Ecological Engineering 122 (2018) 135–142

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Ecological Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng

Evaluation of detergent removal in artificial wetlands (biofilters) T

⁎
M.E. Pérez-López, A.E. Arreola-Ortiz, P. Malagón Zamora
Instituto Politécnico Nacional-CIIDIR-Durango, Environmental Department, Sigma 119, Fracc. 20 de Noviembre II, Durango, Mexico

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A prototype artificial wetland was designed to treat greywaters from the community of El Carrizo in Durango,
Artificial wetland Mexico, to remove the surfactants derived from used detergents. For this study, 6″ PVC tubes with a water depth
Surfactant removal of 40 cm were used, in which the water was replaced after 3, 8 and 15 days. Tezontle, gravel and agave fibre
Rural sanitation were used as supports, and Schoenoplectus americanus, which is an emergent aquatic plant, was used as biological
material. The different levels of the factors resulted in 24 treatments, whose differences were validated with a
factorial ANOVA of 4 × 2 × 3 with three repetitions. At the beginning and end of each period, it was determined
the removal of detergents, oils and grease, total solids, total volatile solids, total suspended solids, changes in pH
and electrical conductivity and toxicity of the effluent through bioassays with lettuce seeds. The results show
that the best percentage removal of detergents (surfactants linear alkylbenzene sulfonates, LAS) of 90% was
obtained with the agave fibre, with or without S. americanus, at a hydraulic residence time of 15 days; however,
the treated water showed low seed germination indexes. This was followed by the gravel-S. americanus system,
which had a removal percentage of 78% and showed decreases in all of the measured parameters and the lowest
toxicity value on germination and root growth of Lactuca sativa. These characteristics define the optimal para-
meters for the implementation of artificial wetlands in the community of El Carrizo, Durango, Dgo., Mexico.

1. Introduction
Detergents are substances that make cleaning efficient. Their func-
tionality consists of breaking the surface tension of the water to form
micelles that trap and remove dirt and prevent it from being re-
deposited; however, because water does not always have the same
physicochemical characteristics, they require other substances to act.
Therefore, detergents can be composed of surfactants, adjuvants,
bleaches and various additives (Romero, 2006).
Surfactants are responsible for the detergent power in cleaning
products, and they can be divided into four groups: anionic, cationic,
non-ionic and amphoteric (Lechuga, 2005; Kogawa et al., 2017).
Among the most commonly used surfactants are linear alkylbenzene
sulfonates (LAS), which are anionic (Kumar and Kumar, 2009; Thomas
et al., 2017); an example of these is sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate,
which has molecules with a hydrophilic polar group and one hydro-
phobic non-polar group, a negative charge, a critical micelle con-
centration (CMC) of 30.2, an aggregation number (na) of 32, and a
hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HBL) of 13–16. These properties allow
low solubility compounds to solubilize in their presence and form
emulsions between immiscible phases in addition to wetting surfaces
(Jimenez et al., 2010).
The main cleaning properties of surfactants also cause negative ef-
fects on ecosystems because when they enter clean water due to the
discharge of wastewater or untreated residues from washing or cleaning
operations, they resist biodegradation and increase the solids content of
the water (Delgado-Blas and Uc-Peraza, 2015; Giagnorio et al., 2017).
They also increase the pH to greater than 12 and increase the levels of
chlorine and organochlorine compounds. They can also modify the
processes of wastewater treatment, such as sedimentation and coagu-
lation, and generate a negative visual impact by the formation of ef-
fervescence because even trace amounts of surfactants (e.g., parts per
million) retain their foaming properties and appear on the surfaces of
rivers (Lechuga, 2005; Kogawa et al., 2017).
The effects of the spillage of detergents can be intensified in rural
areas, where sanitation systems are not available. In most of these
areas, priority is given to potable water and sewerage coverage, which
increase the problems generated by the volumes of wastewater dis-
charged into bodies of water (Zurita et al., 2011).
Lahera (2010) showed that 208 m3/s of wastewater was discharged
in Mexico in 2008; however, treatment plants only treated 83.6 m3/s of
wastewater. Therefore, the infrastructure is insufficient for wastewater
treatment, especially in areas with populations of less than 500 in-
habitants because they are remote and scattered (Zurita et al., 2011).

