Pyschometrician Reviewer

PSYCHOMETRICIAN
BOARD EXAMINATION
REVIEW MANUAL
Sample Module: Theories of Personality
Reviewer: Riyan Portuguez
Name: ________________________________
FAMILIRIAZE YOURSELF WITH THE AREAS OF THEORIES OF
PERSONALITY
Feist & Feist Reference Ryckman Reference
PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOANALYTIC & NEOLYTIC

Psychoanalysis (Freud) Psychoanalytic (Freud)
Individual Psychology (Adler) Analytical (Jung)
Analytical Psychology (Jung) Individual Psychology (Adler)
Object Relations Theory (Klein) Social and Cultural Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic Social Theory (Horney)
(Horney) Ego Psychology (Erikson)
Humanistic Psychoanalysis Self-Psychology (Kohut)
(Fromm)
Interpersonal Theory (Sullivan) TRAIT
Post-Freudian Theory (Erik Trait Theory (Allport)
Erikson) Structure-Based Systems Theory
(Cattell)
HUMANISTIC/EXISTENTIAL Biological Typology (Eysenck)
Holistic Dynamic Theory (Maslow)
Person-Centered Theory (Rogers) COGNITIVE
Existential Psychology (May) Theory of Personal Construct (Kelly)
DISPOSITIONAL THEORY HUMANISTIC/EXISTENTIAL

Psychology of the Individual Self-Actualization Position (Maslow)
(Allport) Person-Centered Theory (Rogers)
Trait and Factor Theories Existential-Analytic Position (May)
(Eysenck, McCrae, and Costa)
SOCIAL-BEHAVIORISTIC
LEARNING THEORY Operant Analysis (Skinner)
Behavioral Analysis (Skinner) Expectancy-Reinforcement Value
Social Cognitive Theory Model (Rotter)
(Bandura) Social Cognitive (Bandura)
Cognitive Social Learning Theory
(Rotter and Mischel)
Psychology of Constructs (Kelly)
Additional:
SIkolohiyang Pilipino
(Virgilio Enriquez)
MODULE: THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
NOTES:
PERSONALITY AND THE SCIENTIFIC OUTLOOK
ITS ORIGIN
Personality derives from the Latin word persona,

which refers to a mask used by actors in a play. It is
easy to see how persona came to refer to outward
appearance, the public face we display to the people
around us (Schultz, 2005).
WHAT IS PERSONALITY?
Personality can be defined as a pattern of relatively

permanent traits and unique characteristics that
give both consistency and individuality to human
behavior.
PSYCHOLOGY OF SCIENCE
It studies both science and the behavior of scientists;

that is, it investigates the impact of an individual
scientist’s psychological processes and personal
characteristics on the development of her or his
scientific theories and research (Feist & Feist, 2009).
ITS IMPORTANCE
The study of human personality helps us understand

ourselves and other people better, and gives us a
greater appreciation for the complexity of the human
experience and being able to understand the behavior
of others gives us a greater sense of control over our
lives and makes the world more predictable and less
threatening
THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF PERSONALITY

Scientific approach is the most effective way to gather
accurate information about personality functioning.
A theory is a set of related assumptions that allow
scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to
formulate testable hypotheses.
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NOTES:
THEORY AND ITS RELATIVES
Philosophy—the love of wisdom—is a broader term

than theory, but one branch of philosophy.
Epistemology—relates to the nature of knowledge,
and theories are used by scientists in pursuit of
knowledge.
Speculation — must be based on the controlled
observations of scientists.
Science — the branch of study concerned with
observation and classification of data and with the
verification of general laws.
Theory — more general than a hypothesis and may
generate a multitude of hypotheses, that is, educated
guesses.
Taxonomy — a classification system, and
classification is necessary to science.
Postulates — fundamental or core assumptions of a
theory that are taken as self-evidently true
Propositions — general relational statements that
may be true or false; not tested directly but used to
derive hypotheses
Conceptual definitions — concepts in the hypotheses
are defined precisely so that accurate measures of the
concepts can be devised
Operational definitions — procedures (or operations)
used to define particular constructs
Replication— duplication or repetition of an
experiment or study to determine whether or not the
original findings are reliable
BUILDING SCIENTIFIC THEORIES

• Inductive theories:
• Created from a solid database of empirical
observations
• Theoretical summary statements of observed
relationships among events containing a
minimum of deductive logic
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NOTES:
• Deductive theories:
• Can be precisely stated and tested
• Hypotheses are created as tentative answers to
problems
• Consist of postulates and a set of interrelated
and internally consistent propositions
WHY DIFFERENT THEORIES?

They have differed in their personal background,
their philosophical orientation, and the data they
chose to observe.
TESTING THE THEORIES: RESEARCH METHODS
• Three major methods of empirical testing:

• Experimental method
• Correlational techniques
• Case studies
Experimental Method
It is a technique for studying cause-and-effect
relationships between variables; involves manipulation
of independent variables and observation of these
effects on dependent variables.
• Independent variables - variables actively

manipulated by the experimenter so that their
effects on individual behavior can be observed
• Dependent variables - changes in behavior
that occur as a result of the manipulation of
conditions by an experimenter
• Experimental group - group of study
participants who experience the intentional
alteration of factors in an experiment
• Control group - group that does not receive
the experimental treatment; provides baseline
data against which the effects of the
experimental manipulation on the dependent
variable can be accurately judged
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NOTES:
Experimental method cont…
• Informed consent - practice of telling study
participants about the nature of their participation in
a proposed experiment and then obtaining their
written agreement to participate
• Debriefing - informing study participants of the true
nature and purpose of a study after it is completed
Correlational Method
• It is a general procedure for establishing an

association or relationship between events.
• Correlational coefficient - numerical index of the
size and direction of an association between two
variables
• Positive correlation - increases in the scores on
one variable are associated with increases in
the scores on the other variable
• Negative correlation - increases in the scores
on one variable are associated with decreases
in the scores on the other
• No association between two variables means
that the scores on both variables are unrelated
to one another
• Size of a correlation indicates degree of
relationship between two variables
Case-Study Method
• It is a technique involving the intensive study of a

single person in order to understand his or her
unique personality and behavior.
• Data is often impossible to apply to people in
general; lacks the systematic control of
variables inherent in laboratory experiments
• Serendipitous findings may lead to new
testable hypotheses and research, and the
development of more adequate theory
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NOTES:
TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 ERRORS IN
RESEARCH
TRUE FALSE
POSITIVE TRUE FALSE

POSITIVE POSITIVE
NEGATIVE TRUE FALSE
NEGATIVE NEGATIVE
• True positives – Hits; see the presence

• False positives – ‘false alarms’ ; identify presence
of actual absence
• False negatives – Misses; fails to see the target
• True negative – Correct rejection; correctly see the
absence of target
SUBSTITUTE THE ERRORS TO SEE ITS APPLICATION

IN REALITY,
TRUE FALSE
POSITIVE CORRECT TYPE I ERROR
NEGATIVE TYPE II ERROR CORRECT
CONFLUENT LEARNING CAREER DEVELOPMENT INC. Page #

NOTES:
WHAT MAKES A THEORY USEFUL?
A useful theory:
(1) generates research, both descriptive and
hypothesis testing
(2) is falsifiable; that is, it must generate research that
can either confirm or disconfirm its major tenets
(3) organizes and explains data into some intelligible
framework
(4) guides action; that is, it provides the practitioner
with a road map for making day-to-day decisions
(5) is internally consistent and relies on operational
definitions that define concepts in terms of specific
operations
(6) is parsimonious, or simple.
DIMENSIONS FOR A CONCEPT OF

HUMANITY
• DETERMINISM versus FREE CHOICE
• PESSIMISM versus OPTIMISM
• CAUSALITY versus TELEOLOGY
• CONSCIOUS versus UNCONSCIOUS
• DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR
• BIOLOGICAL versus SOCIAL INFLUENCES
• UNIQUENESS versus SIMILARITIES
RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY
Personality theories, like other theories, are based on
systematic research that allows for the prediction
of events. In researching human behavior, personality
theorists often use various measuring procedures,
which must be both reliable and valid. Reliability
refers to a measuring instrument's consistency and
includes test-retest reliability and internal consistency.
Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of test
and includes predictive validity and construct validity.
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NOTES:
STUDYING PERSONALITY REQUIRES LOTS OF
DATA.
• L-data (Life Record Data), consist of information that
can be obtained from a person’s life history. or life
record.
• O-Data (Observer Data), consist of information
provided by knowledgeable observers such as
parents, friends, or teachers. Generally such
persons are provided with a questionnaire or other
rating form with which they rate the target
individual’s personality characteristics.
• T-Data (Test Data), consist of information obtained
from experimental procedures in which researchers
measure people’s performance on tasks.
• S-Data (Self-Report Data) is information that
participants report about themselves.
SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ASSESSING

PERSONALITY (Tria & LImpingco, 2007)
Assessing personality is more difficult than providing

objective test because of the following reasons:
Disagreement regarding the components of personality.
The tendency to fake responses so as to present
oneself in a more favorable light.
COMMON METHODS OF ASSESSING

