Chapter 1

The Organization of the Human Body

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Anatomy and Physiology Defined

A. Anatomy is the science of structure and the
relationships among structures.
B. Physiology is the science of body functions, that is,
how the body parts function.
C. The structure of a part often determines how it will
function.

II. Levels of Organization

A. The body’s structures are assigned levels of
organization from the smallest to the largest.
B. Chemical level – This level includes atoms, the
smallest units of matter that participate in chemical
reactions, and molecules, composed of two or more
atoms joined together.
C. Cellular level – Combining molecules together can form
cells. Cells are the basic structural and functional
units of an organism, and the smallest living units in
the human body.
D. Tissue level – Tissues are groups of cells and
material surrounding them that work together to
perform particular functions. Four basic tissue types
represent this level: epithelial tissue, connective
tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue.
E. Organ level – When different types of tissue join
together they form the organ level. These structures
are composed of two or more different tissues, and
they have specific functions.
F. System level – Groups of related organs that have a
common function form the system level.
1. The body systems work together to maintain
health, protect against disease, and allow for
the reproduction of the species.
2. The integumentary system, for example, protects
all systems by serving as a barrier between the
outside environment and internal tissues and
organs.
3. The cardiovascular system carries nutrients to
and wastes away from the cells, regulates
acidity, temperature, and water content of the
body fluids, and also helps defend against
disease.
G. Organismal level – The largest level of organization
is the organismal level, which includes all systems of
the body that combine to form the human organism.
III. Life Processes
A. Life processes are characteristics that separate
living organisms from nonliving things.
B. Six important life processes
1. Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions
in the body. It includes the breakdown of large
complex molecules into smaller, simpler ones and
the building of the body’s structural and
functional components.
2. Responsiveness is the body’s ability to detect
and respond to changes in the internal or
external environment.
3. Movement includes motion of the whole body,
individual organs, single cells, or even tiny
organelles inside cells.
4. Growth refers to the increase in body size due to
an increase in size of existing cells, the number
of cells, or the amount of material surrounding
cells.
5. Differentiation is the process whereby
unspecialized cells become specialized cells.
6. Reproduction refers to the formation of new cells
for growth, repair, or replacement, or the
production of a new individual.
C. When these life processes cease to properly occur,
death could result.
1. An autopsy refers to examination and dissection
of a body to determine the cause of death when
life processes have not occurred adequately.

IV. Homeostasis: Maintaining Limits

A. Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable
body conditions.
1. Homeostasis ensures that the body’s internal
environment remains steady despite changes inside
and outside the body.
2. All body systems attempt to maintain homeostasis.
3. Homeostasis is controlled mainly by the nervous
and endocrine systems.
B. Maintenance of homeostasis
1. Controlled conditions are body conditions (such
as temperature, blood glucose levels, blood
pressure) that are monitored to maintain
homeostasis.
a. Any disruption that causes a change in a
controlled condition is called stimulus.
2. Homeostasis is maintained by feedback systems.
3. The components of a feedback system are:
a. Receptor - monitors the controlled
condition.
 b. Control center - receives input from the
receptor, evaluates the input and generates
output commands.
c. Effector - a body structure receiving
output from the control center and
producing a response that changes the
controlled condition.
4. A negative feedback system reverses a change in a
controlled condition in order to maintain
homeostasis. Most feedback systems in the body
are negative.
5. A positive feedback system strengthens or
reinforces a change in the controlled condition.
a. If positive feedback should occur, its
results are usually destructive or deadly.
b. However, a few are beneficial such as
contractions in childbirth, ovulation, and
blood clotting.
C. A lack of homeostasis can result in disorders,
diseases, or even death.
D. Aging and homeostasis
1. Aging is a normal process characterized by a
progressive decline in the body’s ability to
restore homeostasis.
2. The changes associated with aging are apparent in
all body systems.