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: maelena0359@gmail.com (P. Malagón Zamora).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2018.07.036
Received 5 December 2017; Received in revised form 18 July 2018; Accepted 29 July 2018
Available online 04 August 2018
0925-8574/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M.E. Pérez-López et al.
Fig. 1. Location of “El Carrizo”, a) map of Mexico with the location of the state and municipality of Durango, b) location of “El Carrizo” respect of the urban area to
the municipality of Durango, c) satellite image of the distribution to the community.
In 2010, the conventional systems installed in wastewater treatment
plants included sludge activated systems (46%), stabilization ponds
(17.5%), advanced primary treatment (10.1%), aerated lagoons (5.9%),
artificial wetlands (0.5%), and other types (20%) (Lahera, 2010).
However, of these systems, wetlands systems are most highly re-
commended for rural areas due to their low installation and manage-
ment costs (Vera et al., 2013).
Artificial wetlands are more efficient in the treatment of wastewater
than other systems because they are composed of a substrate, aquatic
plants and microorganisms. Wastewater flows into or under the surface
layer of the support, and the plants incorporate air to support micro-
organisms that degrade water compounds through serial processes
contained in a single system (Shibao et al., 2015). They can be classified
according to three important criteria: hydrology (surface and subsur-
face flow), the way in which macrophytes grow (emergent, submerged,
floating or floating foliage) and the flow path for subsurface wetlands
(horizontal and vertical) (Vymazal, 2014).
Artificial surface-flow wetlands consist of channels with a substrate
(gravel, sands or fibres) that supports rooted vegetation (if present) and
low-level water flow (Reed et al., 1988). Those that are constructed
using emergent macrophytes work as intensive biological treatment
systems because they promote improved sedimentation by reducing the
mixing of the column and the resuspension of particles on the surface of
the sediment (Vymazal, 2013).
Within artificial wetlands, organic compounds are easily removed
from wastewater by degradation and filtration, in which oxygen is
supplied to the water column by diffusion through the air-water in-
terface and by the photosynthetic activity of the plants (Kadlec et al.,
2000). On the other hand, when the macrophytes are floating, they
cover the entire surface of the water and prevent the penetration of
light into the water column; thus, algae growth is limited, which
eliminates eutrophication (Vymazal, 2014).
136
Ecological Engineering 122 (2018) 135–142
The effectiveness of wetlands as wastewater treatment systems is
based on several complex physical, chemical and biological processes
that occur in parallel between the substrate, plants and microorganisms
(Vymazal, 2014). In this regard, Thomas et al. (2017) described
worldwide research on the elimination of pollutants, such as bio-
chemical oxygen demand (BOD), phosphates, nitrogen and some me-
tals, in natural and artificial wetlands. However, few studies have
specifically considered the role of artificial wetlands in the removal of
surfactants. Thomas et al. (2017) investigated the role of the presence
of plants in artificial wetlands to remove LAS and found rates of sur-
factant removal greater than 95%.
Due to these factors, artificial surface wetland technology is an
optimal alternative for the treatment of greywaters, especially in rural
areas of Mexico, of which approximately 30% lacked sanitation systems
in 2015 (Ortiz et al, 2014).
Considering this, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) im-
plemented twelve artificial wetlands for the removal of pollutants
present in greywaters in a rural community called El Carrizo in
Durango, Mexico as part of a pilot project for the integral development
of communities. These systems, which I call biofilters, were designed
based on others located in tropical areas and consist of a skimmer, a
biological process of gravel + exotic plants and a water depth of 70 cm.
These systems were evaluated by Pérez-López et al. (2012), who found
that they provided low removal percentages of contaminants in addi-
tion to plant death and bad odours.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the removal
performance of surfactants and other greywaters parameters in the
community of El Carrizo through the implementation of different de-
signs of artificial wetland treatments using different hydraulic residence
times and types of substrate, a native plant species and a water depth of
40 cm.
M.E. Pérez-López et al. Ecological Engineering 122 (2018) 135–142

Fig. 2. Parts of the experimental units, a) experimental units used, b) supports used: gravel, tezontle and fibre, c) representative image of the plant used: S.
americanus.

