General Biology Final Exam Tues Dec. 11 at 1:00-2:50 Blue scantron.

Asexual Cell division- Mitosis- somatic cells, phases

Sexual Cell Division- Meiosis- gametes, homologous chromosomes, crossing over, recombination,
haploid, diploid,

Gregor Mendel, Gene, Chromosome, chromatid, centromere, sister chromatids, homologous

chromosomes, crossing over, recombination, gametes, somatic cells, zygote, gene, allele, homozygous,
heterozygous, dominant, recessive.

Antigen, antibody, ABO Blood Typing, Co-Dominant, Multiple allelles, RH factor (+) (-), erythroblastosis
fetalis,

Cancer- oncogenes (cancer causing gene), malignant (cancer cells that are capable of spreading),
metastasis (cancer is spreading) , tumor (mass of dividing cells) , benign (not actively growing),
carcinogens, mutagens, chemotherapy, radiation therapy

- 1) Lung, tabacco, secondhand smoke, cigarettes. 2)Breast, Estrogen, high dietary fat 3)Skin – UV

Genetic Engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, PCR, Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO’s) ,
transgenic organisms, cloning- Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning, Adult stem cells vs. embryonic
Stem Cells, gene therapy, DNA Finger Printing, DNA Profiling.

- evolution, mutation, natural selection, adaptive trait, artificial selection

Know the terms evolution, natural selection, population, evolutionary adaptation, adaptive radiation

Natural Selection- the process by which organisms with certain inherited traits or adaptations are more
likely to survive and reproduce than organisms that lack those adaptations. Adaptations can be
beneficial- offer a survival advantage, harmful- cause an organism not to survive as well, or neutral.
Evolution and natural selection can only act on the beneficial and harmful ones NOT the neutral ones
because they offer no survivor advantage.

Evolution- is heritable changes in a line of descent over time- changes in the allele frequency in a
population.

*** Know the difference between artificial selection and natural selection and sexual selection.

Artificial selection is where traits are chosen by humans for breeding purposes. Ex. Dog Breeding, Horse
Breeding, Crops.
Natural Selection- a process in which organisms with certain inherited traits are more likely to survive
and reproduce than are organisms with other characteristics; differential reproductive success.

Sexual Selection- A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain characteristics are more
likely to obtain mates than other individuals whether through direct competition or because of their size
or the size of their territory or their behavior or their coloration pattern. Ex. Peacocks displaying to
impress the female with their brightly colored tail indicating they have “good genes”, Mountain Goats
battling it out for the chance to mate. Female mate choice is also an example- ALL the Single Ladies!!!!

Charles Darwin called evolution Descent With Modification.- that all living things are related coming
from a common ancestor and that organisms have changed over time.

Evolution- any change in the gene frequencies or allele frequencies in a population over time. We can
observe it and measure it directly as well as test the allele frequencies for example, whether sickle cell
anemia is increasing or decreasing in a population.

Microevolution- small scale changes that occur below the population level ex. Pesticide resistance
(mosquitoes-DDT-malaria, bedbugs), antibiotic resistance of bacteria.

Macroevolution- large scale changes that occur with respect to body plans at the population level or
above. Ex. Transitioning from water to land, quadraped to biped

We have examples of changes occurring in the human race today- tonsils, wisdom teeth, appendices,
change in height, weight, brain size

Population- A group of organisms of the same species living together in the same geographic area.

Species- individuals of the same kind that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
Individuals of a population whose members possess similar anatomical characteristics and have the
ability to interbreed.

Speciation- the formation of a new species over long periods of time. Usually as a result of some sort of
Reproductive barrier or isolation which allows natural mutations or changes in the DNA to
spontaneously appear and accumulate making some members of the original population genetically
distinct and no longer able to interbreed.
Adaptation- the response of population to environmental pressure, so that advantageous traits become
more common in a population over time. When Natural selection favors some traits over others, the
population shows adaptation to tis environment. Ex. Tree-dwelling monkeys with grasping hands and
thumbs and long tails. Maladaptive traits offer no benefit of survival to individuals and some traits are
neutral offering neither a survival advantage or hindrance to survival.

