THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES

ST. AUGUSTINE

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING - CHEMICAL AND

PROCESS DEPARTMENT

PENG 6002 – Drilling Engineering & Completions

Lecturer: Mr. Clyde Abder
Assignment 1 - Applied Drilling Engineering
- Exercises 5.1 – 5.5, 6.13 & 6.18

Kirk Woo Chong - 809003758

October 17th 2015
 Table of Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 2
Exercise 5.1 ................................................................................................................ 3
Exercise 5.2 ................................................................................................................ 4
Exercise 5.3 ................................................................................................................ 5
Exercise 5.4 ................................................................................................................ 6
Exercise 5.5 ................................................................................................................ 7
Exercise 6.13 a ........................................................................................................... 9
Exercise 6.13 b ......................................................................................................... 11
Exercise 6.18 ............................................................................................................ 11

Table of Figures

Figure 1 – Two main types of bits in use today with two sub classifications of each
type ............................................................................................................................. 3
Figure 2 – Wedging action of a drag bit cutter .......................................................... 7
Figure 3 – Percussion mechanism for rolling cutter bits ........................................... 8
Figure 4 – Modified d-exponent plot with normal and abnormal trendlines............. 9

List of Tables

Table 1 – Optimal rolling cutter bit properties for soft and hard formations ............ 5

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INTRODUCTION
The first coursework assignment for PENG 6002 – Drilling Engineering & Completions involved
answering select questions from Chapters 5 and 6 from Applied Drilling Engineering – Bourgoyne
Jr. et al.

These exercises examined aspects of Rotary Drilling Bits such as:

 Main types and sub classifications of bits
 Rolling cutter bit design characteristics
 Rock removal mechanisms
 Drag bits design removal mechanisms &
 Hard formation cutter bits removal mechanisms

Aspects of Formation Pore Pressure and Fracture Resistance were also studied such as:
 Methods for estimating pore pressure &
 Drillability parameters

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5.1 - List the two main types of bits in use today. Also, list two sub classifications of each basic
bit type and discuss the conditions considered ideal for the application of each sub classification
given.

Diamond Bits

Drag Bits
Polycrystalline
Diamond (PCD)
Bits
Rotary Drilling
Bits
Steel Milled -
Tooth Bits
Rolling Cutter Bits
Tungsten Carbide
Insert Bits

Figure 1 – Two main types of bits in use today with two sub classifications of each bit type

Two main types of bits in use today are:

 Drag Bits &
 Rolling Cutter Bits

Two sub classifications of Drag Bits are:

 Diamond Bits &
 Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) Bits

Two sub classification of Rolling Cutter Bits are:

 Steel Milled – Tooth Bits &
 Tungsten Carbide Insert Bits

The above information can be seen represented in Figure 1 above.

Diamond bits perform best in non-brittle formations that have a plastic mode of failure for the
stress conditions present at the bottom of the hole. Diamonds are harder than steel and tungsten
carbide, and thus diamond bits perform effectively in soft and hard formations. The size and

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number of the diamonds on the bit depends on the hardness of the formation to be drilled. For
soft formations, the bits are comprised of a few large diamonds that are spaced further apart,
whereas, for hard formations, the bits have many small diamonds that are spaced closely
together. Diamond bits are designed to operate at a given flow rate and pressure drop across the
face of the bit, approximately 2.0 – 2.5 hhp/in2 of hole bottom with an approximate pressure
drop of 500-1000 psi across the face of the bit to clean and cool the diamond adequately.

Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) bits perform best in soft, firm, medium-hard and non-abrasive
formations that are not “gummy.” Good results have also been obtained in drilling in sandstone,
siltstone and shale as well as uniform sections of carbonates and evaporites that are not broken
up with hard shale stringers.

Steel milled-tooth bits are capable of performing well in both soft and hard formations. High
drilling rates can be achieved in soft formations and to be more effective in hard formations, the
bits can be made a shorter length, case hardened and heat treated. These bits have the
advantage of being self-sharpening, due to a hard facing on one side of the tooth.