PERSONALITY (Tria & LImpingco, 2007)
Objective Test – self-rating test or the Inventory test to
be answered with yes or no and true or false.
• Behavioral Method (Conscious Manifestation)
• Interview
• Life history method
Projective Technique (unconscious Manifestation)
• Word Association Test
• Sack Sentence Completion
• Thematic Apperception Test
• Rorschach Inkblot Test
• Expressive Technique such as drawing (DAP) and
toy test (dolls and puppets)
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NOTES:
PSYCHOANALYSIS
OVERVIEW
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis has endured because
it:
(1) postulated the primacy of sex and aggression—two
universally popular themes,
(2) attracted a group of followers who were dedicated
to spreading psychoanalytic doctrine, and
(3) advanced the notion of unconscious motives, which
permit varying explanations for the same observations.
SIGMUND FREUD
He was born in the Freiberg, Moravia in 1856, Sigmund
Freud spent most of his life in Vienna. Early in his
professional career, Freud believed that hysteria was a
result of being seduced during childhood by a sexually
mature person, often a parent or other relative. In
1897, however, Freud abandoned his seduction theory
and replaced it with his notion of the Oedipus complex,
a concept that remained the center of his
psychoanalytic theory. Near the end of his life and to
escape Nazi rule, Freud moved to London where he
died in 1939.
BASIC TENET
Human personality and behavior are powerfully shaped
by early childhood relationships. They believed that
humans are primarily pleasure-seeking creature
dominated by sexual and aggressive impulses.
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LEVELS OF MENTAL LIFE
Freud saw mental functioning as operating on three

levels—unconscious, preconscious, and conscious.
A. Unconscious
The unconscious includes drives and instincts that are
beyond awareness but that motivate most human
behaviors. Freud believed that unconscious drives can
become conscious only in disguised or distorted form,
such as dream images, slips of the tongue, or neurotic
symptoms. Unconscious processes originate from two
sources:
(1) Repression, or the blocking out of anxiety-filled
experiences and
(2) Phylogenetic endowment, or inherited experiences
that lie beyond an individual's personal experience.
B. Preconscious
The preconscious contains images that are not in
awareness but that can become conscious either quite
easily or with some level of difficulty.
C. Conscious
Consciousness plays a relatively plays a minor role in
Freudian theory. Conscious ideas stem from either the
perception of external stimuli (our perceptual conscious
system) or from the unconscious and preconscious after
they have evaded censorship.
THE ROLE OF CONSCIOUS, PRECONSCIOUS, AND

UNCONSCIOUS FORCES IN PERSONALITY
• Conscious: state of the mind characterized by
awareness of one’s experiences
• Preconscious: state of the mind in which the person is
currently unaware of some idea, memory, or event,
which can, however, be made conscious with some
effort
• Unconscious: depository of hidden wishes, needs,
and conflicts of which the person is unaware
NOTES:
INSTINCTS: THE DRIVING FORCES IN

PERSONALITY
It was derived from the German Trieb, meaning drive or
impulse; refers to an internal stimulus that impels action
or thought. The two primary instincts are sex and
aggression (will be discuss later in this module). It has
four basic characteristics:
• A source in some bodily deficit
• An aim that focuses on the gratification of the
need
• An impetus that propels the person to act
• An object through which the instinct achieves its
aim
PROVINCES OF THE MIND
Freud conceptualized three regions of the mind—the
id, the ego, and the superego.
A. The Id - is completely unconscious, serves the
pleasure principle and contains our basic instincts. It
operates through the primary process.
B. The Ego – it is a secondary process, and is
governed by the reality principle and is responsible for
reconciling the unrealistic demands of the id and the
superego.
C. The Superego – it serves the idealistic principle,
has two subsystems—the conscience and the ego-ideal.
The conscience results from punishment for improper
behavior whereas
The ego-ideal stems from rewards for socially
acceptable behavior.
Image from Feist & Feist, 2009
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NOTES:
DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY
Dynamics of personality refers to those forces that
motivate people.
A. Instincts
Freud grouped all human drives or urges under two
primary instincts—
• Sex (Eros or the life instinct). The aim of the
sexual instinct is pleasure, which can be gained
through the: Erogenous zones, especially the
mouth, anus, and genitals. The object of the sexual
instinct is any person or thing that brings sexual
pleasure. All infants possess primary narcissism,
or self-centeredness, but the secondary narcissism
of adolescence and adulthood is not universal. Both
sadism (receiving sexual pleasure from inflicting
pain on another) and masochism (receiving sexual
pleasure from painful experiences) satisfy both
sexual and aggressive drives.
• Aggression (the death or destructive instinct).
The destructive instinct aims to return a person to an
inorganic state, but it is ordinarily directed against
other people and is called aggression.
B. Anxiety
Only the ego feels anxiety, but the id, superego, and
outside world can each be a source of anxiety.
• Neurotic anxiety stems from the ego's relation with
the id;
• Moral anxiety is similar to guilt and results from the
ego's relation with the superego; and
• Realistic anxiety, which is similar to fear, is
produced by the ego's relation with the real world.
NOTE: There are two ways to approach anxiety:

1. Fight or flight response.
2. Distortion of reality through the use of defense
mechanisms.
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NOTES:
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Defense mechanisms operate to protect the ego
against the pain of anxiety.
Repression
It involves forcing unwanted, anxiety-loaded
experiences into the unconscious. It is the most basic
of all defense mechanisms because it is an active
process in each of the others.
Reaction Formation
It is marked by the repression of one impulse and the
ostentatious expression of its exact opposite.
Displacement
It takes place when people redirect their unwanted
urges onto other objects or people in order to disguise
the original impulse.
Fixation
Fixations develop when psychic energy is blocked at
one stage of development, making psychological
change difficult. Some adults may remain fixated on
the anal stage of psychosexual development.
Regression
It occur whenever a person reverts to earlier, more
infantile modes of behavior. Some adults may return to
the oral stage as a means of reducing anxiety.
Projection
Projection is seeing in others those unacceptable
feelings or behaviors that actually reside in one's own
unconscious. When carried to extreme, projection can
become paranoia, which is characterized by delusions
of persecution.
Introjection
Introjections take place when people incorporate
positive qualities of another person into their own ego
to reduce feelings of inferiority.
Sublimation
Sublimations involve the elevation of the sexual
instinct's aim to a higher level, which permits people to
make contributions to society and culture.
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NOTES:
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
A. Infantile Period
The infantile stage encompasses the first 4 to 5 years
of life and is divided into three sub phases: oral, anal,
and phallic.
Oral, first pregenital stage of psychosexual
development in which primary gratifications center
around the mouth
Anal, second pregenital stage of psychosexual
development in which primary gratification centers
around the anal cavity
Phallic, third pregenital stage of psychosexual
development in which main gratifications are derived
from manipulation of the genitals
• Oedipal complex: male child desires sexual
contact with the mother, feels threatened by the
father, and eventually resolves the conflict by
identifying with the father
• Identification: taking on the characteristics of
another person as a means of relieving
anxieties
B. Latency Period
Freud believed that psychosexual development goes
through a latency stage—from about age 5 years until
puberty—in which the sexual instinct is partially
suppressed or inactive.
C. Genital Period
The genital period begins with puberty when
adolescents experience a reawakening of the genital
aim of Eros. The term "genital period" should not be
confused with "phallic period."
D. Maturity
Freud hinted at a stage of psychological maturity in
which the ego would be in control of the id and
superego and in which consciousness would play a
more important role in behavior.
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NOTES:
CHARACTER TYPES
Oral character
Oral receptive character: an individual who becomes
fixated because of overindulgence during feeding
As an adult, this person is characterized by
gullibility, admiration for others, and excessive
dependence
Oral aggressive character: an individual who
becomes fixated because of under indulgence during
feeding
envy, manipulation of others, and
suspiciousness
Anal character
Anal eroticism: feelings of sexual pleasure that have
their source in the person’s control over expulsion and
retention of feces
Stems from difficulties during toilet training,
when children are locked in a battle over power and
control with their parents
Anal character: an individual fixated at the anal stage,
who derives pleasure from his/her control over
retention of feces.
stinginess, orderliness, stubbornness, and the hoarding
of possessions
Phallic character
An individual fixated at the phallic stage who, later in
life, needs to prove continually his or her sexual
adequacy.
Genital character
It is a mature, healthy individual who is sexually
developed and capable of relating to members of the
other sex

NOTES:
ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES
Beginning in the late 1890s, Freud adopted a much
more passive type of psychotherapy, one that relied
heavily on free association, dream interpretation,
and transference. The goal of Freud's later
psychotherapy was to uncover repressed memories.
• Free association: technique in which the therapist
encourages patients to report, without restriction,
any thoughts that occur to them.
• Parapraxes: malfunction in language, such as a
slip of the tongue, a bungled word, misreading,
mishearing, or forgetting words or things, which
indicates the presence of underlying conflicts
• Dream analysis: procedure used to probe the
unconscious through interpretation of the patient’s
dreams.
• Manifest content, conscious description.
• Latent content, the unconscious meaning.
Transference: feelings presumed to have originally
directed toward the parent(s) are now directed toward
the therapist.
• Positive transference: patient redirects toward
the therapist unconscious feelings of love and
affection retained from experiences with
authority figures
• Countertransference: tendency of the
therapist to react with personal feelings toward
the patient on the basis of the therapist’s own
needs and conflicts
• Negative transference: patient redirects
toward the therapist unconscious feelings of
anger and hostility retained from experiences
with authority figures

NOTES:
ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
CARL JUNG
Carl Jung was born in Switzerland in 1875, the oldest
by about 9 years of two surviving children. Jung's
father was an idealistic Protestant minister and his
mother was a strict believer in mysticism and the
occult. Jung's early experience with parents who were
quite opposite of each other probably influenced his
own theory of personality, including his fanciful No. 1
and Number 2 personalities. Soon after receiving his
medical degree he became acquainted with Freud's
writings and eventually with Freud himself. Not long
after he traveled with Freud to the United States, Jung
became disenchanted with Freud's pansexual theories,
broke with Freud, and began his own approach to
theory and therapy, which he called analytical
psychology. From a critical midlife crisis during which
he nearly lost contact with reality, Jung emerged to
become one of the leading thinkers of the 20th century.
He died in 1961 at age 85.
BASIC TENET
He saw people as extremely complex beings who are a
product of both conscious and unconscious personal
experiences. However, people are also motivated by
inherited remnants that spring from the collective
experiences of their early ancestors.
LIBIDO
It is the creative life force that could be applied to the
continuous psychological growth of the person.
PSYCHE
It is a construct to represent all of the interacting
systems within human personality that are needed to
account for the mental life and behavior of the person.
LEVELS OF THE PSYCHE

Jung saw the human psyche as being divided into a
conscious and an unconscious level, with the latter
further subdivided into a personal unconscious and a
collective unconscious.