Natural Selection- The mechanism that Charles Darwin (Father of Evolution) identified as driving or
allowing evolution to occur. Differential Survival and Reproduction of individuals in response to
environmental pressure that leads to changes in allele frequencies over time.

Some adaptations arise giving certain individuals an advantage in their environment thus allowing them
to survive and reproduce more successfully. These traits are therefore, selected by the environment to
be more common among individuals in that population. Not all mutations or adaptations are beneficial
though- some are disadvantageous and therefore do not allow for survival and these are often selected
against when the individuals who have those traits die out.

Individuals in a population of any species vary in many inherited traits and overproduction of offspring
and competition for resources leads to what Darwin called unequal reproductive success.

Artificial Selection- the selective breeding of plants and animals. Ex. Dog Breeding, Horse breeding
where humans are choosing the traits not natural selection.

Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria is an example of evolution on a smaller population scale

(microevolution).

Evolution occurs at the Population level Not the Individuals level. We look at gene frequencies in a
population over time.

*** Individuals DO NOT EVOLVE- even though natural selection occurs through interactions between
individual organisms and their environment. Evolution refers to generation to generation changes in a
population not individuals. Evolution is also not directed or a goal, it does not lead to perfectly adapted
organisms- a trait that is favorable in one condition may be useless in another. “Survival of the fittest” is
not meant to be taken at the individual level as competitive contests between individuals but rather the
reproductive success or the fittest animals are the ones who produce the largest numbers of viable,
fertile offspring and thus pass on the most genes to the next generation.

Mutations are heritable changes in DNA- changes in the nucleotide sequence.

They can beneficial, harmful or neutral. Natural selection acts upon the harmful and beneficial ones but
not the neutral ones.

Mutations can spontaneously arise or they can be passed down from parent to offspring.

Variations in heredity instructions arise through mutations and therefore are one of the sources of the
diversity we see in the living world.

The environment tests the combination of patterns expressed in each organism and may prove the trait
adaptive- which means it increases survivability and reproduction- overall fitness of an organism.

(24th November, 1859) Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species 1859- evolution be means of natural
selection- existing species evolved from ancestral species and natural selection is the mechanisms of
evolution -“descent with modification” “survival of the fittest”, Georges Buffon- first to propose that the
earth was older than 6,000 years and the one of the first to study fossils observing similarities between
particular fossils and living animals so he proposed that certain fossil forms might be ancient versions of
similar living species. Set sail on the HMS Beagle around the tip of South and Central America and off the
coast of Patagonia and Argentina to the Galapagos Islands where he made some of his greatest
discoveries with the Darwins’ finches and Galapagos tortoises.

Charles Darwin wrote two important books Origin of Life and The Descent of Man

On his five year travels around South America and the Galapagos Islands on the HMS Beagle he
observed:

1. Living creatures have more offspring than can possibly survive

2. There is variation in this offspring

3. Some variations give an advantage and some are disadvantageous in their struggle for

Survival

4. The more “fit” will survive and pass on their desirable traits (genes) to their offspring

5. In this way, living things will change – given enough time new species will evolve and life will branch
into new forms (species)
Darwins’ key points of his evolutionary theory are:

1. Individual variation-Members vary in form and behavior all of which are genetically based so much of
this variation is inheritable.

2. Unequal Reproductive success-

Some varieties of heritable traits will improve survival and reproduction chances.

Those with improved chances will be more likely to reproduce and pass the adaptive traits on with
greater frequency in the future generations.

3. Overproduction and competition

Alfred Russell Wallace- Father of Biogeography- the distribution of plant and animal species over the
surface of the earth, suggests that species evolved from ancestors that inhabited the same region- he
independently came up with his own concept of evolution by natural selection and prompted Darwin to
publish.

Some Lines of Evidence For Evolution:

I. Comparative Anatomy and Morphology- Strong evidence for evolution can be seen in the
anatomical and developmental structures shared among diverse species and The Fossil Record
Fossil Record- the ordered sequence of fossils as they appear in the rock layers, marking the
passage of geologic time. It reveals the appearance of organisms in historical sequence with the
oldest known, most primitive fossils appearing lower in the layers or strata and the more
advanced or complex fossils appearing later or higher up in the strata. This fossils evidence is
supported by other evidence from the molecular and cellular evidence.
Radio isotopic Dating and Relative Dating- Determining the age of fossils from its position
relative to layers of rock or fossils of known age. Older Fossils usually found buried in lower
sediment strata or layers of the earth than younger fossils reflecting the age of the earth (about
4.5 billion years old) and the age of life to be about 3.5 billion years old.

