i 14 Leadership af 2. important part of a = Introduction ce t Leadership is a process of influence on i te pe ‘working under him manager's job. A manage: must be able et ad th pe objectives of the ere een i 1 a mastgst to induce subordinates to is is the at F . : Sort el eae zeal. Itis the driving force which yi ee done ‘ by others. A good leader achieves maximum cooperation from ea rap U members by providing two-way communication and by motivating. He isalso able to coordinate the activities oof the followers to achieve common objectives, ui Leadership can be an important modifier of behaviour of people working necessary for inspiring the people in the organisation. Effective leadership is it r to work for the accomplishment of given objectives. It provides a cohesive force which holds the group intact and develops a spirit of co-operation. Effective leadership is also essential for efficient direction of human efforts towards the predetermined goals. “The fact that a leader can have an immense effect on the performance of those under him has been noted for centuries that while some officers receive only grudging obedience, others are able to inspire their men to do the seemingly impossible and do it willingly. The same phenomenon has been noted in other organisations, including business organisations. It is not sur- prising, therefore, that business would like to discover some way of selecting better leaders and for training its managers in effective leadership techniques. put vie power of good leadership to produce extraordinary results is @ it i fact, it is difficult to produce facts about what it actually consists of.”"! fance of Leadership significance of leadership in mana; i s u 'gement will be clear if the functions which are performed by a leader. The functions i ected : (i) Determinatioi __O Paermination of goals. A leader performs the creative function of 1. Emest Dale, Management : Tokyo, ITB pad Nery and Practice, McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd., 294LEADERSHIP wi nt bay rei seme the followers. He acts as a guide in ime iy Organisation of Activities vities among, the employees in a sy: tween them are clearly laid down, etween them. 295 A good leader divides organisation ac- tematic manner. The relationships be- This reduces the chances of conflict (iii) Achieving Coordination, A leader integrates the goals of the indi- viduals with the organisational goals and creates a community of interests. He keeps himself informed about the working of the group. He shares infor- mation with the group for the coordination of its efforts, (iv) Representation of Workers, A \eader is are} He takes initiative in all matters of interest to the fulfil the psychological needs of his followers. (v) Providing Guidance. A \eader guides the subordinates towards the achievement of organisational objectives, He is available for advice whenever a subordinate faces any problem. resentative of his group. group. He also attempts to (vi) Inspiration of Employees. A good leader inspires the subordinates for better performance. Motivation is necessary for getting the desired work from the subordinates. The leader motivates the employees by providing them economic and non-economic rewards. (vii) Building Employees’ Morale, Good leadership is indispensable for high employee morale. The leader shapes the thinking and attitudes of the group. He develops good human relations and facilitates interactions among the members of the groyp. He maintains voluntary cooperation and discipline among followers, (viii) Facilitating Change. Leadership is the mechanism to convince workers about the need for change. Dynamic leadership is the comer-stone of organisational change. An effective leader is able to overcome resistance to change on the part of workers and thus facilitates change. What is Leadership ? Chester Barnard viewed leadership as the quality of behaviour of individuals whereby they guide people or their activities in organising efforts.” A leader interprets the objectives of the people working under him and guides them towards the achievement of those objectives. He also creates and sustains enthusiasm among them for achieving organisational objectives. In the words of Louis A. Allen, ‘one who guides and directs other people. He eee eee 2 Chester 1. Bamard, The Functions of the Executive, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1938.RY AND BEHA' ORGANISATION THEO! VIOUR se by influencing the, . direction pose on ofl i i tion of 7 gives the efforts of is flower ms oe ths funct leadership agers al Ee . fn ee isin ates 50th they behaviour.’” = aa to lead the s@l inates i ing the § t Leadership is a process of infveminent of SOUP goals. According to SP astcaly in te SoRICTT TT as by which ar executive im. aman, ip isthe pro in choosi Theo Haimann, ‘“LeadershiP ork of others ing ang aginatively directs, guides a ioe yeqween the individuals and the or. attaining specified by mele will obtain maximun satisfaction." ganisation in such — oe va process of influence ona group ; James Gibbin bets i iven point of time and in a specific set of in a particular situ: at a 8) aie ‘willingly coattain organisational circumstances that stimulates peop! helping (0 attain the common objectives, giving them the ‘experience Te ° vided." objectives and satisfaction with the tyPe of P Leadershi sychological process of influencing followers or sub- ship is a p' f E rey ordinates and providing guidance 10 them. It is always ae to a sioaton which means a leader may be effective in one situation while ine! fective in another. Tobeeffective, aleader should change his leadership style depending upon the requirements of the situation. Characteristics of Leadership . f leadership reveals that it has the ‘An analysis of the above definitions of following characteristics : 1. Leadership is a process of influence. Leadership is a process whose xercised by the leader on group mem- 1 is the influence ¢7 id to have an influence over others when they are willing bers. A person is sai to carry out his wishes and accept his advice, guidance and direction. Suc- cesaful leaders are able to influence the behaviour, attitudes and beliefs of their followers. 2. Leadership is related to a situation. When we talk of leadership, it is always related to a particular situation, at a given point of time and under a specific st of circumstances. That means leadership styles willbe different under different circumstances. At one point of time, the subordinates may accept the autocratic behaviour of the leader while at a different point of time and under a different situation, only participative leadership style may be successful. That is why, itis said that leadership is dea unaia aay not important ingredien general. 3. Louis A. Allen, n, Management and Organisation, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, p. 5. 4. Theo Haimann, Professional. fessional Management, Eurasia Publishing House, New Delhi 1976, p. 440.LEADERSHIP 3, Leadership li the function of ‘stimulation, Le: ivating people to strive willingly to attai isati . ot ts re considered succeesful vee they are abe weary individual interests of the employees to the general interests of the a aa ton. A successful leader allows his subordinates to have their individuet non, sot up by themselves in such a way that they do not conflict with the organisational objectives, When this Congrueney is achieved, workers act snthusiastcally to achieve these goals, : > 4, Leadership gives an experience objectives. Under successful leadership, every person in the organisation feels that his operation, however minor it may be, is vital to the attainment of organisational objectives. It happens when the manager feels the importance of individuals, gives them recognition and tells them about the importance of activities performed by them. 5, Employees must be satisfied with the type of leadership provided. Only short-term productivity of employees can be increased by pressure and punishment. This approach is not in the long-term interests of the. organisation. Force generates counter-force which results in a decreased long-term produc. tivity. Long-term interests of the organisation are best served when managers allow subordinates to influence their behaviour, particularly when subordi- nates are knowledgeable and competent. A good manager recognises the fact that leadership is a shared function. A good leader shares everything with his followers ; he shares credit, blame, ideas, opinion and experience, 297 ‘adership is the function of helping attain the common Leadership vs. Managership Leadership is the ability to enthuse the followers towards a definite goal. It is the process of stimulating members of the group towards a particular direction. Leadership is a part of management, but not all of it. A manager is required to plan and organise, for example, but all we ask of a leader is that he gets others to follow. The fact that he can get others to follow him is no guarantee that he is going in the right direction. That means a strong leader can be a weak manager because he is weak in planning or some other managerial duty.” All work performed by a leader may not be management work. This explains why although a good manager must be an effective leader, many Outstanding leaders have, in fact, been exceedingly poor managers. The reverse is also possible. A manager can be a weak leader and still be an acceptable manager, especially if he happens to manage people who have strong inner achievement drives. But, usually, it is essential that a person to be an effective manager must also be an effective leader. Se ie 5. Keith Davis, Human Behaviour at Work, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Lid. New Delhi, 1975, p. 101.LEADERSHIP in all matters. It is also t the workers in all | ‘0 true that a work- ‘ifferent leaders for different purposes. The members of a work-grou fe influenced