NOTES:
A. Conscious
Images sensed by the ego are said to be conscious.
The ego thus represents the conscious side of
personality, and in the psychologically mature
individual, the ego is secondary to the self.
B. Personal Unconscious
The unconscious refers to those psychic images not
sensed by the ego. Some unconscious processes flow
from our personal experiences, but others stem from
our ancestors' experiences with universal themes.
Jung divided the unconscious into the personal
unconscious, which contains the complexes
(emotionally toned groups of related ideas) and the
collective unconscious, which includes various
archetypes.
C. Collective Unconscious
Collective unconscious images are those that are
beyond our personal experiences and that originate
from the repeated experiences of our ancestors.
Collective unconscious images are not inherited ideas,
but rather they refer to our innate tendency to react in a
particular way whenever our personal experiences
stimulate an inherited predisposition toward action.
D. Archetypes
Contents of the collective unconscious are called
archetypes. Jung believed that archetypes originate
through the repeated experiences of our ancestors and
that they are expressed in certain types of dreams,
fantasies, delusions, and hallucinations. Several
archetypes acquire their own personality, and Jung
identified these by name.
• Persona: role human beings play in order to

meet the demands of others
• Shadow: inferior, evil, and repulsive side of
human nature
• Anima: feminine archetype in men, including
both positive and negative characteristics of the
transpersonal female
• Animus: masculine archetype in woman,
including both positive and negative
characteristics of the transpersonal male.

NOTES:
• Great Mother, archetype for fertility and
destruction
• Wise Old Man, intelligent but deceptive voice
of accumulated experience.
• Hero, unconscious image of a person who
conquers an evil who also has a tragic flaw.
• Self, completion, wholeness, and perfection.
NOTE: It was Carl Jung who first studied self-

actualization.
SELF
It is an archetype that leads people to search for ways
of maximizing the development of their multifaceted
potentials
• Transcendent function: process by which a
conflict is resolved by bringing opposing forces
into balance with each other through
understanding
• Mandala: symbolic representation of the self;
multifaceted, balanced, and harmonious
DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

Jung believed that the dynamic principles that apply to
physical energy also apply to psychic energy. These
forces include causality and teleology as well as
progression and regression.
A. Causality and Teleology
Jung accepted a middle position between the
philosophical issues of causality and teleology. In
other words, humans are motivated both by their past
experiences and by their expectations of the future.
B. Progression and Regression
To achieve self-realization people must adapt to both
their external and their internal worlds. Progression
involves adaptation to the outside world and the
forward flow of psychic energy, whereas regression
refers to adaptation to the inner world and the
backward flow of psychic energy. Jung believed that
the backward step is essential to a person's forward
movement toward self-realization.

NOTES:
PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES
Attitude is a predisposition to act or react in a
characteristic direction.
FUNDAMENTAL ATTITUDES
• Extraversion: characterized by an outgoing

and relatively confident approach to life
• Introversion: characterized by a retiring and
reflective approach to life
FOUR FUNCTIONS:
• Sensing: initial, concrete experiencing of
phenomena without the use of reason
• Thinking: helps us understand events through
the use of reason and logic
• Feeling: evaluation of events by judging
whether they are good or bad, acceptable, or
unacceptable
• Intuiting: relying on hunches when dealing with
strange situations that have no established
facts
NOTE:
• Rational functions: modes of making judgments or
evaluations of events in the world. (thinking and
feeling)
• Irrational functions: modes of apprehending the
world without evaluating it. (sensation and intuition)
Theory of psychological types: people classified into
eight types on the basis of a combination of attitudes
and functions
• Extraverted thinking type: characterized
in a positively by an ability to organize
masses of facts into a coherent theory, and
in negatively by a selfish and exploitative
attitude toward others
• Introverted thinking type: characterized
positively by imagination and an ability to
think originally and boldly, and negatively by
social ineptness
• Extraverted feeling type: characterized
positively by an acceptance of the
standards of society, and negatively by a
change in emotions from situation to
situation

NOTES:
• Introverted feeling type: characterized
positively by intense feelings of sympathy for
others who have experienced misfortune, and
negatively by shyness and inaccessibility
• Extraverted sensing type: characterized
positively by an appreciation for the arts, and
negatively by crude pleasure seeking
• Introverted sensing type: characterized
positively by the intensity of subjective
sensations, and negatively by oversensitivity
and obtuseness
• Extraverted intuitive type: characterized
positively by a quick grasp of the creative
possibilities in various ventures, and negatively
by impatience and flightiness
• Introverted intuitive type: characterized
positively by the ability to envision the future,
and negatively by an inability to communicate
effectively with others
DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
Jung divided development into four broad stages:
(1) childhood, which lasts from birth until adolescence;
(2) youth, the period from puberty until middle life,
which is a time for extraverted development and for
being grounded to the real world of schooling,
occupation, courtship, marriage, and family;
(3) middle life, from about 35 or 40 until old age and a
time when people should be adopting an
introverted, or subjective attitude;
(4) old age, which is a time for psychological rebirth,
self-realization, and preparation for death.
SELF-REALIZATION
Self-realization, or individuation, involves a
psychological rebirth and an integration of various parts
of the psyche into a unified or whole individual. Self-
realization represents the highest level of human
development.

NOTES:
Word Association Test

The technique requires a patient to utter the first word
that comes to mind after the examiner reads a stimulus
word. Unusual responses indicate a complex; that, an
element from the personal unconscious.
Dream Analysis
Jung believed that dreams may have both a cause and
a purpose and thus can be useful in explaining past
events and in making decisions about the future. "Big
dreams" and "typical dreams," both of which come from
the collective unconscious, have meanings that lie
beyond the experiences of a single individual.
Active Imagination
Jung also used active imagination to arrive at collective
images. This technique requires the patient to
concentrate on a single image until that image begins
to appear in a different form. Eventually, the patient
should see figures that represent archetypes and other
collective unconscious images.
Painting therapy
A technique used to help patients clarify the various
symbols seen in their dreams and increase their
understanding of themselves.
RECENT RESEARCH
Some investigators have used the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator to study the idea of psychological types.

NOTES:
INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
OVERVIEW
He was an original member of Freud's psychoanalytic
group, but he never saw himself as a disciple or a
follower of Freud. If fact, throughout his life he carried
with him the note Freud had sent to him proposing the
establishment of an organization of physicians. Adler
saw the invitation as Freud's recognition of Adler as an
equal. After Adler broke from that group, he built a
theory of personality that was nearly diametrically
opposed to that of Freud. Whereas Freud's view of
humanity was pessimistic and rooted in biology, Adler's
view was optimistic, idealistic, and rooted in family
experiences.
ALFRED ADLER
Alfred Adler was born in 1870 in a Viennese suburb, a

second son of middle-class Jewish parents. Like Freud,
Adler was a physician, and in 1902, he became a
charter member of Freud's organization. However,
personal and professional differences between the two
men led to Adler's departure from the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society in 1911. Adler soon founded
his own group, the Society for Individual Psychology.
Adler's strengths were his energetic oral presentations
and his insightful ability to understand family dynamics.
He was not a gifted writer, a limitation that may have
prevented him from attaining world recognition equal to
that of Freud.

NOTES:
THE BASIC TENET OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
• The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is
the striving for successor superiority.
• People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior
and personality.
• Personality is unified and self-consistent.
• The value of all human activity must be seen from
the viewpoint of social interest.
• The self-consistent personality structure develops
into a person’s style of life.
• Style of life is molded by people’s creative power.
STRIVING FOR SUCCESS OR SUPERIORITY

The sole dynamic force behind people's actions is the
striving for success or superiority.
A. The Final Goal
The final goal of success or superiority toward which all
people strive unifies personality and makes all behavior
meaningful.
B. The Striving Force as Compensation
Because people are born with small, inferior bodies,
they feel inferior and attempt to overcome these
feelings through their natural tendency to move toward
completion. The striving force can take one of two
courses—personal gain (superiority) or community
benefit (success).
C. Striving for Personal Superiority
Psychologically unhealthy individuals strive for personal
superiority with little concern for other people. Although
they may appear to be interested in other people, their
basic motivation is personal benefit.
D. Striving for Success
In contrast, psychologically healthy people strive for the
success of all humanity, but they do so without losing
their personal identity.