Tungsten Carbide insert bits perform well in soft and hard formations. In soft formations, the
teeth are long and have a chisel-shaped end. These bits are also effective in drilling hard
formations because tungsten carbide is very hard and the inserts used in bits are short and have
a hemispherical end (sometimes referred to as button bits). The major advantage is their ability
to handle a high bit weight at high rpm, which is effective in hard formations.

5.2 - Discuss how cone offset, tooth height, and number of teeth differ between soft and hard
formation rolling cutter bits.

The rolling cutter bit for soft formations should have a 4° cone offset with long and fewer teeth,
whereas for hard formations, it should have a 0° offset with a larger number of short teeth.

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This can be summarized in Table 1 below.

Rolling Cutter Design Characteristics Soft Formations Hard Formations

Cone Offset 4° 0°
Tooth Height Longer Shorter
Number of Teeth Less More

Table 1 – Optimal Rolling Cutter Bit Properties for Soft and Hard Formations

For soft formations, fewer teeth are required to penetrate the rocks due to a lower compressive
strength of the material. The long widely spaced teeth enables the bit to easily penetrate the
soft rocks, and the scraping and twisting action provided by alternate rotation and plowing action
of the offset cone (4°) removes the material penetrated.

For hard formations, the rocks are usually abrasive and have a higher compressive strength.
These bits require short, strong, impact and wear resistant cutting structures, where numerous
short teeth can be used to increase the rate of penetration of rocks. The closely arranged short
teeth and reduced cone offset prevents tooth breakage and provides optimum resistance to
abrasion and impact. This also gives the crushing action required to effectively perform in hard
drilling conditions.

5.3 - List five basic mechanisms of rock removal that are employed in the design of bits.

Five basic mechanisms of rock removal that are employed in the design of bits are:
i. Wedging
ii. Scraping and Grinding
iii. Erosion by Fluid Jet Action
iv. Percussion or Crushing
v. Torsion or Twisting

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5.4 – Discuss the primary mechanism of rock removal that are employed in the design of bits.

The primary mechanism of rock removal for drag bits is by wedging, which is illustrated in Figure
2 below.

A vertical force is applied to the tooth as a result of applying drill collar weight to the bit, and a
horizontal force is applied to the tooth as a result of applying the torque necessary to turn the
bit. The result of these two forces defines the plane of thrust of the tooth or wedge. The cuttings
are sheared off in a shear plane at an initial angle to the plane of thrust that is dependent on the
properties of the rock.

The depth of the cut is controlled by the plane of thrust and is selected based on the strength of
the rock and radius of the cut. The depth of cut is often expressed in terms of the bottom cutting
angle, α. The angle α is a function of the desired cutter penetration per revolution Lp and radius
r from the center of the hole.

𝐿𝑝
This relation can be defined by: tan ∝ = 2𝜋𝑟

The bottom clearance angle prevents the wedge from dragging the hole bottom down while
taking a chip and, thus, causing the bit to jump and chatter and to wear fast. The bottom
clearance angle should not be too great, however, to prevent the bit from digging too deep and
stalling the rotary whenever the weight-t-torque ratio is too great. A slight rake angle can help
promote an efficient wedging mechanism, although a positive rake angle may not be necessary
because of the downward slope of the hole bottom when the bit is operated properly. The bit
tooth loses strength as the rake angle is increased.

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 Figure 2 – Wedging action of a drag bit cutter

5.5 – Discuss the primary mechanism of rock removal used in the design of hard-formation
rolling cutter bits.

Percussion or crushing action is the predominant mechanism present in the design of hard-
formation rolling cutter bits.

Pressure is applied onto the rock via the bit tooth until it exceeds the strength of the rock and a
wedge of finely powdered rock is then formed beneath the tooth. As the force on the tooth
increases, the material in the wedge compresses and exerts high lateral forces on the solid rock
surrounding the wedge until the shear stress τ exceeds the shear strength S of the solid rock and
the rock fractures. These fractures propagate along a maximum shear surface, which intersect
the direction of the principal stresses at a nearly constant angle predicted by the Mohr failure
criteria. The force at which fracturing begins beneath the tooth is called the threshold force. As
the force on the tooth increases above the threshold value, subsequent fracturing occurs in the
region above the initial fracture, forming a zone of broken rock.