2. Methods Table 1
Treatments applied in the removal of surfactants in grey water, all them were
2.1. Description of the study area had 3, 8 and 15 days hydraulic residence time, by three repetitions.
TREATMENT NUMBER PACKING MATERIAL S. americanus
The community of El Carrizo is located approximately 20 km west of
the urban sprawl of the municipality of Durango in the state of I Without With
II Tezontle With
Durango, Mexico. It is located in the El Tunal sub-basin, which corre-
III Gravel With
sponds to the upper part of the San Pedro Mezquital basin. It is located IV Fibre With
at an average elevation of 2200 m above sea level and contained 246 V Without Without
inhabitants in 2015, who were distributed in 55 homes, of which 100% VI Tezontle Without
have electricity, 31% have piped water, and 33% have toilets. The re- VII Gravel Without
VIII Fibre Without
gion receives an average annual precipitation of 350 mm and has an
average temperature of 16 °C (Fig. 1).
factorial ANOVA, which was done with the statistical software Statistic
2.2. Experimental design v.7. This allowed the effect of each factor and its synergies to be de-
termined.
For the experiment, a prototype was constructed with 6″ PVC cy-
linders with a water depth of 40 cm (Fig. 2). Each cylinder was an ex- 2.3. Analytical methods
perimental unit, in which the different treatments or systems were lo-
cated. The experiments used local supports, an emerging native The analyzes were carried out with the greywater inlet and the ef-
macrophyte (Schoenoplectus americanus), which was collected in a fluents of each treatment after each residence time; each one was
sewage channel of the city of Durango, and three hydraulic residence checked for detergents, greases and oils, pH, electrical conductivity and
times (3, 8 and 15 days). toxicity tests were executed according to the procedures established by
The supports included the following: the Standard Method of Analysis (APHA, 1999). Analytical data quality
was ensured through standardization, procedural blank measurements,
1. Tezontle (porous, dark stone of volcanic origin); and duplicate samples.
2. Gravel (solid stone) with a diameter of 3 mm; To determine the detergents, basically composed of linear anionic
3. An agave fibre product of mezcal distillate; and surfactants of alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), the MBAS method was
4. Control (greywater). used and with it the content in the raw greywaters and in the effluents
of the treatments was checked. The samples were mixed with an acid-
To identify the effect of each variable on the removal of the sur- ified aqueous solution of methylene blue and the resulting hydrophobic
factants, an experimental design with a factorial arrangement of blue complexes were extracted using chloroform. The absorbance of the
4 × 2 × 3 was established, which resulted in a total of 24 treatments; 4 CHCl3 extract was measured using a spectrometer at 650 nm. The MBAS
correspond to the support, 2 correspond to the presence or absence of concentrations were expressed as LAS equivalent concentrations by
plants, and 3 correspond to the hydraulic residence time. The experi- using a calibration curve obtained using LAS standard solutions.
ments were repeated in triplicate (blocks A, B and C; see Table 1 and Any oils and solid or viscous grease present are separated from li-
Fig. 2). quid samples by filtration. After extraction in a Soxhlet apparatus with
Nine samples of greywater were used to feed the prototype, the first solvent, the residue remaining after solvent evaporation is weighed to
six were collected from houses in the community of El Carrizo and the determine the oil and grease content.
last three from houses in the city of Durango. In all cases, the water Total solids (TS), total volatile solids (TVS), and total suspended
came from discharges of detergents and soaps used for laundry, dishes solids (TSS), are calculated by taking 50 mL of sample, with the help of
and personal hygiene. an analytical balance (0.0001 g), these samples are weighed and then
The differences in the values of the dependent variables resulting dried in stoves at 103 °C for 24 h, then subjected to a temperature of
from each treatment were validated by the application of a 2 × 3 × 4 550 °C for 6 h using a muffle.