Younger fossils are more similar to modern organisms than are older fossils.

How do we know this we use Radiometric Isotopic Dating Techniques. Review: what is an isotope?
How is it radioactive and how can we use it to age objects? What types of objects can be aged or
dated using this technique?

Transitional fossils- Darwin’s Descent with modification idea predicts the existence of
“intermediate” organisms that possess mixtures of old traits and new traits, Transitional
Fossils- fossilized remains of a lifeform that exhibits characteristics of two distinct taxonomic
groups. A transitional fossil is the fossil of an organism near the branching point where major
individual lineages diverge or branch. It will have characteristics typical of organisms on both
sides of the split, but because of the incompleteness of the fossil record, there is usually no way
to know exactly how close it is to the actual point of divergence.

Transitional fossils serve as a reminder that taxonomic divisions are human constructs that have
been imposed in hindsight on a continuum of variation. Numerous examples exist, including
those of humans and other primates “Lucy” and “Ardi”, tetrapods and fish ex. Tiktaalik lobefins,
and birds and dinosaurs- Archeopteryx The phrase "missing link" has been used extensively in
popular writings on human evolution to refer to a perceived gap in the hominid evolutionary
record. It is most commonly used to refer to any new transitional fossil finds. Scientists,
however, do not use the term as it is misleading and inaccurate. We have other examples in
armadillos – Glytpodont, horse and whale Cynomix, Basilosaurus evolution as well.

“Lucy”, “Ardi” (both early bipedal walking on two legs upright and early manlike- hominds), and
“Tiktaalik (fish and amphibians)”and “Archeopteryx (bird and reptiles)”. An organisms anatomy
reflects adaptation to its ecological environment. Changed ecological circumstances provide
opportunities for new adaptations to evolve by natural selection. Why was Tiktaalik so
significant a fossil find? It provided a glimpse into the adaptations of vertebrate animals as they
moved from the water onto land it is called the “fish with fingers and movable wrist”.

Biogeography- the study of the distribution of animals and plants across the earth’s surface.
Father of Biography- Alfred Russell Wallace- and co-father of evolution by natural selection

Geology- study of the earth and the earth’s layers and processes that formed the earth-
sedimentation, erosion, plate tectonics- the movement of the continents

Plate Tectonics a geological process on how the earth’s crust and continents were formed and move
today.

Age of the Earth- 4.6- 4.5 billion years ago- Earth was created in the Big Bang – the nearly instantaneous
distribution of all matter and energy throughout the universe as one “explosive” occurrence or event.
Microfossils of early cells (prokaryotes) first appeared 3.5- 3.8 billion years ago. Eukaryotes first appear
about 1.2 billion years ago

Adaptive Radiation- the spreading and diversification of organisms across the earth that occur
when they colonize a new habitat.
2. Vestigial Structures and Comparative Anatomy-
 Vestigial Organs or Structures- a structure inherited from an ancestor that no longer serves a clear
function in the organism that possess it but they inherited it from an ancestor in whom they did
serve a function.

Vestigial organs or structures- historical remnants of structures that has marginal if any, importance to
an organism, that had important functions in ancestors.

Ex. Wisdom teeth, Tonsils, Appendix, Pharyngeal Gill Slits and Gill arches, Tail bone, Snake
embryos have limb buds for hindlimbs, Nipples on males 

3. Comparative Embryology- Vertebrate animals Share a Similar Pattern of Early embryonic

Development.
4. Comparative Molecular DNA- DNA nucleotide base sequences are shared among Related
Organisms inherited from a common ancestor and can be used to estimate how long ago the
taxa branched off from each other. Over time, the sequence in each species acquires
independent mutations. The more time that has passed, the greater the number of sequence
differences the more distantly related the groups are. Molecular Clocks where we can calculate
how long ago a particular group branched off from a common ancestor by the build up of the
number of neutral mutations they have in common and different from one another. Looking at
the evolutionary tree (phylogeny) when did the diverge and branch off?