NOTES:
SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS
People's subjective view of the world—not reality—
shapes their behavior.
A. Fictionalism
Fictions are people's expectations of the future. Adler
held that fictions guide behavior, because people act as
if these fictions are true. Adler emphasized teleology
over causality, or explanations of behavior in terms of
future goals rather than past causes.
B. Physical Inferiorities
Adler believed that all humans are "blessed" with
physical inferiorities, which stimulate subjective feelings
of inferiority and move people toward perfection or
completion.
UNITY AND SELF-CONSISTENCY OF

PERSONALITY
Adler believed that all behaviors are directed toward a
single purpose. When seen in the light of that sole
purpose, seemingly contradictory behaviors can be
seen as operating in a self-consistent manner.
A. Organ Dialect
People often use a physical disorder to express style of
life, a condition Adler called organ dialect, or organ
jargon.
B. Conscious and Unconscious

Conscious and unconscious processes are unified and
operate to achieve a single goal. The part of our goal
that is not clearly understood is unconscious; that part
of our goal we fail to fully comprehend is conscious.
SOCIAL INTEREST
Human behavior has value to the extent that it is
motivated by social interest, that is, a feeling of
oneness with all of humanity.
A. Origins of Social Interest
Although social interest exists as potentiality in all
people, it must be fostered in a social environment.
Adler believed that the parent-child relationship can be
so strong that it negates the effects of heredity.

NOTES:
B. Importance of Social Interest
According to Adler, social interest is "the sole criterion
of human values," and the worthiness of all one's
actions must be seen by this standard. Without social
interest, societies could not exist; individuals in
antiquity could not have survived without cooperating
with others to protect themselves from danger. Even
today an infant's helplessness predisposes it toward a
nurturing person.
STYLE OF LIFE
The manner of a person's striving is called style of life,
a pattern that is relatively well set by 4 or 5 years of
age. However, Adler believed that healthy individuals
are marked by flexible behavior and that they have
some limited ability to change their style of life.
CREATIVE POWER
Style of life is partially a product of heredity and
environment—the building blocks of personality—but
ultimately style of life is shaped by people's creative
power, that is, by their ability to freely choose a course
of action.
ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT
Creative power is not limited to healthy people;
unhealthy individuals also create their own
personalities. Thus, each of us is free to choose either
a useful or a useless style of life.
A. General Description
The most important factor in abnormal development is
lack of social interest. In addition, people with a
useless style of life tend to (1) set their goals too
high, (2) have a dogmatic style of life, and (3) live in
their own private world.
B. External Factors in Maladjustment
Adler listed three factors that relate to abnormal
development: (1) exaggerated physical defects,
which do not by themselves cause abnormal
development, but which may contribute to it by
generating subjective and exaggerated feelings of
inferiority; (2) a pampered style of life, which
contributes to an overriding drive to establish a
permanent parasitic relationship with the mother or a
mother substitute; and (3) a neglected style of life,
which leads to distrust of other people.

NOTES:
C. Safeguarding Tendencies
Both normal and neurotic people create symptoms as a
means of protecting their fragile self-esteem. These
safeguarding tendencies maintain a neurotic life style
and protect a person from public disgrace. The three
principal safeguarding tendencies are (1) excuses,
which allow people to preserve their inflated sense of
personal worth; (2) aggression, which may take the
form of depreciating others' accomplishments,
accusing others of being responsible for one's own
failures, or self-accusation; and (3) withdrawal, which
can be expressed by psychologically moving
backward, standing still, hesitating, or constructing
obstacles
D. Masculine Protest
Both men and women sometimes overemphasize the
desirability of being manly, a condition Adler called the
masculine protest. The frequently found inferior
status of women is not based on physiology but on
historical developments and social learning. Boys are
often taught early that being masculine means being
courageous, strong, and dominant. The ultimate
accomplishment for boys is to win, to be powerful, to be
on top. In contrast, girls often learn to be passive and
to accept an inferior position in society. In contrast to
Adler's more democratic attitude, Freud believed that
anatomy is destiny and that women occupy the 'dark
continent" of psychology. Near the end of his life,
Freud was still asking what women wanted. According
to Adler, Freud's attitudes toward women would be
evidence of a person with a strong masculine protest.
In contrast to Freud's views on women, Adler assumed
that women—because they have the same
physiological and psychological needs as men—want
more or less the same things that men want.
FOUR MAJOR LIFESTYLE TYPES
• Ruling type: person who strives for personal

superiority by trying to exploit and control others
• Getting type: person who attains personal
goals by relying indiscriminately on others for
help
• Avoiding type: person who lacks the
confidence to confront problems and avoids or
ignores them
• Socially useful type: person who actively and
courageously confronts and solves his or her
problems in accordance with social interest

NOTES:
THREE DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS OF LIFE:
• Society or communal life: we must learn to

affirm our fundamental connections to others
• Work: people need to learn how to do things, to
take responsibility for their actions, and to
contribute to society through work
• Love: people must treat their loved ones with
respect and dignity
1. Family Constellation
Adler believed that people's perception of how they fit
into their family is related to their style of life. He
claimed that firstborns are likely to have strong feelings
of power and superiority, to be overprotective, and to
have more than their share of anxiety. Secondborn
children (such as Adler) are likely to have strong social
interest, provided they do not get trapped trying to
overcome their older sibling. Youngest children are
likely to be pampered and to lack independence,
whereas only children have some of the characteristics
of both the oldest and the youngest child.
2 .Early Recollections
A more reliable method of determining style of life is to
ask people for their earliest recollections. Adler
believed that early memories are templates on which
people project their current style of life. These
recollections need not be accurate accounts of early
event, but true or false, they have psychological
importance because they reflect a person's current
view of the world.
3. Dreams
Adler believed that dreams can provide clues to solving
future problems. However, dreams are disguised to
deceive the dreamer and usually must be interpreted
by another person.

PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
NOTES:
OVERVIEW
Karen Horney's psychoanalytic social theory, assumes
that social and cultural conditions, especially during
childhood, have a powerful effect on later personality.
Like Melanie Klein, Horney accepted many of Freud's
observations, but she objected to most of his
interpretations, including his notions on feminine
psychology.
KAREN HORNEY
She was born in Germany in 1885 and she was one of
the first women in that country admitted to medical
school. There, she became acquainted with Freudian
theory and eventually became a psychoanalyst and a
psychiatrist. In her mid-40s, Horney left Germany to
settle in the United States, first in Chicago and then in
New York. She soon abandoned orthodox
psychoanalysis in favor of a more socially oriented
theory—one that had a more positive view of feminine
development. She died in 1952 at age 67.
INTRODUCTION TO HORNEY'S PSYCHOANALYTIC

SOCIAL THEORY
Although Horney's writings deal mostly with what she
called neuroses and neurotic personalities, her theories
are also appropriate to normal development. She
agreed with Freud that early childhood traumas are
important, but she placed far more emphasis on social
factors.
A. Horney and Freud Compared
Horney criticized Freudian theory on at least three
accounts: (1) its rigidity toward new ideas, (2) its
skewed view of feminine psychology, and (3) its
overemphasis on biology and the pleasure principle.

NOTES:
B. THE IMPACT OF CULTURE
Horney insisted that modern culture is too competitive
and that competition leads to hostility and feelings of
isolation. These conditions lead to exaggerated needs
for affection and cause people to overvalue love.
C.THE IMPORTANCE OF CHILDHOOD

EXPERIENCES
Neurotic conflict stems largely from childhood traumas,
most of which are traced to a lack of genuine love.
Children who do not receive genuine affection feel
threatened and adopt rigid behavioral patterns in an
attempt to gain love.
BASIC HOSTILITY AND BASIC ANXIETY

All children need feelings of safety and security, but
these can be gained only by love from parents.
Unfortunately, parents often neglect, dominate, reject,
or overindulge their children, conditions that lead to the
child's feelings of basic hostility toward parents. If
children repress basic hostility, they will develop
feelings of insecurity and a pervasive sense of
apprehension called basic anxiety. People can
protect themselves from basic anxiety by (1) affection,
(2) submissiveness, (3) power or prestige, and (4)
withdrawal. Normal people have the flexibility to use
any or all of these approaches, but neurotics are
compelled to rely rigidly on only one.
COMPULSIVE DRIVES
Neurotic individuals are frequently trapped in a vicious
circle in which their compulsive need to reduce basic
anxiety leads to a variety of self-defeating behaviors;
these behaviors then produce more basic anxiety, and
the circle continues.
A. Neurotic Needs
Horney identified 10 neurotic needs that mark neurotic
people in their attempt to reduce basic anxiety. These
include (1) needs for affection and approval, (2) needs
for a partner (3) needs to restrict one's life within
narrow borders, (4) needs for power, (5) needs to
exploit others, (6) needs for social recognition or
prestige, (7) needs for personal admiration, (8) needs
for ambition and personal achievement, (9) needs for
self-sufficiency and independence, and (10) needs for
perfection and unassailability.