137
M.E. Pérez-López et al.
The pH was measured with an Methrom 827 pH meter; while EC
was determined using an Orion 3 Star conductivity meter, taking 50 mL
of sample.
2.4. Toxicity
The toxicity bioassay with lettuce seeds (Lactuca sativa) is a static
test of acute toxicity (120 h of exposure) in which the phytotoxic effects
of pure compounds or complex mixtures can be evaluated in the ger-
mination process of the seeds and in the development of the seedlings
during the first days of growth. As final points for the evaluation of the
phytotoxic effects, the inhibition in the germination and the inhibition
in the elongation of the radicle and the hypocotyl is determined.
Unlike other tests in which algae or submerged aquatic plants are
considered as a diagnostic organism, the seed bioassay allows the
phytotoxicity of colored or high turbidity samples to be evaluated di-
rectly and without the need for previous filtration, thus reducing the
interference caused by the pre-treatment and simplifying the test pro-
cedure.
Acute toxicity of the greywater used and effluents from the different
treatments, were obtained from the relative germination of seeds and
average growth of their radicles by means of bioassays with lettuce
seeds (Lactuca sativa) based on the method proposed by Ramírez and
Mendoza (2008), and the calculations to establish her are in Fig. 3, the
toxicity values obtained show that the higher the value the more da-
mage in germination and elongation.
3. Results
The input water for the tests had an average (n = 9): pH of 7.47,
electrical conductivity of 125 μS/cm2, total solids of 1219 mg/L, total
volatile solids of 569 mg/L, total suspended solids of 343 mg/L,
Control
Greywater “X”
Effluent 2
Effluent “X”
Lettuce seeds
(Lactuca sativa)
20°C
Fig. 3. Method to establish the toxicity calculation that was reviewed to each greywater used and effluents of the treatments.
Ecological Engineering 122 (2018) 135–142
surfactants of 83 ± 13 ppm, greases and oils of 99 mg/L and 48%
toxicity in the germination and root elongation of Lactuca sativa seeds,
and the degree of toxicity was directly proportional to the detergent
content with a regression coefficient of 0.84, (Table 2 and Fig. 4).
The parameters described above were evaluated in 72 experimental
units. The average results (n = 3) are presented in Table 3. The per-
centage of surfactant removal, which was considered the main para-
meter, was 95% for the systems that used agave fibre and 15 days of
hydraulic residence, and the lowest percentage was 7%, which occurred
when tezontle and/or gravel was used as support material without the
presence of a plant (Table 3).
Table 3. Average values (n = 3, ± standard deviation) of the para-
meters analysed by each treatment effluents and the treatment and
residence time.
The factorial analysis showed that the most influential factor in the
removal of surfactants and general water purification was the packing
material (Fig. 4), followed by the hydraulic residence time (Fig. 5) and
the presence or absence of plants (Fig. 6).
Fig. 4 shows that the contribution of the support to the removal of
surfactants was up to 84% with the agave fibre, which also increased
the acidity, EC, TVS, TS and toxicity. The other supports did not have
significantly different effects on the pH, EC, TS, TVS and toxicity, but
the gravel, tezontle and control (water) had surfactant removal effi-
ciencies of 46%, 40% and 23%, respectively.
The presence or absence of Schoenoplectus americanus had statisti-
cally significant effects on the pH and the surfactant removal percen-
tage. The pH increased with the presence of the plant and was low
without it. The presence of S. americanus resulted in the removal of 55%
of the surfactants compared with 41% when it was not present (Fig. 4).
The different hydraulic residence times had a significant influence
on the changes in pH, TSS, removal of greases and removal of surfac-
tants (Fig. 6). The greatest effects on pH were provided by residence
Calculus of % inhibition
Incubation parameters
Darkness 120 HRS 4 mL sample
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M.E. Pérez-López et al. Ecological Engineering 122 (2018) 135–142