by one leader while doing their jobs. But as regards cae, sonal problems, they may go to another leader for advice. Still they follow another leader as far as their recreation is concerned. eee 299 group may have Management often tries to suppress informal leaders. But ii remembered that the trouble they cause reflects the desires i cae they are suppressed, the workers may become more antagonistic to manage- ment, morale may fall even lower and new informal leaders may step to the fore, Therefore, it is better to work with informal leaders. There are many waysin which amanager can build up good relations with the informal leaders working with him. Among other things, he can pass necessary information to them first, seek their advice on technical and human relations problems and assign them to train others. STYLES OF LEADERSHIP Leadership style refers to a leader’s behaviour. Behavioural pattern which the leader reflects in his role as a leader is often described as the style of leadership. Different leadership patterns exist among leaders in different times and in different situations. Leadership style is the result of leader’ s philosophy, personality, experience and value system. It also depends upon the types of followers and the organisational atmosphere prevailing in the enterprise. Different types of leadership styles are : (i) Autocratic leadership. (ii) Participative leadership. (iii) Free rein leadership. In practice, a leader may use different styles over a period of time, but one style tends to predominate as his normal way of using power. For example, A 7 ; 5 — KPa (@) Autocratic (0) Participative (c) Free Roe Fig, 1. Types of Leadership Styles (A is the leade”-' ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIgy, 300 factory supervisor who is normally autoc mining vacation schedules and free si° t ittee. It shou! lative for safety committee. It sI sombination jocratic, may be participative in detey, in selecting a departmental represey, noted that this classification is no, of styles because there scientific. In practice, a leader adopts ac 4 : Jes of power which each manager applies in are thousands of inbetween syle Of Pov ranging from toll power his own way. Power use exists to no power use at all; and effective along this continuum as shown in Fig. 2. 1. Autocratic or Authoritarian Leader ve managers usually show some flexibility ordinates. ‘ ‘The autocratic leader gives orders which must be obeys He determines policies for the group without consulting them, and does not x Srmaton about Tatare pians, but simply tells the group w dive demiearm ; oe * immediate steps they must take. He gives personal praise or criticism to each the group for the major member on his own initiative and remains aloof from part of the time, Thus, under this siyle, all decision-making power is cen- tralised in the leader as shown in Fig. I (a). Leader adopting this style stresses his prerogative to decide and order and subordinates’ obligation to do what they are told to carry out. He does not give subordinates the freedom to He does not give suboremates te secon influence his Autocratic_leadershij may be negative because followers are_unin- formed, insecure and afraid of leader’ s authority. Such a leader may be called strict autocrat who relies on negative influences and gives orders which the subordinates must azcept. Leadership can be positive also because the leader may use his power to disperse rewards to his group. When his motivational style is positive, he is often called a benevolent autocrat. The benevolent autocrat is effective in getting high productivity in many situations and he can develop effective human relationships. There is another type of autocratic leader, known as manipulative autocrat, who makes the subordinates feel that they are participating in decision-making process even though he has already taken the decision. Thus, autocratic leader makes his subordinates not permit his subordinates to influence his decision, basically work for money and want security. Beca about human beings, he exercises tight control a subordinates. But thes act as he directs and does - He assumes that people use of such assumptions ind supervision over his assumptions do not hold good in all the situations. If fe motivational style is negative, people will dislike it, Frustration, low morale and conflict develop easily in aclocptic situations, ii The aaaaale TAnagement has been successful because it_provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making as onl: one-person decndes For the whole gFOUp-Thay also bosp-eupeostctinsach Tas also been successful in sucSHIP where subordinates are reluctant s ee tee bas often ae nia. Ini ; svat quite common and has often succeeded. In future, it is pean a SEs Hess likely yle is . fective because + pecfl ao (The coming generation & Hess amenable 10 rigid direction and Q) ‘The standard of living of people is rising. (3) There is now social awareness among the people; they look for social and egoistic sat irk 2.P tive or Democratic Leader Adel tic Ipader is one who gives instructions only after consulting the group. He sees to it that policies are worked out in group discussions and ihe cee TARE OT rep. He makes it clear that pas or Blames maiter for the group and participates in the group as a member. Participative leadershi ision-making by the group as shown n Fig. 1 (b), sharing of power by allowing the group to make decisions and to let decisions emerge fromthe group. Participative manager decentralises managerial au- thority. His decisions are not unilateral like that of the autocral arise from consultation with the group members and participation by them. Unlike an autocratic manager who controls through the authority he possesses, a participative manager exercises control mostly by using forces within the group. Some of the advantages of participative leadership are : It increases the acceptance of management's ideas. an improves the attitude of employees towards their jobs and the organisation. It increases the cooperation between management and employees. it leads to reduction in the number of complaints and grievances. tt increases the morale of the employees. 3. Free Rein or Laissez Faire Leader A free rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself as shown in Fig, 1 (c). He is represented by the chairman of the board who does Not manage, but leaves all responsibility for most of the work to his subordi- hates. The free rein leader avoids power. He depends largely upon the group to establish its own goals and work out its own problems. Group members Work themselves and provide their own motivation. The leader exists 82 contact person with outsiders to bring for his group the information at Tesources it needs to accomplish its job. ; tet ___ Free rein leadership ignores the manager's contribution approxi 7 inthe same way as the autocratic leadership ignores that of the BOP. reader '0 give the group the advantages of leader's inspired motivation”Fe ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOU, 302 ic is leadership position, gives all responsibility and foal ane seine to him to the group a 7 mire to lea, limiting his authority to maintain the contact o| » lecttexdents Persons Outside the group. This is also known as permissive e ia ee mere there is least intervention by the leader, abdication o aut nity letting the group to operate entirely on its own. This mode of ane er produc good and quick results if the subordinates are highly educ: te villian People who have a sincere desire to go ahead and perform their fesponsibj|. ities, ‘There is one more style of leadership popularly known as Pateralistic Leadership. Under this, the leader assumes that his function is paternaj or fatherly. His attitude is that of teating the relationship between the leader and his group as that of family with the leader as the head of family, He works to help, guide, protect and keep his followers happily working together as members of a family. He provides them with good working conditions, fringe benefits and employee services. This style has been successful Particularly in Japan because of its cultural background, Itis said that employees under such leadership will work harder out of gratitude, However, in the modern complex industrial relations system, this attitude may not result in maximum miotiva- tion Instead of gratitude, it might generate resentment among the subordinates, LIKERT’S MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND LEADERSHIP Rensis Likert and his associates, of the University of Michigan, conducted an extensive survey of management and leadership patterns in a large number of organisations. Within the basic style Categories of task orientation and employee orientation, Likest developed a four fevel model of tcadership effectiveness.