i s t a l k on " I n d i a n F ilin s i n t h e T h i r t i e s "

( g i v e n t o t h e members o f t h e F ilm C u l t u r a l C e n t r e
o f P o o n a on 1 4 th N ovem ber, 1 9 6 7 ) , K. A. Abbas
r e m a r k e d t h a t s i n c e i t w ould h a v e b e e n s e d i t i o n
i n p r e - I n d e p e n d e n c e d a y s t o p o r t r a y an E n g lis h m a n
as t h e v i l l a i n , t h e I n d i a n f i l m - m a k e r s o f t e n u s e d
a w e s t e r n i s e d m i l l - o w n e r as t h e t a r g e t o f t h e i r
a t t a c k - t h i s p a t t e r n was e q u a l l y v a l i d f o r t h e
n o v e l s as n o t e d by M e e n a k s h i M ukhexjee i n The
T w ice B orn F i c t i o n , A r n o ld H ein em an n , p . 9 4 . ”

2 K a n th a o u ra i s e s s e n t i a l l y n a iv e - p e r h a p s , i t s
a u th o r p u rp o sed i t to be so - in s p i t e o f i t s f a i r
m easure o f t e c h n ic a l e x p e r im e n ta tio n .

3 B . Damodar ELao, "S low M a t u r i n g o f Change - A S tu d y

o f n o v e l s o f K. N a g a r a j a n " , The L i t e r a r y C r i t e r i o n ,
e d . C. D. N a r a s i m h a i a h , M y s o r e , V o l . X I I , 1976,
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4 D av id M cC u tc h io n b r i n g s o u t how 'B o t h R . K. N a ra y a n
and S u d h i r Ghosh d e l i g h t i n t h e f a n t a s t i c f o r i t s
own s a k e ' an d ’ how t h e y a r e c a r r i e d away by t h e
momentum o f t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n ' , i n I n d i a n W r i t i n g i n
E n g l i s h . W r i t e r s W orkshop, C a l c u t t a 7 p p . 3 4 - 3 5 .

5 Uma P a r a m e s w a r a n q u o te s D av id M cC utchion and s t a t e s

t h a t i t is n o t s tra n g e t h a t In d ia n l i t e r a t u r e in
E n g l i s h h a s b e e n f l o u r i s h i n g s i n c e I n d e p e n d e n c e , more
th a n e v e r b e f o r e . S he, how ever, f e e l s t h a t once
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t u r e a l s o w i l l bow o u t - s h e even s e t s ' A.D. 2000 as
t h e d i r g e d a t e ' . (A s t u d y o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e I n d o -
E n g l i s h N o v e l i s t V i k a s , 19 7 6 , I n t r o d u c t i o n , p . 6 ) .
I t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r one to a g re e w ith h e r , b eca u se
h e r a t t i t u d e t o t h e p r o b le m i s u n c e r t a i n and
a m b iv a le n t.
 517

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H ouse, 1967.”
T r a i l o f E v i l . V ikas P u b lis h in g H ouse, D e lh i, 1978.
RAJARSO, KANTMAPiBA. (1 9 3 8 ) , O .U .P ., 1947, Second
Im p re s s io n ^ 1966.
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 525

The Cat and S hakespeare, The Macmillan Company, New

York, 1965.
Comrade K i r i l l o v . O rien t P aperbacks, New D e lh i, 1976.
The Cow of th e B a rric a d e s , O .U .P ., London, 1947.
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RAJAN, BALCHANDRA, The Dark Dancer. Heinemahn, London,
1959. “
Too Long in th e West. Ja ic o P u b lish in g House, Bombay,
“

RAM, SHANKER, (pseud, o f T. L. Nates a n j, The Love o f .