Table 2
Average values (n = 2) of the parameters analysed to greywaters used where toxicity was directly proportional to the detergent content with a regression coefficient
of 0.84.
Greywater pH Electrical Conductivity Total solids Total volatile solids Total suspended solids Oil and grease Surfactants Toxicity
(µS/cm)
(mg/L)

Carrizo 7.50 172 1036 468 346 99 64 14

Carrizo 7.52 173 974 402 549 103 64 34
Carrizo 8.20 178 820 306 306 83 38 9
Carrizo 8.74 161 928 351 252 7 21 5
Carrizo 8.02 151 1418 806 380 154 86 64
Carrizo 7.08 182 1059 515 245 90 93 35
Durango city 7.14 197 1273 598 318 89 86 61
Durango city 7.08 268 1600 823 388 86 93 86
Durango city 7.61 225 1175 372 172 71 93 68

8.0 340

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (μS/cm)

7.8 320
7.6 300
7.4 280
7.2 260
pH

7.0 240
6.8 220
6.6 200
6.4 180
6.2
b b a b 160 a a b a
6.0 140
GRAVEL FIBER GRAVEL FIBER
TEZONTLE WATER TEZONTLE WATER
100 30
Mean Mean±0.95 Conf. Interval
50
% REMOVAL OF SURFACTANT

Mean Mean±0.95 Conf. Interval

90 20
45
80
10
40
70
350
TOXICITY

60
-10
30
50
-20
25
40
20
-30
30

20 15
-40
a a,b b a,b b b c a
10 10
-50
GRAVEL FIBER GRAVEL FIBER
TEZONTLE WATER TEZONTLE WATER
2400 1400

2200
1200
2000
1000
1800
TVS (mg/L)
TS (mg/L)

1600 800

1400 600
1200
400
1000
200
800
a a b a a a b a
600 0
GRAVEL FIBER GRAVEL FIBER
TEZONTLE WATER TEZONTLE WATER
PACKING MATERIAL PACKING MATERIAL

Fig. 4. Statistically significant effects of the packaging material on changes in pH, conductivity, TSS, percent surfactant removal and toxicity in the effluents of the
systems. Identical letters indicate no statistically significant differences.

times of 8 and 15 days, which resulted in increases up to 8.11; in and 15 days (46% and 55%, respectively).
contrast, the residence time of 3 days had little effect. Residence times
of 3 and 8 days caused increases in the TSS, but it decreased after 4. Discussion
15 days. The greatest removal of greases occurred with residence times
of 3 and 8 days, but an increase also occurred with the 15-day period. The LAS content of the crude greywater used was directly propor-
Finally, the greatest percentage surfactant removals were achieved at 8 tional to the toxicity detected (0.84), which implies that to maintain a

139
M.E. Pérez-López et al. Ecological Engineering 122 (2018) 135–142

Table 3
Average values (n = 3, ± standard deviation) of the parameters analysed by effluents.
Time TREATMENT pH Electrical Total solids (mg/ Total volatile solids Total suspended % Removal of % Removal of oil Toxicity
conductivity (µS/cm) L) (mg/L) solids (mg/L) surfactants and grease