NOTES:
B. Neurotic Trends
Later, Horney grouped these 10 neurotic needs into
three basic neurotic trends; (1) moving toward
people, (2) moving against people, and (3) moving
away from people. Each of these trends can apply to
both normal and neurotic individuals in their attempt to
solve basic conflict. However, whereas neurotic
people are compelled to follow only one neurotic trend,
normal individuals are sufficiently flexible to adopt all
three. People who move neurotically toward others
adopt a compliant attitude in order to protect
themselves against feelings of helplessness; people
who move against others do so through aggressive
behaviors that protect them against perceived hostility
from others; and people who move away from others
do so in a detached manner that protects them
against feelings of isolation by appearing arrogant and
aloof.
ADJUSTMENT NEUROTIC NEEDS PERSONALITY

TECHNIQUES TYPE
Moving Towards Neurotic need for affection and Compliant Type
People approval - the individual
Neurotic need for a partner who wants to be
“If I give in, I shall not will run one’s life liked, wanted,
be hurt” Neurotic need to live within desired, loved,
narrow limits accepted and
approved but is
basically hostile
Moving Against People Neurotic need for power Hostile Type
Neurotic need to exploit others - capable of
“if I have power, none Neurotic need for social acting polite and
will hurt me” recognition friendly but is
Neurotic need for personal used as means
admiration to an end;
Neurotic need for ambition and friendliness is
personal achievement superficial and is
based on
repressed
aggressiveness
Moving Away from Neurotic need for self- Detached Type
People sufficiency and independence
“If I withdraw nothing Neurotic need for perfection and
can hurt me” unavailability

NOTES:
INTRAPSYCHIC CONFLICTS
People also experience inner tensions or intrapsychic
conflicts that become part of their belief systems and
take on lives of their own, separate from the
interpersonal conflicts that created them.
A. The Idealized Self-Image
People who do not receive love and affection during
childhood are blocked in heir attempt to acquire a
stable sense of identity. Feeling alienated from self,
they create an idealized self-image, or an
extravagantly positive picture of themselves. Horney
recognized three aspects of the idealized self-image:(1)
the neurotic search for glory, or a comprehensive
drive toward actualizing the ideal self; (2) neurotic
claims, or a belief that they are entitled to special
privileges; and (3) neurotic pride, or a false pride
based not on reality but on a distorted and idealized
view of self.
B. Self-Hatred
Neurotic individuals dislike themselves because reality
always falls short of their idealized view of self.
Therefore, they learn self-hatred, which can be
expressed as: (1) relentless demands on self, (2)
merciless self-accusation, (3) self-contempt, (4) self-
frustration, (5) self-torment or self-torture, and (6) self-
destructive actions and impulses.
For neurotic people, it is a wish instead of reality,
unrealistic immutable dream.
“Tyranny of the Should”
• Are unrealistic and absolute
• “Rigid shoulds” cause self-hatred
When life is directed to unrealistic ideal self-image, one
is driven by what “should be” rather than by what it is.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NORMAL AND NEUROTIC
For neurotic individuals one trend (compliant,
aggressive, or detached) predominates
• The gratification of the associated needs is
pursued relentlessly and endlessly
• The other two trends and their associated
needs are repressed

NOTES:
Hypercompetitiveness: A Major Form of Neurotic
Competitiveness
Hypercompetitiveness: indiscriminate need to win at
all costs in order to feel superior
Hypercompetitive parents tend to treat their children
poorly, giving rise to neurosis
Traits of hypercompetitive:
Hostile
Dogmatic
Arrogant
Aggressive
Derisive toward others
Note: They have the tendency to cheat, lie, and
plagiarize.
Competition Avoidance: The Other Major Form of

Neurotic Competitiveness
Competition avoidance: need to check ruthless
ambition and excessive competitive strivings because
of extreme fear of losing the affection and approval of
others due to success or failure in competition
Competition avoiders:
Minimize their chances for success by belittling
themselves
Feel embarrassed or humiliated by competitive defeat
Engage in self-handicapping: giving plausible
excuses for poor performance in order to protect one’s
self-esteem
Personal Development Competitiveness:
Competing in a Psychologically Healthy Way
Personal development competitiveness: an attitude
in which the primary focus is not primarily on the
outcome (i.e., winning), but rather more on the
enjoyment and mastery of the task
• Individuals are more concerned with self-
discovery, self-improvement, and task mastery
than with comparisons with others
Personal development competitors want strongly to
win and be successful, but not at the expense of other
people

NOTES:
SECONDARY ADJUSTMENT TECHNIQUES
Blind Spots
• denying or ignoring certain aspects of an experience
because they are not in accordance with one’s
idealized self-image
• compatible with Freud’s notion of repression
• they allow a person to maintain the consistency of
one’s self-image by ignoring experiences not
compatible with it
Compartmentalization
• dividing one’s life into various compartments with
different rules applying to them
Rationalization
• good reasons to excuse conduct that are otherwise
anxiety provoking of emotion
Excessive Self-control
• guarding against anxiety by controlling an expression
• similar to neurotic need to live a life with narrow
limits
Externalization
• feeling that all of the major influences in life are
external to one’s self
• the person does not feel responsible for himself or
his actions
• same with projection
Arbitrary rightness
• when an issue arises that have no clear solution, the
person arbitrarily chooses one solution, thereby
ending in debate
Elusiveness
• never making a decision about anything so that he or
she can never be proven wrong and criticized or
ridiculed by others
Cynicism
• does not believe in anything so that he or she cannot
be hurt or disappointed by others

NOTES:
Free association
• Interpretation different from Freud's
Dream analysis
• Interpretation different from Freud's
Relationship between analyst and patient
• More honesty with patients
• Active and directive in offering suggestions
Goal: To create a realistic relationship between the real
self and the ideal self; to make clients accept
themselves for what they really are and thus develop
realistic goals for the future.

NOTES:
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS
OVERVIEW
Sees people from the perspective of psychology,
history, and anthropology. Influenced by Freud and
Horney, Fromm developed a more culturally oriented
theory than Freud and a much broader theory than
Horney.
ERICH FROMM
Erich Fromm was born in Germany in 1900, the only
child of orthodox Jewish parents. A thoughtful young
man, Fromm was influenced by the bible, Freud, and
Marx, as well as by socialist ideology. After receiving
his PhD, Fromm began studying psychoanalysis and
became an analyst by virtue of being analyzed by
Hanns Sachs, a student of Freud. In 1934, Fromm
moved to the United States and began a
psychoanalytic practice in New York, where he also
resumed his friendship with Karen Horney. Much of
his later years were spent in Mexico and Switzerland.
He died in 1980.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
Fromm believed that humans have been torn away
from their prehistoric union with nature and left with
no powerful instincts to adapt to a changing world.
But because humans have acquired the ability to
reason, they can think about their isolated
condition—a situation Fromm called the human
dilemma.
Dichotomies, a two-pronged dilemma that has no
solution because none of the alternatives is entirely
satisfactory.

NOTES:
HUMAN NEEDS
Human dilemma will not be solved by satisfying the
animal needs. It can only be addressed by fulfilling our
uniquely human needs, an accomplishment that moves
us toward a reunion with the natural world. Fromm
identified five of these distinctively human or
existential needs.
Basic Needs of Human Existence:
Relatedness
Transcendence
Rootedness
Sense of identity
Frame of Reference or Orientation
A. Relatedness
First is relatedness, which can take the form of (1)
submission, (2) power, or (3) love. Love, or the ability
to unite with another while retaining one's own
individuality and integrity, is the only relatedness need
that can solve our basic human dilemma.
B. Transcendence
Being thrown into the world without their consent,
humans have to transcend their nature by destroying or
creating people or things. Humans can destroy through
malignant aggression, or killing for reasons other
than survival, but they can also create and care about
their creations.
C. Rootedness
Rootedness is the need to establish roots and to feel at
home again in the world. Productively, rootedness
enables us to grow beyond the security of our mother
and establish ties with the outside world. With the
nonproductive strategy, we become fixated and afraid
to move beyond the security and safety of our mother
or a mother substitute.
D. Sense of Identity
It is an awareness of ourselves as a separate person.
The drive for a sense of identity is expressed
nonproductively as conformity to a group and
productively as individuality.

NOTES:
E. Frame of Orientation
By frame of orientation, Fromm meant a road map or
consistent philosophy by which we find our way through
the world. This need is expressed nonproductively as a
striving for irrational goals and productively as
movement toward rational goals.
THE IDEA OF FREEDOM
This is the central characteristic of human nature.
IDEA OF INDIVIDUALITY
Associated with isolation, alienation and bewilderment.
CONCEPT OF LONELINESS
To be human is to be isolated and lonely
Represent the basic condition of human existence and
separates human from animal nature.
THE BURDEN OF FREEDOM
As the only animal possessing self-awareness, humans
are the freaks of the universe. Historically, as people
gained more political freedom, they began to
experience more isolation from others and from the
world and to feel free from the security of a permanent
place in the world. As a result, freedom becomes a
burden, and people experience basic anxiety, or a
feeling of being alone in the world.
A. Mechanisms of Escape
To reduce the frightening sense of isolation and
aloneness, people may adopt one of three mechanisms
of escape: (1) authoritarianism, or the tendency to
give up one's independence and to unite with a
powerful partner; (2) destructiveness, an escape
mechanism aimed at doing away with other people or
things; and (3) conformity, or surrendering of one's
individuality in order to meet the wishes of others.
B. Positive Freedom
The human dilemma can only be solved through
positive freedom, which is the spontaneous activity of
the whole, integrated personality, and which is
achieved when a person becomes reunited with others.