D ust. A.N. Purnah, Madras, 1938.
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C reatures A ll. A.N, Purnah, Madras, 1933.
RAMA RAJ, SAMTHA, Remember th e House. V ictor G ollancz,
London, 1956, -
The Adven tu r e s . (1970), D ell P u b lish in g C o., New York,
WfTT‘ ~ -
RAMA SARMA, M.V., The Stream . T riv e n i P u b lis h e rs ,
M asulipatam , 1956.
SAHGAL, NAYANTARA, (1957), A Time to be Happy. Ja ic o
P u b lish in g House, Bombay, lf ^ 3 .
This Time of Morinq. V ic to r G ollancz L td .', London, 1965
Storm in Chandigarh. Chatto & Windus, London, 1969.
The Day in Shadow. (1971), B e ll Books Vikas P u b lish in g
House P v t , .’L td ., Bombay, 1976.
A S itu a tio n in New D elhi._London Magazine e d itio n s ,
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SENQIJPTA, PADMINX, Red H ib isc u s. Asia P u b lish in g House,
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SHRINAGESH, SHAKUNTALA, The L i t t l e Black Box. Seeker
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SINGH, HUTHIj, Maura. C onstable, London, 1951.
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Kami a . Selwyn and B lount, London, 1925
 526

Kamni, U t t a r Chand K apur & S o n s, L a h o re , 1931«

SINGH, KHUSHWANT,‘ (1 9 5 6 } , Tr a i n to P a k i s t a n . F o u r
S q u are Books L t d . , Lon d o n ,”"1961.
___ I s h a l l n o t h e a r t h e n i g h t i n g a l e . John C a ld e r ,
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The V oice o f God and O th e r S t o r i e s . J a i c o
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B lack J a s m in e . J a i c o , Bombay, 1972.
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SURYA RAO, D ., The Two V is io n s . A lp h a -B e ta
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TARKHUD, NALINI, The J a d i r d a r o f P a ln a . The
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VENKATARAMANI, K. S . , M uruqan t h e T i l l e r . S im p k in ,
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.. K andan. th e P a t r i o t . (1 9 3 2 ) , S w e ta ra n y a Ashram a,
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J a ta d h a r a n and O th e r S t o r i e s . S v e ta ra n y a A shram a,
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II CRITICAL STUDIES
AMUR, C. S . , M anohar M alqonka r . A rn o ld H einem ann
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BAKHTIYAR, IQBAL, ( E d i t o r ) , The N ovel i n Modern
I n d i a . The P .E .N . ' ~
BERRY, MARGARET, Mulk Ra,1 Anand - The Man and th e
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BHATNAGAR, K. C ., Re a lis m i n M ajo r I n d o - E n q ljs h
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EZEKIEL, NISSIM, ( E d i t o r ) , W rite rs i n I n d i a , P .E .N .,
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OJPTA, G. S , BALABAMA, Mulk R a l Anand. P ra k a s h Book
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 52 |

Th e Swan and t he E d q le , I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f Advanced