I 7.3 ± 0.2 223 ± 65 1089 ± 289 378 ± 84 248 ± 213 6±6 37 ± 27 46 ± 33

II 7.3 ± 0.2 207 ± 46 960 ± 313 345 ± 152 263 ± 151 35 ± 28 61 ± 25 30 ± 32
III 7.1 ± 0.1 202 ± 58 880 ± 240 277 ± 76 213 ± 178 54 ± 14 88 ± 6 2 ± 13
3 days IV 6.2 ± 0.7 336 ± 107 2015 ± 709 1114 ± 528 935 ± 1401 87 ± 10 69 ± 3 10 ± 34
V 7.2 ± 0.2 217 ± 58 1085 ± 1085 386 ± 97 290 ± 176 14 ± 18 50 ± 32 16 ± 17
VI 7.5 ± 0.3 210 ± 50 947 ± 196 476 ± 227 260 ± 178 28 ± 19 51 ± 6 12 ± 17
VII 7.5 ± 0.3 209 ± 49 913 ± 167 300 ± 55 218 ± 193 41 ± 8 87 ± 13 13 ± 23
VIII 6.4 ± 1.0 292 ± 64 1810 ± 805 964 ± 612 894 ± 1317 75 ± 20 62 ± 10 40 ± 22
I 7.9 ± 0.6 186 ± 47 902 ± 294 314 ± 146 205 ± 50 30 ± 28 56 ± 51 42 ± 37
II 7.6 ± 0.2 190 ± 29 800 ± 110 248 ± 75 127 ± 86 46 ± 13 52 ± 50 27 ± 17
III 7.4 ± 0.1 179 ± 44 812 ± 131 234 ± 31 120 ± 101 52 ± 19 61 ± 56 19 ± 19

8 days IV 6.1 ± 0.8 313 ± 41 2220 ± 771 1188 ± 521 579 ± 738 85 ± 11 7 ± 137 52 ± 17
V 7.6 ± 0.3 192 ± 34 879 ± 223 273 ± 121 193 ± 39 32 ± 28 65 ± 40 36 ± 23
VI 7.8 ± 0.4 183 ± 32 796 ± 194 269 ± 98 133 ± 88 24 ± 23 46 ± 47 44 ± 13
VII 7.8 ± 0.5 170 ± 29 748 ± 138 241 ± 78 113 ± 75 21 ± 17 79 ± 28 32 ± 11
VIII 6.4 ± 0.7 289 ± 24 1858 ± 566 964 ± 365 523 ± 633 81 ± 16 50 ± 58 52 ± 27
I 8.1 ± 0.5 182 ± 21 809 ± 121 328 ± 99 98 ± 25 22 ± 9 90 ± 5 36 ± 19
II 7.9 ± 0.3 179 ± 21 735 ± 84 290 ± 92 67 ± 26 55 ± 21 92 ± 7 21 ± 17
III 7.5 ± 0.3 176 ± 28 660 ± 120 221 ± 67 39 ± 9 78 ± 6 94 ± 4 11 ± 28

15 days IV 6.8 ± 0.6 253 ± 108 2293 ± 555 1288 ± 303 96 ± 8 90 ± 12 90 ± 12 14 ± 36

V 6.9 ± 1.4 244 ± 109 771 ± 89 276 ± 89 110 ± 42 33 ± 6 51 ± 51 12 ± 30
VI 7.9 ± 0.1 181 ± 26 751 ± 94 316 ± 72 74 ± 33 52 ± 18 95 ± 1 34 ± 28
VII 8 ± 0.1 167 ± 17 685 ± 84 238 ± 77 60 ± 17 30 ± 28 91 ± 9 14 ± 30
VIII 7.1 ± 0.5 230 ± 92 1836 ± 532 950 ± 366 104 ± 69 84 ± 11 96 ± 2 38 ± 6

70 7.8
Mean Mean±0.95 Conf. Interval
65 7.7 Mean Mean±0.95 Conf. Interval
% REMOVAL OF SURFACTANT

7.6
60
7.5
55
7.4
50
pH

7.3
45
7.2
40 7.1

35 7.0

30 6.9
a b 6.8
a b
25
WITH WITHOUT WITH WITHOUT

PLANT PLANT

Fig. 5. Statistically significant effects of the presence or absence of S. americanus on the pH and percentage of surfactant removal in the treatment of greywater in
artificial wetlands. Identical letters indicate no differences.