V. Example of a Negative Feedback System: Homeostasis

of Blood Pressure (BP)
A. Blood pressure is the force of blood as it passes
through blood vessels. In order to sustain life it
must be maintained at an appropriate pressure.
B. Blood pressure depends on the rate and strength of the
heartbeat. If the heart beats faster, more blood
pushes into the arteries and elevates the pressure.
C. Feedback mechanism
1. A stimulus causes blood pressure (controlled
condition) to rise.
2. Increased pressure is detected by baroreceptors
(receptors), pressure-sensitive nerve cells
located in the walls of certain blood vessels.
3. These respond by sending impulses (input) to the
brain (control center).
4. The brain, in response, sends nerve impulses
(output) to the heart (effector) to slow the
rate, thus decreasing pressure (response).

VI. Anatomical Terms

A. Directional terms
1. Directional terms are always given in regard to
the body being in anatomical position.
 a. In anatomical position, the subject stands
erect facing the observer, with the head
level and the eyes facing forward. The
feet are flat on the floor and directed
forward and the arms are at the sides with
palms turned forward.
2. Directional terms are used to describe the
position of one body part relative to another.
3. Commonly used terms include but are not limited
to:
a. Superior—towards the head, or the upper
part of a structure
b. Inferior—towards the feet, or the lower
part of a structure
c. Anterior/Ventral—nearer to or at the front
of the body
d. Posterior/Dorsal—nearer to or at the back
of the body
e. Medial—nearer to the midline or midsagittal
plane
f. Lateral—farther from the midline or
midsagittal plane
g. Proximal—nearer to the attachment of a limb
to the trunk; nearer to the point of origin
h. Distal—farther from the attachment of a
limb to the trunk; far from the point of
origin
i. Superficial—toward or on the body’s surface
j. Deep—away from the surface of the body
B. Body regions
1. The human body is divided into several major
external body regions:
a. Head
b. Neck
c. Trunk
d. Upper limbs
e. Lower limbs

VII. Body Planes and Sections

A. Body planes are imaginary flat surfaces that pass
through the body parts. Sections are cuts made along
planes.
B. The sagittal plane is a vertical plane that divides
the body or an organ into right and left sides.
1. If the right and left sides are equal in size, it
is called a midsagittal plane and runs through
the midline of the body or organs.
2. If the body or organ is divided into unequal
right and left sides, it is a parasagittal plane.
C. The frontal (coronal) plane divides the body or organ
into anterior and posterior portions.
 D. The transverse plane divides the body into superior
(upper) and inferior (lower) portions.
E. An oblique plane passes through the body at an angle.

VIII. Body Cavities

A. Body cavities are spaces within the body that contain,
protect, separate, and support internal organs.
B. The cranial cavity is formed by the cranial (skull)
bones and contains the brain.
C. The vertebral (spinal) canal is formed by the bones of
the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord.
D. The thoracic cavity is the chest cavity containing the
heart and blood vessels as well as the lungs.
1. The thoracic cavity contains smaller cavities –
the pericardial cavity surrounding the heart, and
the pleural cavities surrounding each lung.
2. The central portion of the thoracic cavity is an
anatomical region called the mediastinum.
3. The thoracic cavity is separated from the lower
body cavity (abdominopelvic cavity) by the
diaphragm.
E. The abdominopelvic cavity extends from the diaphragm
to the groin and contains a number of organs.
F. Serous membranes are found in the large body cavities.
a. Each has a parietal layer lining the walls of the
cavity and a visceral layer covering organs
(viscera).
b. Serous membranes include the pericardium around
the heart, pleura around each lung, and
peritoneum associated with abdominopelvic organs.

IX. Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

A. The large abdominopelvic cavity is divided into
smaller compartments to more precisely describe the
organs’ locations.
B. There are nine abdominopelvic regions: 1) epigastric;
2) right hypochondriac; 3) left hypochondriac; 4)
umbilical; 5) right lumbar; 6) left lumbar; 7)
hypogastric; 8) right iliac; and 9) left iliac.
C. There are four abdominopelvic cavity quadrants: 1)
right upper quadrant (RUQ); 2) left upper quadrant
(LUQ); 3) right lower quadrant (RLQ); and 4) left
lower quadrant (LLQ).