NOTES:
TWO KINDS OF UNPRODUCTIVE FAMILY:
• Symbiotic Family – members of the family are
“swallowed up” by other so they do not develop their
own personality
• Withdrawing Family – cool indifference if not cold
hatefulness
CHARACTER ORIENTATIONS
People relate to the world by acquiring and using things
(assimilation) and by relating to self and others
(socialization), and they can do so either
nonproductively or productively.
A. Nonproductive Orientations
Fromm identified four nonproductive strategies that fail
to move people closer to positive freedom and self-
realization. People with a receptive orientation
believe that the source of all good lies outside
themselves and that the only way they can relate to the
world is to receive things, including love, knowledge,
and material objects. People with an exploitative
orientation also believe that the source of good lies
outside themselves, but they aggressively take what
they want rather than passively receiving it. Hoarding
characters try to save what they have already
obtained, including their opinions, feelings, and material
possessions. People with a marketing orientation
see themselves as commodities and value themselves
against the criterion of their ability to sell themselves.
They have fewer positive qualities than the other
orientations because they are essentially empty.
B. The Productive Orientation
Psychologically healthy people work toward positive
freedom through productive work, love. and reasoning.
Productive love necessitates a passionate love of all
life and is called biophilia.
ADDITIONAL INFO FOR CHARACTER TYPES:

Receptive Type
• from the masochistic orientation
• passivity, lack of character, submissiveness,
cowardliness, wishful, accepting and optimistic

NOTES:
Exploitative Type
• sadistic behavior pattern
• aggression, conceit, arrogance, seducing, assertive,
proud, captivating
Hoarding Type
• tendency to keep and save
• stinginess, possessiveness, stubbornness,
unimaginative, steadfast, economical, practical
Marketing Type
• treats one’s self as a commodity, obeying law of
supply and demand
• lack of principle, aimlessness, opportunism, childish,
tactless, social
Productive Type
• values himself and others for what they are and
experiences security and inner peace
• open-minded, loyal and flexible
Three types of Relationship between Child and his

Parents:
• Symbiotic Relatedness – failure to attain
independence and signifies immaturity and pseudo
forms of love
• Withdrawal Destructiveness – negative relatedness
or distance and indifference
• Genuine Productive Love
Essential Elements:
• Care – active concern for life and growth of the loved
person
• Responsibility – ability and readiness to respond the
needs expressed of the person who is loved
• Respect – ability to see the other person as he is
and at the same time accept his unique individuality
• Knowledge – experience of union with other person
with full awareness of the total being of his loved one

NOTES:
PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Unhealthy people have nonproductive ways of working,
reasoning, and especially loving. Fromm recognized
three major personality disorders:
(1) necrophilia, or the love of death and the hatred of
all humanity;
(2) malignant narcissism, or a belief that everything
belonging to one's self is of great value and anything
belonging to others is worthless; and
(3) incestuous symbiosis, or an extreme dependence
on one's mother or mother surrogate.
SYNDROME OF DECAY – combination of the three
personality disorders.
NOTE: The goal of therapy Fromm's psychotherapy
was to work toward satisfaction of the basic human
needs of relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, a
sense of identity, and a frame of orientation. The
therapist tries to accomplish this through shared
communication in which the therapist is simply a
human being rather than a scientist.
METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
Fromm's personality theory rests on data he gathered
from a variety of sources, including psychotherapy,
cultural anthropology, and psychohistory.

INTERPERSONAL THEORY NOTES:
OVERVIEW
Sullivan had a lonely and isolated childhood, he
evolved a theory of personality that emphasized the
importance of interpersonal relations. He insisted that
personality is shaped almost entirely by the
relationships we have with other people. Sullivan's
principal contribution to personality theory was his
conception of developmental stages.
HARRY STACK SULLIVAN
Harry Stack Sullivan, the first American to develop a

comprehensive personality theory, was born in a small
farming community in upper New York State in 1892. A
socially immature and isolated child, Sullivan
nevertheless formed one close interpersonal
relationship with a boy 5 years older than himself. In
his interpersonal theory, Sullivan believed that such a
relationship has the power to transform an immature
preadolescent into a psychologically healthy individual.
After an unhappy public school experience, Sullivan

enrolled in medical school and eventually became a
physician. Six years after receiving his medical
diploma and with no training in psychiatry, Sullivan
gained a position at St. Elizabeth's Hospital in
Washington, DC, as a psychiatrist. There, his ability to
work with schizophrenic patients won for him a
reputation as a therapeutic wizard. However, despite
achieving much respect from an influential group of
associates, Sullivan had few close interpersonal
relations with any of his peers. In 1949, at age 56, he
died while alone in a hotel room in Paris.

NOTES:
TENSIONS
Sullivan conceptualized personality as an energy system,
with energy existing either as tension (potentiality for action)
or as energy transformations (the actions themselves).
He further divided tensions into needs and anxiety.
A. Needs
Needs can relate either to the general well-being of a person
or to specific zones, such as the mouth or genitals. General
needs can be either physiological, such as food or oxygen,
or they can be interpersonal, such as tenderness and
intimacy.
B. Anxiety
Unlike needs—which are conjunctive and call for specific
actions to reduce them—anxiety is disjunctive and calls for
no consistent actions for its relief. All infants learn to be
anxious through the empathic relationship that they have
with their mothering one. Sullivan called anxiety the chief
disruptive force in interpersonal relations. A complete
absence of anxiety and other tensions is called euphoria.
DYNAMISM
Sullivan used the term dynamism to refer to a typical
pattern of behavior. Dynamisms may relate either to
specific zones of the body or to tensions.
A. Malevolence
The disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred is called
malevolence, defined by Sullivan as a feeling of living
among one's enemies. Those children who become
malevolent have much difficulty giving and receiving
tenderness or being intimate with other people.
B. Intimacy
The conjunctive dynamism marked by a close personal
relationship between two people of equal status is
called intimacy. Intimacy facilitates interpersonal
development while decreasing both anxiety and
loneliness.
C. Lust
In contrast to both malevolence and intimacy, lust is an
isolating dynamism. That is, lust is a self-centered
need that can be satisfied in the absence of an intimate
interpersonal relationship. In other words, although
intimacy presupposes tenderness or love, lust is based
solely on sexual gratification and requires no other
person for its satisfaction.

NOTES:
D. Self-System
The most inclusive of all dynamisms is the self-system,
or that pattern of behaviors that protects us against
anxiety and maintains our interpersonal security. The
self system is a conjunctive dynamism, but because its
primary job is to protect the self from anxiety, it tends to
stifle personality change. Experiences that are
inconsistent with our self-system threaten our security
and necessitate our use of security operations, which
consist of behaviors designed to reduce interpersonal
tensions. One such security operation is dissociation,
which includes all those experiences that we block from
awareness. Another is selective inattention, which
involves blocking only certain experiences from
awareness.
PERSONIFICATIONS
Sullivan believed that people acquire certain images of
self and others throughout the developmental stages,
and he referred to these subjective perceptions as
personifications.
A. Bad-Mother, Good-Mother
The bad-mother personification grows out of infants'
experiences with a nipple that does not satisfy their
hunger needs. All infants experience the bad-mother
personification, even though their real mothers may be
loving and nurturing. Later, infants acquire a good-
mother personification as they become mature enough
to recognize the tender and cooperative behavior of
their mothering one. Still later, these two
personifications combine to form a complex and
contrasting image of the real mother.
B. Me Personifications
During infancy children acquire three "me"
personifications: (1) the bad-me, which grows from
experiences of punishment and disapproval, (2) the
good-me, which results from experiences with reward
and approval, and (3) the not-me, which allows a
person to dissociate or selectively not attend to the
experiences related to anxiety.
C. Eidetic Personifications
One of Sullivan's most interesting observations was
that people often create imaginary traits that they
project onto others. Included in these eidetic
personifications are the imaginary playmates that
preschool-aged children often have. These imaginary
friends enable children to have a safe, secure
relationship with another person, even though that
person is imaginary.

NOTES:
LEVELS OF COGNITION
A. Prototaxic Level
Experiences that are impossible to put into words or to
communicate to others are called prototaxic. Newborn
infants experience images mostly on a prototaxic level,
but adults, too, frequently have preverbal experiences
that are momentary and incapable of being
communicated.
B. Parataxic Level
Experiences that are prelogical and nearly impossible
to accurately communicate to others are called
parataxic. Included in these are erroneous
assumptions about cause and effect, which Sullivan
termed parataxic distortions.
C. Syntaxic Level
Experiences that can be accurately communicated to
others are called syntaxic. Children become capable of
syntaxic language at about 12 to 18 months of age
when words begin to have the same meaning for them
that they do for others.
A. Infancy
The period from birth until the emergence of syntaxic
language is called infancy, a time when the child
receives tenderness from the mothering one while also
learning anxiety through an empathic linkage with the
mother. Anxiety may increase to the point of terror, but
such terror is controlled by the built-in protections of
apathy and somnolent detachment that allow the
baby to go to sleep. During infancy children use
autistic language, which takes place on a prototaxic
or parataxic level.
B. Childhood
The stage that lasts from the beginning of syntaxic
language until the need for playmates of equal status is
called childhood. The child's primary interpersonal
relationship continues to be with the mother, who is
now differentiated from other persons who nurture the
child.