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At low differential pressure, the cuttings formed in the zone of broken rock are ejected easily
from the crater. The bit then moves forward until it reaches the bottom of the crater and the
process may be repeated. At high differential fluid pressures, the downward pressure and
frictional forces between the rock fragments prevent ejection of the fragments. As the force on
the bit tooth is increased, displacement occurs along fracture planes parallel to the initial
fracture. This gives the appearance of plastic deformation, and craters formed in this manner
are called pseudoplastic craters. The above mentioned can be seen illustrated in Figure 3 below.

Figure 3 – Percussion mechanism for rolling cutter bits

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6.13 a – Compute the pore pressure at 13,000 ft. using the data of Fig 6.19 and the equivalent
matrix stress concept. Use an overburden stress of 1.0 psi/ft and a normal pore pressure
gradient of 0.456 psi/ft

For the purpose of the calculation, the following assumptions are made:
 σob = σz + P, i.e. Overburden load = Matrix stress + Formation pore pressure
 σz = σzn , i.e. Effective matrix stress of an abnormally pressured formation at depth D has
the same matrix stress of a shallower normally pressured formation at depth Dn provided
they have the measured value of a porosity dependent parameter.

Figure 4 – Modified d-exponent plot with normal

and abnormal trendlines

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From Figure 4, at a depth of 13,000 feet, the modified d exponent value on the abnormal pressure
trend line is 1.17. This intersects the normal pressure trend line at a depth of approximately 525
feet, i.e. Dn = 700 ft.

Overburden load is then computed as this depth

dσob psi
(σob)n = [ ] x Dn [ft]
dL ft
psi
(σob)700 = 1 [ ft ] x 700[ft]
= 700 psig

Formation pore pressure can thus be calculated as follows

dPf psi
Pn = [ ft ] x Dn [ft]
dL
psi
P700 = 0.456 [ ft ] x 700[ft]
= 319.2 psig

The following relationship was used to determine effective matrix stress

σz = σzn = σobn – Pn
σ13000 = σ700 = (σob)700[psig] – P700[psig]
= 700 [psig] – 319.2 [psig]
= 380.8 psig

Overburden load at depth of 13,000 feet

dσob psi
(σob)13000 = [ ft ] x D[ft]
dL
psi
= 1[ ft ] x 13000[ft]
= 13,000 psig

Formation pre pressure at 13,000 feet

P13000 = (σob)13000[psig] - σ13000[psig]
= 13000 [psig] – 380.8 [psig]
= 12,619.2 psig

Formation pore pressure at 13,000 ft, P13000 = 12,619.2 psig

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6.13 b – Rehm and McClendon indicated that the use of an equivalent matrix stress concept
with d-exponent data resulted in an inaccurately high pore pressure value. Do the data answers
in Part a support this statement?

Yes, the data in Part a does support this statement. From the above calculation, using an
equivalent matrix stress concept with d-exponent data resulted in a pressure of 12,619.2 psig,
whereas if the Rehm and McClendon empirical correlation was used a value of 9,464 psig would
be obtained for the same depth of 13,000 feet. The equivalent matrix stress concept produces a
value about 1.33 times more than that of the correlation, thus providing validity to the statement
that an inaccurately high pore pressure value would be obtained.

6.18 – At a depth of 10,000 ft. in the U.S. gulf coast area, a value of 3.0 was obtained for the
modified drillability parameter Kp’ when drilling a shale formation thought to have a pore
pressure gradient of 11.5 lbm/gal. The normal pressure trend line value of Kp’ was 2.0. If the
value of a4 is known to be 35 x 10-6, what is the value of a3?

For the purpose of the calculation, the following assumptions are made:
 Normal pressure gradient, ρn = 8.94
 a2 = 90 x 10-6

K ′p − a1 − a2 (10,000 − D)
g p = ρn +
a3 D0.69 + a4 D

K ′p − a1 − a2 (10,000 − D)
[ ] − a4 D
g p − ρn
∴ a3 =
D0.69

3 − 2 − 90 x 10−6 (10,000 − 10,000)

[ ] − (35 x 10−6 )(10,000)
11.5 − 8.94
⇒ a3 =
10,0000.69

∴ a3 = 71 x10−6

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