healthy environment it is necessary to clean them before releasing
them, considering the separation of the excreta to be treated in-
dependently as mentioned by the authors Paulo et al. (2013) and
Ramprasad et al. (2017).
The effects of factors such as the hydraulic residence time, packa-
ging materials and the presence or absence of plants resulted in up to
90% removal of surfactants. These results are similar to those of Ramos
and Uribe (2007), who found that systems that treat wastewater
through artificial wetlands can remove up to 89% of surfactants pro-
vided that they effectively reduce the solids, trace organic compounds
and pathogens, as was described by Lara (1999).
Vegetable fibres have been used as packaging material for domestic
wastewater treatment systems in Mexico and other parts of the world
with good results (Garzón-Zuñiga et al., 2016). Agave fibre has been
used; however, it must be stabilized prior to its use, which involves
additional work that the community may not be able to carry out due to
the lack of water. Therefore, it was tested without stabilization, and the
best treatment for the removal of surfactant was determined to be that
with Fibra-S. americanus, which resulted in greater than 90% removal.
However, this is not necessarily a viable option because its use led to an
increase in solids and toxicity. Gravel, which provides yields of 80%,
represents a better option. This was described by Luna and Ramírez
Carrillo (2004), where gravel was used as a control material in artificial
wetlands. They also evaluated its effectiveness in the removal of
phosphorus compared to alternative materials and found that it pro-
vided better removal percentages but resulted in increases in the
amounts of solids.
The plant species Schoenoplectus americanus was used because it
grows naturally in the wastewater canals of Durango (Pérez-López
et al., 2009). It is emergent, resistant and easy to grow, so its adapt-
ability to the climatic characteristics and to the water to be purified was
analysed. Combined with the gravel and the water depth of 40 cm, it
proved to have a high potential for removing pollutants in cold climates
such as those in the study area. Nagua (2016) studied the genus,

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M.E. Pérez-López et al. Ecological Engineering 122 (2018) 135–142

800
8.0
Mean Mean±0.95 Conf. Interval
Mean Mean±0.95 Conf. Interval
700
7.8

600
7.6
500

TSS (mg/L)
7.4
400
pH

7.2
300

7.0 200

100
6.8
a b c 0
b a,b a
6.6 ´3 ´8 ´15
´3 ´8 ´15

70 100

65
% REMOVAL OF SURFACTANT

90

% REMOVAL OIL AND GRASE

60
80
55
70
50
60
45
50
40
40
35

30
a a,b b 30
a a,b b
25 20
´3 ´8 ´15 ´3 ´8 ´15
DAYS DAYS

Fig. 6. Statistically significant effects of residence times on pH, SST, percentage of surfactant and oil and grease removal in the treatment of greywaters in artificial
wetlands. Identical letters indicate no differences.

including its varieties californicus and tabernaemontani, and determined
that both have high removal efficiencies. Drizo et al. (2006) used the
fluviatilis variety of this genus to treat wastewater from dairies in Ver-
mont, USA, and found contaminant removal rates greater than 95% in
cold climatic conditions.
The results indicated that the optimal parameters for the removal of
LAS (77%) include a hydraulic retention time of 15 days, the presence
of Schoenoplectus americanus, the support of 5-mm-diameter gravel and
a water depth of 40 cm. These results can be compared with the results
of Thomas et al. (2017), who analysed the role of plants in the removal
of LAS in artificial wetlands using a design with a hydraulic depth of
38 cm and gravel 5–10 mm in diameter; they found degradation effi-
ciencies of up to 98%, which improved with increasing residence time.
5. Conclusions
The best treatment for the removal of LAS was IV Fibra-S. amer-
icanus with a residence time of 15 days; however, this treatment re-
leased a large amount of solids, caused greater toxicity and resulted in a
low pH, so its use is not recommended in rural communities.
On the other hand, even though the III Grava-S. americanus treat-
ment with a residence time of 15 days and a 40 cm hydraulic depth had
a lower percentage in the removal of surfactants than the IV treatment,
it is recommended for the treatment of greywaters in the community of
El Carrizo because it improves the water quality by reducing all the
measured parameters without modifying the pH and presents less
toxicity. The proposed design (8 days + S. americanus + gravel) would
also allow the water discharged into soils to be used without problems
in vegetable gardens or other gardens. It should be noted that subsur-
face flow systems can be used in gardens without causing the
proliferation of mosquitoes, in addition to purifying the water.
Acknowledgments
To CONACyT for the funding through project 214829 which al-
lowed the completion of this study, and Saharai Rodriguez Pérez for
making the Graphical abstracts.
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