NOTES:
C. Juvenile Era
The juvenile stage begins with the need for peers of
equal status and continues until the child develops a
need for an intimate relationship with a chum. At this
time children should learn how to compete, to
compromise, and to cooperate. These three abilities,
as well as an orientation toward living, help a child
develop intimacy, the chief dynamism of the next
developmental stage.
D. Preadolescence
Perhaps the most crucial stage is preadolescence,
because mistakes made earlier can be corrected during
preadolescence, but errors made during
preadolescence are nearly impossible to overcome in
later life. Preadolescence spans the time from the
need for a single best friend until puberty. Children
who do not learn intimacy during preadolescence have
added difficulties relating to potential sexual partners
during later stages.
E. Early Adolescence
With puberty comes the lust dynamism and the
beginning of early adolescence. Development during
this stage is ordinarily marked by a coexistence of
intimacy with a single friend of the same gender and
sexual interest in many persons of the opposite gender.
However, if children have no preexisting capacity for
intimacy, they may confuse lust with love and develop
sexual relationships that are devoid of true intimacy.
F. Late Adolescence
Chronologically, late adolescence may start at any time
after about age 16, but psychologically, it begins when
a person is able to feel both intimacy and lust toward
the same person. Late adolescence is characterized
by a stable pattern of sexual activity and the growth of
the syntaxic mode, as young people learn how to live in
the adult world.
G. Adulthood
Late adolescence flows into adulthood, a time when a
person establishes a stable relationship with a
significant other person and develops a consistent
pattern of viewing the world.

NOTES:
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER
Sullivan believed that disordered behavior has an
interpersonal origin and can only be understood with
reference to a person's social environment.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Sullivan pioneered the notion of the therapist as a
participant observer, who establishes an interpersonal
relationship with the patient. He was primarily
concerned with understanding patients and helping
them develop foresight, improve interpersonal relations,
and restore their ability to operate mostly on a syntaxic
level.
References:
Books:
Feist, J. & Feist, G. (2009). Theories of personality (7th
ed.). USA: McGraw−Hill Companies
Hall, C. S., Lindzey, G., & Campbell, J. B.
(1998). Theories of personality. New York: J. Wiley &
Sons.
Ryckman, R. (2008).Theories of personality (9th ed.).
USA: Thomson Wadsworth
Web source:
http://webspace.ship.edu

NOTES:
OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY
OVERVIEW
Her theory was built on a careful observation
on young children. Object relations theory
places less emphasis on biologically based
drives and more importance on consistent
patterns of interpersonal relationships. In
contrast to Freud, her theory was more
maternal, stressing the intimacy and nurturing
of the mother.
Object relations theorists generally see human
contact and relatedness—not sexual
pleasure—as the prime motive of human
behavior.
MELANIE KLEIN
Melanie Klein was born in Vienna in 1892, the

youngest of four children. Klein believed that
her birth was unplanned. She had neither a
PhD nor an MD degree but became an analyst
by being psychoanalyzed. As an analyst, she
specialized in working with young children. In
1927, she moved to London where she
practiced until her death in 1960.

NOTES:
NOTES:
THE GREAT TRAGEDIES IN HER LIFE
• Neglected by her father

• Suffocated by her mother
• Sidonie died
• Her father died when she was 18 yo
• 2 years after Emmanuel died
• She didn’t reach her dream to become a physician
• Her mother died in 1914
• Karl Abraham died after 14 months of therapy with
Klein (the one who replaced Ferenczi)
• In 1934, Klein’s son, Hans, was killed in a fall.
PSYCHIC LIFE OF THE INFANT
Klein stressed the importance of the first 4 or 6

months. To her, infants do not begin life with a blank
slate but with an inherited predisposition to reduce the
anxiety they experience as a result of the conflict
produced by the forces of the life instinct and the power
of the death instinct.
PHANTASIES Versus FANTASY

Phantasies are psychic representations of unconscious
id instincts. They are largely unconscious in that they
are not differentiated from conscious reality. In their
early, pre-linguistic existence, infants differentiate little,
if at all, between reality and imagination. Phantasies
stem from genetic needs, drives and instincts. They
appear in symbolic form in dreams, play and neuroses.
Note: Phantasies satisfy instincts by converting them
into ideas and images. Ex. A child sucking his thumb
Fantasy is a reverie, a daydream, an imagined unreality
that anyone can create. It can be done consciously.
OBJECTS
She supported the idea of Freud that humans have
instincts or drives. Objects are something to which the
subject relate. Objects are not primarily materials, it
can be the significant person that is the object or target
of another's feelings or intentions.

NOTES:
NOTES:
INTERNAL OBJECT
It means a mental and emotional image of an external
object that has been taken inside the self. The
character of the internal object is colored by aspects of
the self that have been projected into it. A complex
interaction continues throughout life between the world
of internalized figures and objects and in the real world
through introjection and projection.
INTROJECTION
It occurs where a subject takes into itself the behaviors,
attributes or other external objects, especially of other
people. An introjected object is drawn into the 'inner
circle', but can still have a life of its own.
PROJECTION
It takes aspects of one's internal world and projects
them onto external subjects. It is used to expel and
externalize uncomfortable inner thoughts and feelings.
INTERNALIZATION
As compared to introjection, it happens when objects

are 'installed' into the ego, such that they are both
integral to sense of self and also experienced as
separate and concrete internal objects.
IDENTIFICATION
When I 'identify with' other people, I find something
attractive about them and seek to join with them in
some way. A significant difference from such joining
forms as incorporation and introjection is that
identification is practiced by moving the self towards a
desirable object rather than drawing the object towards
them.
PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION
is an unconscious phantasy in which aspects of the self
or an internal object are split off and attributed to an
external object.

NOTES:
POST FREUDIAN THEORY
OVERVIEW
Erikson postulated eight stages of psychosocial
development through which people progress. Although
he differed from Freud in his emphasis on the ego and
on social influences, his theory is an extension, not a
repudiation of Freudian psychoanalysis.
ERIK ERIKSON
When Erik Erikson was born in Germany in 1902 his
name was Erik Salomonsen. After his mother married
Theodor Homberger, Erik eventually took his
stepfather's name. At age 18 he left home to pursue
the life of a wandering artist and to search for self-
identity. He gave up that life to teach young children in
Vienna where he met Anna Freud. Still searching for
his personal identity, he was psychoanalyzed by Ms.
Freud, an experience that allowed him to become a
psychoanalyst. In mid-life, Erik Homberger moved to
the United States, changed his name to Erikson, and
took a position at the Harvard Medical School. Later,
he taught at Yale, the University of California at
Berkeley, and several other universities. He died in
1994, a month short of his 92nd birthday.
EGO IN POST-FREUDIAN
.According to Erikson, the ego is the center of
personality and is responsible for a unified sense of
self. It consists of three interrelated facets: the
body ego, the ego ideal, and ego identity.

NOTES:
NOTES:
A. Society's Influence
The ego develops within a given society and is
influenced by child-rearing practices and other cultural
customs. All cultures and nations develop a
pseudospecies, or a fictional notion that they are
superior to other cultures.
B. Epigenetic Principle
The ego develops according to the epigenetic principle;
that is, it grows according to a genetically established
rate and in a fixed sequence.
STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Each of the eight stages of development is marked by
a conflict between a syntonic (harmonious) element
and a dystonic (disruptive) element, which produces a
basic strength or ego quality. Also, from adolescence
on, each stage is characterized by an identity crisis or
turning point, which may produce either adaptive or
maladaptive adjustment.
A. Infancy
Erikson's view of infancy (the 1st year of life) was
similar to Freud's concept of the oral stage, except that
Erikson expanded the notion of incorporation beyond
the mouth to include sense organs such as the eyes
and ears. The psychosexual mode of infancy is oral-
sensory, which is characterized by both receiving and
accepting. The psycho-social crisis of infancy is basic
trust versus basic mistrust. From the crisis between
basic trust and basic mistrust emerges hope, the basic
strength of infancy. Infants who do not develop hope
retreat from the world, and this withdrawal is the core
pathology of infancy.
B. Early Childhood
The 2nd to 3rd year of life is early childhood, a period
that compares to Freud's anal stage, but it also
includes mastery of other body functions such as
walking, urinating, and holding. The psychosexual
mode of early childhood is anal-urethral-muscular,
and children of this age behave both impulsively and
compulsively. The psychosocial crisis of early childhood
is autonomy versus shame and doubt. The
psychosocial crisis between autonomy on the one hand
and shame and doubt on the other produces will, the
basic strength of early childhood. The core pathology
of early childhood is compulsion.

NOTES:
NOTES:
C. Play Age
From about the 3rd to the 5th year, children experience
the play age, a period that parallels Freud's phallic
phase. Unlike Freud, however, Erikson saw the
Oedipus complex as an early model of lifelong
playfulness and a drama played out in children's minds
as they attempt to understand the basic facts of life.
The primary psychosexual mode of the play age is
genital-locomotor, meaning that children have both
an interest in genital activity and an increasing ability
to move around. The psychosocial crisis of the play age
is initiative versus guilt. The conflict between initiative
and guilt helps children to act with purpose and to set
goals. But if children have too little purpose, they
develop inhibition, the core pathology of the play age.
D. School Age
The period from about 6 to 12 or 13 years of age is
called the school age, a time of psychosexual latency,
but it is also a time of psychosocial growth beyond the
family. Because sexual development is latent during
the school age, children can use their energies to learn
the customs of their culture, including both formal and
informal education. The psychosocial crisis of this age
is industry versus inferiority. Children need to learn
to work hard, but they also must develop some sense
of inferiority. From the conflict of industry and inferiority
emerges competence, the basic strength of school
age. A lack of industry leads to inertia, the core
pathology of this stage.
E. Adolescence
Adolescence begins with puberty and is marked by a
person's struggle to find ego identity. It is a time of
psychosexual growth, but it is also a period of
psychosocial latency. The psychosexual mode of
adolescence is puberty or genital maturation. The
psychosocial crisis of adolescence is identity versus
identity confusion. Psychologically healthy
individuals emerge from adolescence with a sense of
who they are and what they believe; but some identity
confusion is normal. The conflict between identity and
identity confusion produces fidelity, or faith in some
ideological view of the future. Lack of belief in one's
own selfhood results in role repudiation, or an inability
to bring together one's various self-images.