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 /

52^

III JOURNALS *—
S p ecial Number on In d ia n w ritin g in E n g lish .
' TOi BANASTHALI PATRIKA, y e a r§ , No. 12nd Jan u ary , 1969.
THE BANASTHAL1 PATRJKA. y e a r 5, No. I3f- J u ly , 1969.
In d ian L i t e r a t u r e . V o l., X III, No. 1 1970.
ALI, AHMED, " Illu sio n and R e a lity - The art and
Philosophy of R aja Rao", The Journal of Common
Wealth L iter a tu r e . No. 5 ,” July7 1968.
ANNIAH GOW0AH, H. H ., "Rajan : The S erio u s and th e
Comic", The L ite ra ry H alf Y early . V.1, 1964.
BADAL, R. K ., "Bfelabani B hattacharya and His N ovels",
The L ite r a r y H alf Y early . Vol. X II, No. 2 , J u ly , 1971.
BELIAPPA, MEENA, 'A Study of Jh a b v a la 's F ic tio n * ,
The B anastha l i P a tr ik a . S p e c ia l Number 4 :1 2 ,
January, 1955.
CHAMDRASEKHARLAN, K. R ,, "Ea s t and West in th e Novels
of Kamala Markandava. " C r i ti c a l Essav.5—on_.Indi..aa
W riting in E n g lish . K arnatak U n iv e rs ity , Dharwar,
1968®
CHAUHAN, P. S», "Kamala Markandaya," The L ite ra ry
C r ite r io n . Vol. X II, No. 2 -3 , 1976.
COWASJEE, SARDS, "P rin ces and P o l i t i c s " , The L ite ra ry
C r ite r io n . V III, 4, Summer, 1969. ”
"Mulk Raj Anand : P rin c es and P r o le ta r ia n s " , Journal
of Commonwealth L i t e r a t u r e . 5, Ju ly , 1966.
EESAI ANITA, "Aspects of the Indo-A nglian Novel :
Women W rite rs " , Quest No. 65, 1970.
DAMODAR RAO, B* "Slow M aturing of Change : A Study
of th e Novels of K. N agarajan", The L ite r a r y
C r ite r io n . Vol. X II, Nos. 2 -3 , 1976.
EZEKIEL, N1SSIM, D .J. ENRIGHT and SUDHIN CHOSE,
"Modern In d ia n W riting : A D iscussion, " W rite r's
Workshop M iscellan y . No. 28, August, 19681 ~ ' -
GOWDA, ANNIAH, "The E n g lish of th e In d ian and the
A frican in t h e i r F ic tio n " , The L ite ra ry H a lf-
Y earlv . Vol. XVII, No. 1,
’’C ontem porary C r e a tiv e W r ite r s i n E n g lis h i n I n d i a ” ,
The L i t e r a r y H a lf - Y e a r ly , V o l. X, No. 1, 1 969.
GUPTA, G. S . BALAftAMA, "THE Humanism o f Mulk R aj
An a n d ," C ontem porary I n d ia n L i t e r a t u r e . A u g u st, 1967.
KURMANADHAM, K ., “The N o v e ls o f D r. Mulk R aj Anand",
T r i v e n i . O c to b e r, 1967.
MATHUft, 0 ; P . f "The N o v e ls o f Chaman N a h a l" , The
L i t e r a r y H a l f - y e a r l y . V o l. XX, No. 2 , 1 979.
McCUTCUTON, DAVID, ’’The N ovel as S a s t r a ” , (R eview o f
R a ja R ao’ s The S e rp e n t and t h e R ope. W rite rs
Workshop M is c e lla n y . ¥ 1 T § S l. .
MEHTA, VED, "The T r a in h a d j u s t A rriv e d a t M algudi
S t a t i o n " , in John i s Easy to P l e a s e . 1 9 7 1 .
MUKHERJEE, MEENAKSHI, " R a ja R ao’ s S h o r t e r F i c t i o n " ,
I n d i an L i t e r a t u r e , V o l. X, No.3 , 1967.
"A w areness o f A udience in In d o -A n g lia n F i c t i o n " ,
Q u e st. 5 2, 1967.
MUKHERJEE, NIRMAL, "Some A sp e c ts o f th e L i t e r a r y ,
D evelopm ent o f R. K. N a ra y a n " j^ S a n a s t h a li P a t r i k a ,
1.3, 1969. .
VEST BROOK, PERCY D ., "The S h o r t S t o r i e s o f R. K.
N a ra y a n " , J o u r n a l o f Commonwealth L i t e r a t u r e . J u l y ,
1968. “
WALSH, WILLIAM, "The I n t r i c a t e A llia n c e " , R eview of
E n g lis h L i t e r a t u r e , O c to b e r , 1961.
"Sw eet Mangoes and M alt V in e g a r " , in A Human Id io m ,
1964. ' '
" N a ta r a ja and th e P a c k e t o f S a f f r o n " , E n c o u n te r,
O c to b e r, 1964. ~~
NAIK, M. K ., "K a n th ap u ra ; The In d o -A n g lia n Novel as
L eg en d ary H i s t o r y , " J o u r n a l o f th e K a rn a ta k
U n i v e r s i t y , X, 1966. ‘ ' ~ '
R a ja R ao, in th e B a n s th a li P a t r i k a . No. 12. J a n . .
-1969. " : ' “
NANDAKUMAR, PREMA, "A ch iev em en t o f th e In d o -A n g lia n
N o v e lis t" ,m T h e L i t e r a r y C r i t e r i o n , V ;1. ( W in ijter.
1 9 6 1 ).
Indian Writing in 1964 : E nglish, I ndian L itera tu re.
VIII: 2, 1965.
WABASIMHAIAH, C. D ., "Raja Rao's KANTHAPURA : An
A nalysis," The L iterary CriterionT VII : 2 , 1960.
"Raja Rao : The Serpent and the Rope - A Study”,
The L iterary C rjterian, V. 4, 1963.
R. K» Narayan *s The Guide with a Note on th e Sahitya
Akademi Award to“the Novel", The L iterary C riterio n .
IV : 2, 1961.
"Indian Writing in English : An Introduction”, The
Journal of Commonwealth
---------------- L iteratu —
-------------------------- re,’ No. 6, JulyT