* These patterns of leadership were termed Systems of Manage- ment and were assigned numbers from 1 104 to indicate the stages of evolution in the pattems of management in organisations, Likert’s four systems of Management in terms of leadership styles are as listed below : System 1 ~ Exploitative authoritative. System 2 - Benevolent authoritative, System 3 ~ Consultative, System 4 ~ Participative (Democratic), oa 8. Rensis Likert, The Human Organisati Pp. “i - as McGraw-Hill Book ‘Co, New York, 1967,LeaDERSHIP i. | ance, Hitler, an obscure house painter in his youth, ros i omy apparently by sheer force of pecesealliy Bai es cack oe First World War, he never rose higher than corporal even when heavy casu. aies created many new openings. This shows that he did not get leadership qualities by inheritance. Under complex business environment, success in fanagement cannot be thought of without formal and informal acquisition ‘of management knowledge and training. Management education helps to brighten the inborn qualities of the managers. If an organisation wants to have good managers who are capable of leading and guiding the human resources effectively, it can do so only through management education and training. Leadership qualities by themselves are not sufficient for achieving ef- fectiveness. Situational factory have a considerable influence on both emer- gence and effectiveness of leaders. A leader may be effective in one situation and ineffective in another. Thus, it cannot be accepted that leadership is a single trait of personality that will make itself felt under all circumstances and with all types of people at all times. The great-man theory of leadership does not provide a scientific, verifiable and predictable explanation of why, how and when leaders emerge and become effective and what critical qualities are required for achieving greatness in leadership. Some people feel that just as there are born singers and artists in various fields, there could also be born leaders. It is difficult to completely rule out the inborn or genetic nature of certain leadership qualities. We find leaders with certain inborn qualities in various fields who bend situational factors to their advantage. But at the same time, it is also true that leadership qualities can be acquired through education and training. Leaders are made out of those individuals who have the potential to acquire leadership attributes. TRAIT THEORY OF LEADERSHIP Trait theory seeks to determine universal personal characteristics of effective leaders. Numerous physical, mental and personality traits were researched during the period from 1930 to 1950. On the surface, at least some identifiable traits turned up. For instance, in 1940, Charles Bird examined twenty lists of traits attributed to leaders in various surveys and found that none of the traits appeared on all lists. Leaders were characterised by a wide variety of traits ranging all the way from neatness to nobility." In the late 1940s, Ralph Stogdill reported on the basis of at least etal Studies that leaders possess intelligence, scholarship, dependability in ai cising responsibilities, activity and social participation and socio-ceo%™ Status. He also found traits such as sociability, persistence, initiative, os . how to get things done, self-confidence, alertness, insight, — '2, Quoted by Emest Dale, op. cit, p. 415.310 ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR popularity, adaptability and verbal facility in ten leadership studies." Persons Who are leaders are presumed to display better judgement and engage them- selves in social activities. The study of the lives of successful leaders reveals that they possessed many of these traits. Some of the important traits of an effective leader are discussed below : 1. Intelligence. This trait seems to hold up better than any other. Leader$ generally have somewhat higher level of intelligence than the average of their followers. They possess the ability to think scientifically, analyse accurately and interpret clearly and precisely the problems before them in terms of different aspects and perspectives. 2. Physical Features. Physical characteristics and level of maturity determine personality of an individual which is an important factor in deter- mining success of leadership. Height, weight, physique, health and appearance of an individual are important for leadership to some extent. 3. Inner Motivation Drive. Leaders have relatively intense achievement type motivational drives. They have the inner urge to keep accomplishing something. To initiate suitable activities at proper time is the habit of a leader. He works hard more for the satisfaction of inner drives than for extrinsic material rewards. 4. Maturity. Leaders generally have broad interests and activities. They are emotionally mature and have balanced temperaments avoiding menacing ‘extremes so that they may not become thoughtless victims of the circum- stances. They also have high frustration tolerance. 5. Vision and Foresight. A leader can’t maintain his influence unless he exhibits his trait of looking forward well in advance and imagination for handling his followers. So he should imaginatively visualise trends and devise his policies and programmes with foresight based on logical programmes, 6. Acceptance of Responsibility. A reliable leader is one who is prepared to shoulder the responsibility for the consequences of any steps he contem- plates or takes. He is always aware of the duties and obligations associated with the position he holds. ‘not critical of others. He is prepared to accommodate others’ viewpoints and modify his decisions, if need be. Flexibility is another name for open-mind- edness which makes the leader more identified with the group, __8.Self-eonfidence. A good leader has conceptual clarity about the things he is going to do. He has confidence in himself whenever he initiates any 13, eee Introduction to Management, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, p. 127.SHIP tion. Self-confidence is essential to motivate the followers and outs © oir morale. i / 1 aman Relations Attitude. A good leader is considerate of the 9, Hiris success as a leader largely depends on the cooperation of the jalowes a successful leader possesses the human relations atitude. He people sto develop social understanding with other people. He approaches 4138 ems in terms of people involved more than in terms of technical vais volved. He is constantly busy in achieving the voluntary cooperation Sc! ie followers. 10, Fairness and Objectivity. A good leader is fair and objective in with subordinates. He must be free from bias and prejudice while azlng "emotionally involved with the followers. Honesty, fairplay, justice bettegrityof character are expected of any good leader. criticism of Trait Approach ‘ait studies have not produced clear results because they do not consider the whole leadership environment. Personal traits are only a part of the whole environment. Though a certain trait exists, it will not become active until a certain situation calls for it. Thus, there is no sure connection between traits and leadership acts. Leadership is always related to a particular situation. A person may prove successful in one situation due to some traits, but may fail in another situation, Another shortcoming of the trait theory is the failure of its supporters to formulate a common list of traits found in all successful leaders. For instance, good health is desirable in many leadership situations, but there are also successful leaders in other situations who do not enjoy good health. There are so many exceptions to any general statement about leadership trait that it hardly applies. The theory also fails to mention the traits which are necessary to maintain leadership. Measurement of a trait usually occurs after a person becomes a leader and it is difficult to suggest the traits which are prerequisites of a successful leader. BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP The behavioural approach is based on the premise that effective leadership 's the result of effective role behaviour. Success in leadership depends more on What the leader does than on his traits. A leader uses conceptual, human re ‘echnical skills to influence the behaviour of his subordinates. There ig a ‘namic interaction between the leader and the followers, and leaders produce Aifferent styles while dealing with the workers. diffe Behavioural theories of leadership propose that specific behaviours Tentiate leaders from non-leaders. Many behavioural scientists have at- Pred to identify appropriate behavioural patterns of leadership styles. the important contributions in this regard include Ohio State Studies,ORGANISATION THEORY AND Bey, AV 32 Michigan behavioural study the activities : Behavioural theories are static ast ¢ situational variables W why @ particular I jip behav! io another sit ituationé ation. Thus, S1U2" itis the situation which determines style. University Studies and M: scientists don’t c yf I 1s to identi our i MICHIGAN ‘The Institute for Social Researc empirical studies to ide! performance and satisfact p grou distinct styles of leadership were identi (i) Production-centred (Tas! ented leaders emphasize P' supervision of subordinates job; employees are scen as (ii) Employee-centred ¢ centred leaders concentrate on human re! authority, concern for employees” needs, who are described as employee-oriented job. They feel that every empl! accepting their individual Exhibit 3: Comparison of L ‘Employee-centred Leader . They conce! janag' 2 trate on the traits of leaders, fy their behavioural patterns, nich are dyn: al variables are not considered, In pr the effectiveness of a particular leaden > tify styles of leat tion of a group. fied as follows : k orient roductivity by t! tools to accomplis! Relation orie loyee is important and ti lity and personal needs. Oy . rat hey consider the leadership Style jamic. They have failed to ¢, ffective in one situation, bait » Dut faily rial Grid of Blake and Mo, toy s of STUDIES h at the University of Michigan conducteg der behaviour that results in higher 14 As a result of these studies, two red) Leadership. The production-ori. e use of procedures, rules and close fe on the technical aspect of the h the goals of the organisation, nted) Leadership. The employee- Jations and emphasize delegation of welfare, advancement, etc. Leaders stress the relationship aspect of the ake interest in everyone, he ntrat eadership Orientations Production-centred ‘Leader Treats subordinates as human beings. Shows concem for the well-being of employees. Encourages and involves the employees in setting and implementing goals. Emphasizes technical aspect of job Relies on work standards, procedures | and rules. Exercises close | Employees are seen | production process. supervision. as a tool in the { | | increase in production, but it was slight job-centred style. However, the use of di The Michigan studies found that both the styl les of leadership led © roduction OF tly more in case of P pervision irect pressure and close SUI led to decreased satisfacti ins bo et satisfaction and increased turnover and absenteeis™ 14. Katz, D., N. tat DN Maccby a N.C. Morse, Productivity, Supervision and Mc ,, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Survey Research Centre, 19: forale ino” ). Katz. N. Macoby, G. Gurin, and L.G. Floor, Productivity, Supervision and Morale Railroad Workers, Ann Arbor, Michigan, Survey Research Centre, 1951: atSHIP 33 tred approach led to improved work-flow procedures and more employe> interactions resulting in increased satisfaction and decreased cohest ‘yer and absentecism. This suggested the superiority of the employee- (urmovjeadership style. Tannenbaum and Schmidt!’ elaborated the concepts srichigan studs by identifying the range of possible leadership behaviour - yailable to & manager. As shown in Fig.2, type of action is related to the seqree of aushority used by the boss and to the degree of freedom available to his subordinates in reaching decisions. The actions shown on the extreme jeft characterise the manager who maintains a high degree of control. Such a manager is said to exercise boss-centred leadership. The actions shown on the extreme right characterise the manager who allows a high degree of freedom for the subordinates. Such a manager is known as employee centred leader. The continuum of leadership behaviour has already been discussed in this chapter. Evaluation of Michigan Studies ‘The value of Michigan studies lies in the analysis of two leadership styles, viz, task and employee-oriented leadership. Instead of restricting to traits of leaders, they concentrated on the behaviour of leaders. These studies are criticised on the following grounds : (i) The Michigan studies failed to suggest whether leader behaviour is a cause or effect. They did not clarify whether the employce-centred leader- ship makes the group productive or whether the highly productive group induces the leader to be employee-centred. (ii) The Michigan studies did not consider the nature of the subordinates’ tasks or their personal characteristics. Group characteristics and other situa- tional variables were also ignored. (iif) The behavioural styles suggested by Michigan studies have been termed as static. A leader is supposed to follow either of the two styles, viz., task orientation and employee orientation. But in practice, a practical style may succeed in one situation and fail in another. Moreover, leaders don’t festrict themselves to a particular style. They adopt both the orientations in varying degrees to suit the particular situation. OHIO STATE LEADERSHIP STUDIES The leadership studies initiated by the Bureau of Research at Ohio State University attempted to identify various dimensions of leader behaviour. Uiimatey, these studies narrowed the description of leader behaviour to two 'mensions : Initiating Structure and Consideration.'° ee eee a Is. : Rober Tannenbaum and Warrent H. Schmidt, op . cit. { M Ber M. Stogdill and Alvin E. Coons, Leader Behaviour, Its Description and casurement. The Ohio State University, Ohio, 1957 -(Low) - Consideration —+ (High) (Low) — Initiating Structure — (High) Fig. 3. Ohio State Leadership Quadrants. Initiating structure refers (0 the leader's behaviour in delineating the relationship between himself and members of the work-group and in endeav- ouring to establish well-defined patterns of organisation, channels of com- munication, and methods or procedures. On the other hand, consideration refers to behaviour indicative of friendship, mutual trust, respect, and meat in the relationship between the leader and the members of his staff.” research studies also showed that initiating structure and shar are two distinct dimensions and not mutually exclusive. A low score on one does not require high score on the other. Thus, leadership behaviour can be plotted ‘on two separate axes rather than on a single continuum. The four quadrants in Fig. 3 show various combinations of initiating structure and consideration, In each quadrant, there is a relative mixture of initiating structure and con- sideration and a manager can adopt any one style: MANAGERIAL GRID The two dimensions of leadership, viz., concen for people and concern for production have been demonstrated by Robert R, Blake and Janes S. Mouton in the form of a grid.'* The word ‘grid’ means an iron grating, a frame-work of parallel bars. Blake and Mouton idemtified five basic leadership styles of practising managers representing various combinations of the aforesaid two dimensions as shown in Fig. 4. It is, however, important (o point out that these basic styles are a matter of convenience rather than a fact. A brief description of these styles is given below : 1. The 9, 1 Managerial Style (Task) People are regarded as an instrument of production under the 9, 1 managerial style, It is an autocratic style of leadership. This style places a heavy emphasis 17. Ibid. 18, Blake, R.R. and Mouton, 5.S., The Managerial Grid, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex, 1984.SHIP us .d job requirement. The use of power in the i contol Human relationships and inter act ma ee i we “a tionship between the manager and his subordinates is based cae ‘he Of authority and obedience, Subordinates are expected to carry out et ah an unquestioning obedience. They are taken as merely means Yor one tasks assigned to them. Little attention is given to their development . unicating with them beyond the issue of instructions and orders. i conflict erupts among, the subordinates, the manager following this rest suppres it because of the possible illeffects that conflict may pave of the work. If the conflict is between a subordinate and the boss, the goal of the boss is to win, 1-9 99 (Country Club) (Team) 55 (Middle Road) (impoverished) Task io 9-1 Hnvuweuaree (Low}—Concern tor People —> (High) 12,3 de’ Se Gp 7 88,9 (Low)—Concem for Production —» (High) Fig. 4. Managerial Grid. 2. The 1,9 Managerial Style (Country Club) Under this style of management, work is done leisurely. At best people are regarded rather than driven. Subordinates are expected to turn out some work to avoid trouble. The boss is more of a big brother than the autocratic leader. Social relationships are more important. The group, not the individual, is the key in the organisation. The aim is to achieve friendliness and harmony among the members of the organisation. 3. The 4, 1 Managerial Style (Impoverished) A manager with this orientation exerts minimum influence on the contacts With group members. He expresses little concern for production or people. In 8 supervisory position, he is most likely to be found ‘executing messenger- cartier functions, communicating orders from the layer above to the layer below, He isan exper, jn passing on blame t others fr fares in S08 Way that he absolves nimself from responsibilities, yet he rarely initiates criticism spontaneously. His criticism is strictly in self-defene®. Minimum ‘involvement in organisation's purpose and with its people is all that he wants.co- a6 ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR ‘The 1,1 orientation stands for ‘*message-carrying"’ minimum contact, ‘Through minimum contact and non-involvement, the 1,1 style reduces the need to take active steps with respect to managerial responsibilities. The less such w subordinate sees his boss, the better it is. Subordinates or members of the group are left to find for themselves the ways of doing the job. Being Present, yet absent, is the 1, 1 orientation. 4, The 6, 5 Managerial Style (Middle Road) ‘The “'people'’ dimension in the work situation is as important as the “production” dimension, The 5, 5 style seeks to maintain a balance between the (wo. A basic assumption of this style is that people will work willingly and so ax they are told if the reasons for doing so are explained to them However, just enough is communicated so that people have a general sense ‘of what is going on. If too much is told, it is feared that they might resist. Enough concern is shown for the people so that adequate production may be eved. This is seen in the 5, 5 approach to management development, sunication, and performance reviews. Meetings are held to listen to their suggestions and to create a sense of participation in decision-making. Another important aspect of 5, 5 concern is the informal relationship. It does not just monitor the grapevine or oversee work performance but actively uses the informal system towards organisational purposes. For instance, if a particular procedure, method or technique emerges from the informal system and if it proves to be a good organisation action, 5, 5 style takes steps to formalise the informal action by putting it in writing so that it may become 8 part of formal operation 5. The 9, 9 Managerial Style (Team) A basic need of people that is met by the 9, 9 style is the need to be involved and committed to work. A major difference between 9, 9 style and other managerial styles isin goal setting and its use as a basic management approach ‘0 large variety of problems. The capability of people to be involved in organisational objectives through commitment to objectives is fundamental. In other words, the 9, 9 orientation aims at integrating the people and pro- duction dimensions of work under conditions of high concern for growth. The key isthe involvement and participation of those responsible for it in planning and execution of work. This brings about the ki high organisation accomplishment, he Kind of team spirit that leads to Each ofthe five styles given by Blake and Mouton points out the relative concern for production and people and implies that the most desirable leat ership behaviour is 9, 9, ie., maximum concern for both production and people. It may be noted that the five positions emphasised in the Manone Grid are rarely found in ther pure form in actual life. That means a meese, may have a style of 8, 2, or 4, 6 or some other. Nevertheless, Ménegectal GridLEADERSHIP : 37 s widely used as a technique of mana; i gerial training and for identifying various combinations of leadership styles, Inessence, the Managerial Grid has given popular terminology to five styles within the four quadrants of the Ohio State Studies. However, there is ‘one basic difference between the two. In Managerial Grid, ‘concern for’ isa predisposition about something or an attitudinal dimension. Thus, Managerial Grid tends to be an attitudinal model that Measures the predispositions of a manager. On the other hand, Ohio State Studies framework tends to be a behavioural model that examines how lea \der actions are perceived by others. Both these frameworks can be combined as illustrated in Fig. 5. o) 19 99 8 | (Country Club) (Team) 1 High High Structure Consideration and High © and Low Consideration 5 Structure 5-5 4 12 3 4.45 61.7, 89, (Low)—initiating Structure > (High) Concem for Production Fig. 5. Ohio State Studies and Managerial Grid Combined. TRI-DIMENSIONAL LEADER EFFECTIVENESS MODEL WJ. Reddin added effectiveness dimension to the two dimensions of Mana- Serial Grid and other models. This was done to integrate the concepts of leadership style with situational demands of a specific environment. When the style of a leader is appropriate to a given si and when the sty! ‘ineffective’ 9 lation, it is termed ‘effective’ le is inappropriate to a given situation, it is termed In Reddin’s 3-D Management Style Theory, three-dimensional axes Tepresent task orientation (similar to initiating structure or concern for pro- duction), relation orientation (similar to consideration or concern for people) and effectiveness orientation as illustrated in Fig. 6. The difference between the effective and ineffective styles is often - the actual behaviour of the leader but the appropriateness of the behaviour Sea a anne meer anne . 1970. \9. William J. Reddin, Managerial Effectiveness, McGraw-Hill, New York,Task Dimension —> Fig, 6. Three Dimensions of Leadership Style. in which it i third dimension is environ- ironment in which it is used. In fact, the i para the interaction of the basic style with the environment that results in a degree of effectiveness or ineffectiveness. AN OVERVIEW OF BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Michigan studies and later Tannenbaum and Schmidt identified two basic leadership styles and studied them as a continuum of leadership behaviour, But Ohio State studies marked a departure from these. Instead of a single continuum of two leadership orientations, they used two separate di mensions, viz., initiating structure (task orientation) and consideration (relationship orientation). Under these studies, what the leader does was regarded as more Critical than the traits of leaders, Further, it scems that employce-oriented leadership is recommended as more effective than the task-oriented leader- ship. «s often termed as Static because ader and ignoring the situational ip effectiveness to a great extent, The behavioural approach to leadership of its emphasis on a Particular style for a le: factors which in practice influence leadershi For instance, in armed forces, a high initiating Structure (task) and a low consideration (relationship) would be Most appropriate, but this Style will be an utter failure in a higher-level educational institute oraR & D lab. It is also worth Noting that there have been contradictory findings in regard to supervision and Productivity. So of leadership is more effective, In ithe dinate iversally ace i is the situation which influences the eectveness of ng leadership: I extent. An effective leader is ‘one who is rien? Sle to. great the requireinents of the situation, able to adjust his style according to SITUATIONAL THEORY 9 This theory advocates that * LEADERSHIP " . leadership is 5 iy affect 7 which a lesider emerges and in which he re ee aan va 'BBeSt as to which style other words, there can’t be a uni he assuimptionsSHIP BADER a9 ists an interaction between i hat there exis! group and its leader and that tend (0 follow the person (known as leader) who is capable of fulilisg te aspirations. ‘Thus, leader is a means of achieving the goals of the group and the members. He recognises the needs of the situation and then acts accordingly. ‘The focus in the situational approach to leadership is on observed behaviour and not on any hypothetical inborn or acquired ability or potential for leadership. In other words, the emphasis is on the behaviour of leaders and their followers and the type of situation, Leadership process is thus a function of the leader, the follwers and the situation. It can best be explained jn terms of the interaction between the leader, those being led and the nature of situation in which they operate. In other words, a person becomes a leader not only because of his personal attributes, but*also because of various situational factors and the interactions between the leader and the group members. Fiedler’s Contingency Model ‘The situational theory contends that there is no one best style of leadership universally applicable to all situations. A leadership style may be effective under,one situation and ineffective under the other. Fiedler identified two basic styles of leadership and on the basis of studies tried to analyse their effectiveness under different situations.” Leadership Styles, Fiedler set forth two major styles of leadership : () task-oriented or controiling, structuring leadership under which the leader gainé satisfaction from seeing tasks performed; and (ii) relationship-oriented or considerate leadership under which the leader tries to achieve good inter- personal relations with the subordinates. Least-Preferred Co-worker Scale (LPC). Fiedler developed a least- preferred coworker scale to measure the two basic styles, viz., task-oriented and relationship-oriented. LPC ratings are made by people in a group as to those with whom they would least like to work. In developing this scale, Fiedler asked the responJents to identify the traits of a person with whom they could work least well. Respondents described the person by rating sixteen items on a scale of attributes such as the following Pleasant_ fee ae Unpleasant Friendly_ = — Unfriendly Accepted J Rejected On the basis of research, Fiedler found that low-LPC leaders emcee npleting tasks successfully, even at the expense of interpersonal relation geciveness, McGrew Book 2, Fred E. Fidler, A Thory of Leadership Company, New York 1967, p. 13.ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR am ion and valuing job perfor. completion ant 8 i ships, gaining self-esteem ee interpersonal en are mance. High-LPC Se aie satisfaction from relationships with others, more ona a success or task accomplishment. Fiedler argued ee ists betel high-versus low-LPC score and type of fate rl Pc ts task-oriented leadership, because the leader leadership. Low LPC reflec f a follower that are likely to infringe on ive traits 1 § ‘ le ticket. High LPC reflects relationship-oriented leadership, task accol > because the leader can overlook negative traits and retain . strong interper- sonal relationship regardless of its effect on task accomplis 7 a Situational Variables. Fred E. Fiedler analysed three major situational variables which exert powerful influence on the leader’s behaviour and his effectiveness. The three variables are : (i) leader-follower relations, (ii) task structure, ie. the degree of structure in the task that the group has been ' Dy. assigned to perform and (iii) position power, i,e., the degree of informal power * ‘and formal authority enjoyed by the leader. (i) Leader-member relations. These refer to the compatability between group members and managers. If group members Tespect the manager and Us also feel a personal attachment, then formal authority is less important in \ ra -getting work accomplished. Fiedler believed leader-member relations to be f Bi situational variable. , ‘(i Task structure. The nature of jobs and how tasks are structured ~ influence leadership. If tasks are highly structured, with formal guidelines and well defined expectations, authority is also formalised and both managers ‘and employees will be at ease with a directive style of leadership. If tasks are unstructured, such as in creative Tesearch labs, group members and managers ( expect less directive leadership with more conciliatory behaviour, ; iii) Position power. The Position power of leaders is influenced by $ organisational culture, the formality of management hierarchy and the style of work environment, Therefore, the values and beliefs of employees and anager, the Philosophy of top management towards leadership and the Prevailing attitude towards leadership will partially determine what style is Favourableness of Situation The three variables discussed above determine whether a given Situation is favourable or unfavourable to the leader. The favourableness of a Situation may be defined as ‘the degree to which the situation enables the leader to exert his influence over his 8roup,"2 ———————_______7-2 fe? eo FRU FUP VEEP LEADERSHIP CPR UUP vLUF Uru , YUU a ‘Fiedler perceived eight possible combinations of the three Situational variables as shown in Exhibit 4. As a leadership situation varies from high to Jow on these variables, it falls into one of the eight combinations or situations, The most favourable situation is one in which the leader-follower relations are very good, the leader enjoys great position power and the task structure is well defined. On the other hand, the most unfavourable situation signifies that the leader is disliked, the leader has little Position and the task is un- structured. Exhibit 4. Fiedler’s Situational Combinations Situational nore | Task | Position | Situational Combination | Follower | Structure | Power | Favourableness Relation 1 Good High Strong HIGH 2. Good High Weak 3. Good Low Strong 4. Good Low Weak 5. Poor High Strong 6. Poor High Weak 7. Poor Low Strong 8. Poor Low Weak LOW After having developed the framework for classifying group situations, Fiedler attempted to determine the most effective leadership style for each of the eight situations. He came to the conclusion that : (@ Task-oriented leaders tend to be most effective in situations that are either very favourable or very unfavourable to them. (ii) Relations-oriented leaders tend to be most effective in situations that are intermediate in favourableness. Task-oriented style | Relationship-oriented | Task-oriented style considerate style ” Favourable leadership Situation intermediate Unfavourable leadership situation in favourableness for situation leader Fig. 7. Leadership Styles appropriate for various Group Situations. semed In general, high control situations (1, 2 and 3) call for task-orient leadership because they favour the leader to take charge. A low control situation, as in combination 8, also ealls for task-oriented leadership nee it requires the leader to take charge. But the situational combinations 4, 5 = 6 represent moderate control situations which call for relatonship-orien leadership, i.e., leaders must get the cooperation of their subordinates,eee mm ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIO\ 7 ‘Thus, itis not feasible to suggest an ideal or normative style of leaders; i h ci nd Ao that will suit all situations, We cannot blindly condemn or recommer cratic or any other style of leadership ignoring the prevailing situations ing their favourableness. A leader can be eff fective only iy style according to the dynamics of the situation variables, ; : Fiedler a tobe emphasising asingle continuum of leader-behaviour, suggesting that there are only two basic leader ela sphas pend hea oriented and relationship-oriented, But evidence indicates 1! nat r ivi- our should be plotted on two separate axes rather than a single continuum, ‘Thus, a leader who is high on task behaviour is not necessarily low on relationship behaviour. Any combination of the two dimensions may occur, Fiedler's model is considered as a significant contribution to the litera- ture on leadership. It emphasises that leader's effectiveness is neither purely a matter of leadership qualities nor that of the type of situation. It is the result of an interaction between the two. The model brings out the fact that task oriented (autocratic) leaders should not be condemned out of hand, They are needed in some situations as identified earlier and can achieve good results, It does not give much credence to the argument that leaders can switch over from one style to another depending upon the nature of the situation. Successful Leader vs. Effective Leader A leader is successful when he is able to followers or subordinates. In other words, ble to adar is get the desired results from the the success of a manager is mea- sured by the production or productivity of the group he leads. Using this yardstick, we can easily measure the degree of success of a manager. Let us suppose that a leader i8 able to get the things done by the group by using threats, persuasion or any other tactic. He will be called a successful manager. But a successful leader is not necessarily effective. In the above example, if the subordinates do the work because of threats, they will not be happy and their morale will be low. Though the leader is successful, he {s not effective. Effectiveness describes the internal state or Predisposition of an indi- vidual or a group and, thus, is attitudin: in neture. Effective leaders not only concentrate on production, but also on the needs and aspirations of the followers. shed ae ric aaa adapt their style of Kader behaviour to meet 4 rticular situation the needs i i se pari tend to be in raockins Meds of their followers, the more effective n8 Personal and organisational goals.” Thu: successful leaders may be having different degrees of eifectivences, ‘They wl be highly inpffeetive if their style of leadership is Appropriate fo the needs ‘of the situation and meets the requirements of the Subordinates, They will be highly ineffective if the subord limalts are not satisfied with the leadership style of the manager. 23. Paul Hersay, Management Concepts and Behaviour, Marvem Publishing Co., Little Rock, 1967, P. 15.LEADERSHIP . 323, In short, managers could be successful but ineffecti : ive. Such managers will have only a short-run influence over the behaviour of subordinates. On the other hand, if managers are both successful and effective, their influence will tend to lead to long-run productivity and employees sati isfaction. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory Also known as life cycle theory of leadership, Hersey and Blanchard’s situ- ational theory”* advocates linking leadership styles with various situations so asto ensure effective leadership. This approach is an integration of the: existing body of knowledge about leadership (such as Grid approach, Ohio State studies, and Argyris’s maturity-immaturity model; ) into a mould of leadership styles appropriate under different situations. Hersey and Blanchard based their theory on an interaction among : (1) the amount of direction (task behaviour) a leader gives : (2) the amount of socio-emotional support (relationship behaviour) a leader provides : and (3) the maturity level that followers exhibit on a specific task or function®> . This theory is clearly built on the research at the Ohio State that showed. that authoritarian leader behaviour (task emphasis) and democratic leader behaviour (relationship emphasis) are not ‘‘either/or’” styles. Some leaders mainly direct activities, and others concentrate on providing socio-emotional support for their followers. Still others use both styles simultaneously, Some even use neither. Maturity, the third variable, is built on the work of Argyris. Maturity i the capacity to set high but attainable goals, plus the willingness and ability to take responsibility and to use education and/or experience. People tend to have varying levels of maturity depending on the specific task, function, or objective that they are attempting to accomplish. The level of maturity is defined by three criteria : (i) Degree of achievement motivation. Gi) Willingness to take on responsibility. (iii) Level of education and/or experience. According to Hersey and Blanchard, as the level fo maturity of the follower continues to increase in terms of accomplishing a specific task, the leader should begin to reduce task behaviour and increase relationship behavi- tursrthe Torower moves inte an above average eve of maturity, the eager Froud a ete ae ponshin belnviow sTeases both task and relationship behaviour. At this maturity Tevel, there is a Teduction of close supervision and an increase in delegation as an indication of twustand- confidence. ———SSSSOSC~S an comer 24. Paul Hersey and Kenneth H. Blanchard, Management of Organizational Behaviour, ‘ice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1982 28. ibid 4 aa,Ve, 324 ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR | . When attempting to improve the maturity of followers who have not taken much responsibility in the past, a leader must br careful not to increase socio-emotional support too rapidly. In the use of a behaviour modification (OB Mod) concept, the approp-iate behaviour inust be rewarded as quickly possible. First, there should be a reduction in direction or task orientation, If adequate performance follows, an increase in socio-emotional suppor, should follow as positive reinforcement, means not that the individuals’s work will have less direction, but that the direction will be internally imposed by the follower. At this stage, the follower is positively reinforced by the trust and confidence of the leader and can begin to generate internal satisfaction for interpersonal and emotional needs. Effective Styles High High Relationships High Task and and Low Task High Relationships g 5 é a PS, SS. gs 2 3 Ds. TS. 2 Low Task High Task and Low and Low Relationships | Relationships Low Loy High Mature —__. ‘Immature ‘Taks Behaviour Fig. 7. Hersey and Blancharc'’s Situational Theory. Fig. 7 summarizes the life cycle theory of leadership. The curved line indicates the maturity level of the followers. Maturity level increases as the matyrity curve runs from right to left. In more specific terms, the theory indicates that effective leadership behaviour should shift as follows : (1) high- task and low-relationship behaviour to (2) high-task and high-relationship behaviour to (3) high-relationship and low-task behaviour to (4) low-task and Jow-relationship behaviour, as one’s followers Progress from immaturity to maturity. In sum, a manager's leadership style will be effective only if it is appropriate for the maturity level of the followers. The four styles of leadershipy L2ADERSHIP 2s iuble according to the levels of maturity of the subordinates may be stated soit as under ¢ 1. Telling Style (T.S.). This is a high-task, low-relationship style and is fective when followers are at a very low level of maturity, cs 2, Selling Style (S.S.). This is a high-task, high-relationship style and is effective when followers are on the low side of maturity, 3. Participating Style (P.S.). This is a low-task, hi and is effective when followers are on the high side of 4, Delegating Style (D.S.). This is a low-task, low- is effective when followers are at a very high level of maturity. There are some exceptions to the general philosophy of the life cycle iheory. For example, if there is a short-term deadline to meet, a leader may find it necessary to accelerate production through a high-task, low. -relation- ship leadership style rather than use a low task, low relationship style even if the followers are mature. A high task low telationship style carried out over the long-term with such subordinates, would ty ypically result in a poor working relationship between leader and subordinates, igh-relationship style maturity. Telationship style and HOUSE’S PATH GOAL THEORY ; Robert House advanced his situational theory of leadership based on Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation.”