PANDU RANGARAO, V. "The Art of Ri K, Narayan",

Journal
.... . of Commonwealth L itera tu re, Ju ly, 1968.
.. - . ■- ........................... ■— ■" ■ .................»■"' ............... .................................................

PARAMESMARAN, UMA, "KARMA at Work : The A llegory in

Raja Rao's The Cat and Shakespeare”, The Journal of
CommonwealtfT"Literature, No. 7, July, 1969.
RAJAN B ., "The Indian V irtue". Journal of
Commonwealth L itera tu re. 1, 1963.
"Writing in English", The I llu s tr a te d Weekly of
In d ia. May 26, 1963.
RAMAMJRTHI, t,,
S ., "Patterns of D istin c tiv e n e ss in
the Language of Commonwealth F iction - A Comparative
Study of the Language of Achebe, Naipaul, Narayan
and Nagarajan", The L ite ra ry H alf - y e a r ly . Vol. XXII,
No. 2 , 1981.
RANCHAN, S. P. and RAIZDAN, B. M., "The Serpent and
the Rope”, The I llu s tr a te d Weekly of In d ia . March 13,
April 3 & 10, 19637“
RIEMENCBNEl DER, D. "An Id eal of Man in Mulk Raj
Anand's Novels", Indian L itera tu re. X, 1967.
RAJEEV, TRRANTH, "The Average as the P o sitiv e " ,
C r itic a l Essays on Indian Writing in E n glish ,
Kamatak U n iv ersity , Dharwar.
SHAHANE, V. A ., "Theme, T itle and Structure in
Khushwant Singh's Train to Pakistan". The Li t e r ary
C riterion , Vol. 1X7 No. 3, 1970. ” •
 53^

S SRINATH, G. N ., "The J r i c t i o n of Arun J o s h i " , The

Li t e r a r y C r i t e r i o n , V o l. X I I , N os. 2 - 3 , 1976.
”G. V. Desani : A ll about H. H a t t e r " , The L i t e r a r y
C r i t e r i o n . Vol. IX, No. 3, ,1970®
VENKATAS WAR.AN, S . , "The Language o f Kamala Markandaya*s
N o v e ls ” , The L i t e r a r y C r i t e r i o n , Vol® IX, No. 3,
1970.“
VENKATACHARI, K®, "R. K. N a r a y a n 's N ovels :
A cceptance of L i f e " , I n d i a n L i t e r a t u r e , Vol® X I I I ,
No. 1, 1970.
VENUGOPAL, C., V.,' "The S h o r t S t o r i e s of Mulk Raj
Anand : A S tu d y ", K a r n a ta k U n i v e r s i t y J o u r n a l .
H u m a n i t i e s , XV, 1971.
The I n d i a n S h o r t S t o r y i n E n g l i s h , The B a n a s t h a l i
P a t r i k a . J a n . 1969. “ “
VERGHESE, C. PAUL, " I n d i a n E n g lis h and Man i n I n d o -
A ngiian F i c t i o n " , I n d i a n L i t e r a t u r e, Vol. X I I I ,
No. 1, 1970.
Problems of t h e I n d i a n N o v e l i s t i n E n g l i s h ,
B a n a s t h a l i P a t r i k a , J a n . 1967.