* Like other situational theories, the path- goal model attempts to predict leadership effectiveness in different situations. {t states that the leader's job is to create a work environment (through structure, support and rewards) that helps employees reach the organisational B0als. Two major roles involved are to create a goal orientation and to improve the path towards the goal so that it will be attained. That is why this model is termed as Path-Goal Model of Leadership. Like other situational theories, the path-goal model attempts to predict leadership effectiveness in different situations. It focuses on how leader influences subordinates’ perceptions of the valence, expectancy and instru- mentality. Subordinates are motivated by the leadership style to the extent it influences expectancy (goal-paths) and valences (goal attractiveness), Thus, Path Goal ‘Theory is, in fact, an extension of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation. It integrates Expectancy Theory of Motivation with the Ohio State Leadership Research. The main propositions of the Path Goal Model are as under : (1) Leader behaviour is acceptable to the extent that subordinates per- tive such behaviour as an immediate source of satisfaction or as instrumental for future satisfac %6. Robert J. House, A Path Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness, Ad Science Quarterty, Sept. 1971, pp. 321-28. a, _—19 Control ; Process & Behavioural Dimensions a Introduction Control is an important function of management. Iris inhebesiaad fo ee sures current performance and guides it towards some pre . ae rj z tives, It involves setting up standards of individual anc i sal ona performance, checking actual performance against these siapeands to make sure that the objectives are being achieved as originally anticipated in organisation’s plans. “‘In an undertaking, control consists in verifying whether everything occurs in conformity with the plan adopted, the instructions issued and the principles established. It has for object to point out weaknesses and errors in order to rectify them and thing-things, people and action”’.! There has arisen a great deal of misunderstanding about the term control because of confusing it with other terms like management, objectives, plans, policy statements, etc. It is important that the managers should have a clear understanding of this Concept because a manager who does not understand control cannot be expected to exercise it in the most efficient and effective manner.‘‘The manager who beli things has wasted one word and believes he has Provided for con Policies, organisation charts really serious con: Prevent recurrence. It operates on every needs a second to be i trol when he has established objectives, plans, ard so forth, has made himself vutnerable to Sequences. A clear understandi indispensable for an effective manager"? 'ng of control is, therefore, The modern concr . . a historical record of what rg aa envisages a system that not only provides “ppened to the business ag a whole but also |. Henti Fayot, General i New Yo rk 1949.9 ine Industrial Management, Pitman Publishing Corp. Inc. uglas S. Sherwi i Max. D. Richens aed wag font in ‘Readings in Management’ Edited MS Bombay, 1971, 39),"" * Niclander, DB. Taraporevala Sons & Co 412ee a ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR KINDS OF CONTROLS ‘Three kinds of control systems are used by the (@ historical or feedback control, (ii) concurrent conir® + or feedforward control. The details ofthese contols are dis (i Feedback Control 1 Feedback or Post-action control measures results ais ae aia leted action, The causes of deviations from the standards are dete on and corrective steps are taken so that such deviations do not ecm? age Se i logical systems, some message 1 transmitted in the aa oe of Seri: achemical reaction, or any ‘other means which is known as ‘cybernetics’. In social systems also, some infor- mation is sent back to exercise control. Any good managerial system controls itself by information feedback which discloses errors "9 accomplishing goals ‘ind initiates corrective action. Feedback is the process of adjusting future ction based upon information about past performance. Though feedback is «after the fact’, itis still vital to the control process. Sometimes, input variables sa cnmeasurable (eg. the values an employee brings to the job) or are not detected at the feed forward control point. Feedback is necessary in any continuous activity as it enables to take corrective action which is essential for the accomplishment of goals of the system. A simple feedback system is shown in Figure 2. ‘The concept of feedback is important to the development of an effective control system in any organisation. Managerial control is somewhat akin to the thermostat system of a refrigerator. Thermostat is a control device of closed loop type that makes control instantaneous. In a refrigerator, thermostat records the actual temperature inside the refrigerator, compares it with the required temperature and instantaneously initiates corrective action to bring the actual temperature down to what is required. Similarly in an organisation, ‘management needs continuous flow of information about actual performance so that deviations are promptly corrected. Information which the management receives is nothing but feedback. Feedback information may be received Saal eae Formal feedback involves all written information ual performance, reports, financial statements, etc. But informal feedback, onthe oer hand is though personal observations, personal con Managerial control can’t be so instantaneou: i a mostat system or any other mechanical or cuca eis ase exists a time-lag between recording deviatic i ee, even when sophisticated ng deviations and taking corrective actions ite rahe ues ta ea nf information collection is used. The collected action, Properly before suggesting any corrective mn organisations, namely, trol, and (iii) predictive ssed below ; iNTROL : PROCESS & BEHAVIOURAL DIMENSIONS 45 . Fig. 3. Types of Controls. (ii) Concurrent Control Itis also known as ‘real time’ or ‘steering’ control. It provides for taking Corrective action or making adjustments while programme is still in operation and before any major damage is done. For instance, the navigator of a ship adjusts its movements continuously or the driver of a car adjusts its steering continuously depending upon the direction of destination, obstacles and other factors. In a factory, control chart is an example of concurrent control, Safety check is another illustration in this regard. Concurrent control occurs while an activity is still taking place. (iii) Feedforward Control Feedforward control involves evaluation of inputs and taking corrective measures before a particular sequence of operations is completed. Itis based on the timely and accurate information about changes in the environment. If right information is not available in time, feedforward control is likely to be imperfect. Feedforward follows the simple principle that an organisation is not stronger than its weakest link. For instance, if machine is not amen Properly, the operator will look for certain critical components to see wh ne they are working well or not. The same logic applies to feedforward control ; it is essential to determine and monitor the critical inputs into any operating system. Preventive maintenance programme is an important xa of feedforward control. It is employed to prevent a Leer ie ‘e mad Another example of feedforward control is formulation oft policies 7 ain critical problems from occurring. For instance,a policy | pcoattl yechlons be communicated to the new employees to help preven! Which might be created by absenteeism.418 ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR ELEMENTS OF CONTROL The essential elements of any control system are : (1) Establishment of standards ; (2) Measurement of performance ; (3) Comparing performance stat the standards ; and (4) Taking corrective actions. These steps are discussed below : Operations (Organising, staffing, directing) Measurement of Performance Feedback Feedback Corrective action Fig. 2. The Process of Control.28 Foundations of Organisation Structure & Design yotion isation i the process of establishing relationships among the members Snterprise. The relationships are created in terms of authority and sponsibility Bach member in the organisation is assigned a specific respon- vty oF duty to perform and is granted the corresponding authority to form his duty. According to Louis A. Allen, ‘Organisation involves Henification and grouping the activities to be performed and dividing them snong the individuals and creating authority and responsibility relationships snong them for the accomplishment of organisational objectives." Steps In Organising Organising involves the following interrelated steps : () Determination of Objectives. Organisation is always related to cer- tin objectives. Therefore, it is essential for the management to identify the objectives before starting any activity. It will help the management in the choice of men and materials with the help of which it can achieve the objectives, Objectives also serve as the guidelines for the management and the workers. They bring about unity of direction in the organisation. (ii) Identification and Grouping of Activities. If the members of the up are to pool their efforts effectively, there must be proper division of the major activities. Bach job should be properly designed and classified. This vill enable the people to know what is expected of them as members of the ‘Soup and will help in avoiding duplication of efforts. For instance, the total nnee of an industrial organisation may be divided into major functions it Production, purchasing, marketing, financing, etc. and each eas ther subdivided into various jobs. The jobs, then, can be ¢ Ped to ensure the effective implementation of the other steps.ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAV R 616 : classifying and grouping the acj,, iy Assignment of Duties A tothe individuals so that qa into various jobs, they 1h individual should be given a specific round pegs in round Hog made responsibly for that. He shoulg do according = authority to do the job assigned ie in given the adeq! ‘Authority-Responsibility Relationships. Since so Many (ere op ai organisation, iti the responsibility of manag indiidaals wot in Jationships in the organisation. Every of rel orga n bod met oy S taeeio whom he is accountable. This will help in the smo, ould cl working of the enterprise by facilitating delegation of responsibilty ayy in authority. ate Job 1, also, ORGANISATION STRUCTURE An organisation structure depicts the authority and responsiiy relation. ships between the various positions in the organisation. by showing who reports to whom. It is a set of planned relationships between groups of related functions and between physical factors and personnel required for the achieve. ment of organisational goals. Organisation involves establishing an appropriate structure for the goal- seeking activities. The structure of an organisation is generally shown on an organisation chart or a job-task pyramid. It shows the authority and respon- sibility relationships between various positions in the organisation. It is sig- nificant to note that the organisation structure is directly related to the attainment of the organisation objectives. For instance, if an undertaking is in production line, the dominant clement in its organisation chart would be manufacturing and assembling. A good organisation structure should not be static but dy- namic. It should be subject to change from time to time in the light of the changes in the business environment. While designing the organisation struc- ture, due attention should also be given to the Principles of sound organisation. Significance of Organisation Structure Organisation struc ibutes i ‘ i functioning of nity a in the following ways to the efficient Bice ee Relationships, Organisation structure allocates accountable for what seul piaclel who is to direct whom and who is to know what his role is and how it eles res cach Organisation membet 2. Pate of ‘ow it relates to other roles, tems of communication na minis Organisation structure provides the pat or communication. By grouping activities and Pere 7 a iat between people centred on theit j information, Joint problems to solve often need to shartjouNDATIONS OF ORGANISATION STRUCTURE & DESIGN 3, Location of Decision Centres. Organisation s ication of decision-making in the Organisation. A stance, MAY followa structure that leaves Pricing, sales Promotion and other ers Ir ely up to individual departments to €nsure that varied. departmental ronditions are considered. In contrast, an oil refinery may concentrate on uction, scheduling and maintenance decisions at top levels to ensure that interdependencies along the flow of work are considered, 4. Proper Balancing. Organisation structure helps in proper balance and emphasis of activities. Those more critical to the ente be placed higher in the organisation. Research in a phi for instance, might be singled out for Teporting to the general manager or the managing director of the company. Activities of comparable importance might be given roughly equal levels in the structure to give them equal emphasis. 617 tructure determines the departmental Store, for Tprise’s success might ‘armaceutical company, 5. Stimulating Creativity. Sound organisation structure stimulates cre- ative thinking and initiative among organisational members by providing well defined patterns of authority. Everybody knows the area where he specialises and where his efforts will be appreciated. 6. Encouraging Growth. An organisation structure provides the frame- work within which an enterprise functions. If it is flexible, it will help in meeting challenges and creating opportunities for growth. A sound organisa- lion structure facilitates growth of enterprise by increasing its capacity to handle increased level of activity. 1. Making Use of Technological Improvements. A sound organisation Structure which is adaptable to changes can make the best possible use of latest technology. It will modify the existing pattern of authority-responsibility telationships in the wake of technological improvements. In short, existence of a good organisation structure is essential for ad management. Properly designed organisation can help improve Sie ean We mk Productivity by providing a framework within which the peop! oe is ‘ogether most effectively. While building the organisation ae which has fssential to relate the people to design. The organisation jc * because itis ‘echnical excellence may be quite useless for practical cao wctire NOt suited to the needs of the people. Thus, an organisation s| developed to the needs of the people in the organisation. ieFO las cussed below. principles of pace have laid down certain statements from tine ‘The managemen! generally accepted understandings, which may be to time, from cae @anisation. The principles can Serve aS guideline, bi rine f on organisation structure. Therefore, a thorough Un * od it . r . . 7 amid ha vinci of organisation is essential. The important Princip, sl of organisation are discussed below 4 ise stri 1. Consideration of Objectives. An ale surives to Accomplish certain objectives. Organisation serves as a ae ° attain objectives, objectives must be stated in clear terms as they play an important Tole in determining the type of structure which should be developed. The Principle of consideration of objectives states that only after the objectives have been stated, an organisation structure should be developed to achieve them, 2. Division of Work and ‘Specialisation. The entire work in the organisa. tion should be divided into various parts so that every individual is confined to the performance of single job, as far as possible, according to his ability and aptitudes. This is also called the principle of specialisation. More a person continues on a particular job, the better will be his performance. 3. Definition of Jobs. Every position in the organisation should be clearly defined in relation to other positions in the organisation. The duties and responsibilities assigned to every position and its relationship with other positions should be clearly defined so that there may not be any overlapping of functiosns. 4. Separation of Line and Staff Functions. Whenever possible, line functions should be separated from staff activities. Line functions are thost which accomplish the main objectives of the company. In many manufactur Pa tla the manufacturing and marketing departments are consi lishing the main objectives of the business and so are called th line functions and other functions li it ns like i , financitg and legal are considered as staff ine a 5. S i - , the top 4 sealer Cia. ‘here must be clear lines of authority running fron direct and coordinate. a Organisation. Authority is the right 1007, of authority. Carty is achiened mot Stucture should facilitate see the top position to th et through delegation by steps. or lever. authority may proceed ting level. From the chief executive, # and finally to workers, omental Managers, to supervisors OF forem Principle of organisation, chain of command is also known * ganisationwarts OF OROANISATION STRUCTURD DESIGN yun! of Authority and Respo Abii om 0 msi 7 tastes od with corresponding tty eae should al. why ajont authority (0 discharge the respons; Y entrus wl ig wager rat r one ieee a Multi-plant Organisation is held ble for all act § plant, he shout i ena headquarters specifying the Quantity of sth Me on (em from whom he should Purchase raw ma eco sponsible for the quality of work of his department, he should . meg wacept asa member of his workforce an employee who has been hired without consulting him, 1, Unity of Command. No one ind than one supervisor. Everyone in the Organisation should know whom he reports and who Feports to him. Stated simply, €veryone should have only one boss. Receiving directions from Several supervisors may result in confu- sion, chaos, conflicts and lack of action. So each Member of the organisation should receive directions from and Feport to one superior only. This will avoid conflict of command and help in fixing res POnsibilities, 8. Span of Supervision. The Span of supervision means the number of persons a manager or a supervisor can direct. If too less number of employees ate reporting to a Supervisor, his time ‘will Not be utilised Properly. But, on the other hand, there is a limit to the number of Subordinates that can be efficiently Supervised by an executive, Both these points should be kept in terials, If a he Organisation should report to More 9. Balance of Various Factors. There should be proper balance in the formal Structure of the Organisation in regard to factors having conflicting chim, 8. between centralisation and decentralisation, span of supervision ANd lines of Communication and authority allocated to departments and per- ‘onne! at various levels. . 10. Communication. A good communication network is ee to shieve the Objectives of an organisation, No doubt the line of mbeaiy Vides Teadymade channels of communication downward and ee are blog $ in communication occur in many organisations. The ne ane Pir in his subordinates and two-way communication are ‘nite i i ster Organisation into an effectively operating sy: ie eet at