NOTES:
NOTES:
F. Young Adulthood
Young adulthood begins with the acquisition of intimacy
at about age 18 and ends with the development of
generativity at about age 30. The psychosexual mode
of young adulthood is genitality, which is expressed as
mutual trust between partners in a stable sexual
relationship. Its psychosocial crisis is intimacy versus
isolation. Intimacy is the ability to fuse one's identity
with that of another without fear of losing it; whereas
isolation is the fear of losing one's identity in an
intimate relationship. The crisis between intimacy and
isolation results in the capacity to love. The core
pathology of young adulthood is exclusivity, or inability
to love.
G. Adulthood
The period from about 31 to 60 years of age is
adulthood, a time when people make significant
contributions to society. The psychosexual mode of
adulthood is procreativity, or the caring for one's
children, the children of others, and the material
products of one's society. The psychosocial crisis of
adulthood is generativity versus stagnation, and the
successful resolution of this crisis results in care.
Erikson saw care as taking care of the persons and
products that one has learned to care for. The core
pathology of adulthood is rejectivity, or the rejection of
certain individuals or groups that one is unwilling to
take care of.
H. Old Age
The final stage of development is old age, from about
age 60 until death. The psychosexual mode of old age
is generalized sensuality; that is, taking pleasure in a
variety of sensations and an appreciation of the
traditional life style of people of the other gender. The
psychosocial crisis of old age is the struggle between
integrity (the maintenance of ego-identity) and
despair (the surrender of hope). The struggle between
integrity and despair may produce wisdom (the basic
strength of old age), but it may also lead to disdain (a
core pathology marked by feelings of being finished or
helpless).

NOTES:
SUMMARY OF STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

NOTES:
A. Anthropological Studies
Erikson's two most important anthropological studies
were of the Sioux of South Dakota and the Yurok tribe
of northern California. Both studies demonstrated his
notion that culture and history help shape personality.
B. Psychohistory
Erikson combined the methods of psychoanalysis and
historical research to study several personalities, most
notably Gandhi and Luther. In both cases, the central
figure experienced an identity crisis that produced a
basic strength rather than a core pathology.

NOTES:
EGO PSYCHOLOGY
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY
Name: Anna Freud

Place: Vienna
Date: 1895
Mother: Nurse her but not as close as Freud
Father: Close to her father
Occupation: Physician
HIGHLIGHTS
 She was a lively child with a reputation for mischief.
 "I am glad that Sophie is getting married, because
the unending quarrel between us was horrible for
me.“
 She introduced novel ideas such as extending
psychoanalysis to children.
 Her ideas paved way to Child Psychology.
BASIC TENET
In order to emerge in an analysis, the ego must
become aware of the utilize defenses to prevent the
material to resurface.

NOTES:
CONTRIBUTIONS
 more interested in the dynamics of the psyche than

in its structure
 the ego is the "seat of observation"
 Her interests were more practical, and most of her
energies were devoted to the analysis of children
and adolescents.
 classification system of childhood systems that
reflects development issues.
ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUE
 Diagnostic Profile, used by therapist to organize and

integrate the data from children, adolescents, and
adults.
 She found that the best way to deal with this
"transference problem" was the way that came most
naturally.
 She encouraged the pooling of observations from
multiple analysts, and encouraged long-term studies
of development from early childhood through
adolescence

NOTES:
SELF PSYCHOLOGY
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY
Name: Heinz Kohut

Place: Vienna
Date: 1913
Occupation:Austrian-American psychoanalyst
HIGLIGHTS
 He follows the idea of Erik Erikson.
 It stemmed from lack of parental empathy and
mirroring.
BASIC TENET
A good sense of self-worth and acceptance can be
achieved through parental empathy.
BASIC CONCEPTS
 Mirroring, reflects back a sense of self-worth and
value. The use of the affirming and positive
responses of others to see positive traits within the
self.
 Idealizing, individuals need people who will make
them feel calm and comfortable.
 Empathy is the capacity to think and feel oneself
into the inner life of another person.

NOTES:
SELF
• Nuclear self, a preliminary core self,
emerges in the second year; it has two poles
namely, nuclear ambitions and
subsequent goals.
• Autonomous self, it has qualities of self-
esteem and self-confidence. It shows healthy
independence and flexibility in interpersonal
relations.
CONTRIBUTIONS
 Clearest model of the self and its role in pathology.
 Highlights the importance of empathy.
 Narcissism plays a healthy role in children.
 Narcissism is a natural part of development.
 It offers a helpful perspective on the subject of
addiction.
 Transference, he process in which a person in
treatment redirects feelings and desires from
childhood to a new object.
 Introspection

NOTES:
PERSONAL NARRATIVES AND LIFE STORY
BASIC INFORMATION
Name: Dan McAdams
Place: Gary, Indiana
Date: 1954
Occupation: Professor
HIGHLIGHTS
 Humans are extremely sociable.
 Each of us develops identity and comes to know who
we are by stages of psychosocial development.
 He suggests that personality is a composite pattern
of dispositional traits, characteristic adaptations, and
integrative stories.
BASIC TENET
Each of us develops identity and comes to know who
we are by constructing conscious/unconscious
narrative of the self; personality is composite pattern
life stories.

NOTES:
NARRATIVE IDENTITY
 Individual’s internalized, evolving, and integrative
story of the self.
 The story you are working on about how you came
to be the person you are becoming.
CONTRIBUTION
Loyola Generativity Scale (McAdams and de St.
Aubin), a self-report scale that measure differences in
concern with generativity.
Narrative therapy, it seeks to help people identify their
values and the skills and knowledge they have to live
these values, so they can effectively confront whatever
problems they face.
You can change your life for the better by creating

better story for your life.

NOTES:
HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY
OVERVIEW
Holistic-dynamic theory assumes that people are
continually motivated by one or more needs, and that
under the proper circumstances, they can reach a level
of psychological health called self-actualization.
ABRAHAM MASLOW
Abraham H. Maslow was born in New York City in
1908, the oldest of seven children of Russian Jewish
immigrants. After 2 or 3 mediocre years as a college
student, Maslow improved in his academic work at
about the time he was married. He received both a
bachelor's degree and a PhD from the University of
Wisconsin, where he worked with Harry Harlow
conducting animal studies. Most of his professional
career was spent at Brooklyn College and Brandeis
University. Poor health forced him to move to
California, where he died in 1970 at age 62.
FIVE BASIC TENETS OF MASLOW
(1) the whole organism is motivated at any one time;

(2) motivation is complex, and unconscious motives
often underlie behavior;
(3) people are continually motivated by one need or
another;
(4) people in different cultures are motivated by the
same basic needs; and
(5) the basic needs can be arranged on a hierarchy.

NOTES:
A. Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow held that lower level needs have prepotency
over higher level needs; that is, lower needs must be
satisfied before higher needs become motivators.
Maslow's hierarchy includes: (1) physiological needs,
such as oxygen, food, water, and so on; (2) safety
needs, which include physical security, stability,
dependency, protection, and freedom from danger, and
which result in basic anxiety if not satisfied; (3) love
and belongingness needs, including the desire for
friendship, the wish for a mate and children, and the
need to belong; (4) esteem needs, which result from
the satisfaction of love needs and which include self-
confidence and the recognition that we have a positive
reputation; and (5) self-actualization needs, which are
satisfied only by the psychologically healthiest people.
Unlike other needs that automatically are activated
when lower needs are met, self-actualization needs do
not inevitably follow from the satisfaction of esteem
needs. Only by embracing such B-values as truth,
beauty, oneness, justice, etc., can people achieve self-
actualization. The five needs on Maslow's hierarchy
are conative needs. Other categories of needs include
aesthetic needs, cognitive needs, and neurotic needs.
B. Aesthetic Needs
Aesthetic needs include a desire for beauty and order,
and some people have much stronger aesthetic needs
than do others. When people fail to meet their
aesthetic needs, they become sick.
C. Cognitive Needs
Cognitive needs include the desire to know, to
understand, and to be curious. Knowledge is a
prerequisite for each of the five conative needs. Also,
people who are denied knowledge and kept in
ignorance become sick, paranoid, and depressed.
D. Neurotic Needs
Neurotic needs include a desire to dominate, to inflict
pain, or to subject oneself to the will of another person.
With conative, aesthetic, and cognitive needs, some
type of illness results when they are not satisfied.
Neurotic needs, however, lead to pathology whether or
not they are satisfied.

NOTES:
E. General Discussion of Needs
Maslow believed that most people satisfy lower level
needs to a greater extent than they do higher needs,
and that the greater the satisfaction of one need, the
more fully the next highest need is likely to emerge. In
certain rare cases, the order of needs might be
reversed. For example, a starving mother may be
motivated by love needs to give up food in order to
feed her starving children. However, if we understand
the unconscious motivation behind many apparent
reversals, we might see that they are not genuine
reversals at all. Thus, Maslow insisted that much of
our surface behaviors are actually motivated by more
basic and often unconscious needs. Maslow also
believed that some expressive behaviors are
unmotivated, even though all behaviors have a cause.
Expressive behaviors have no aim or goal but are
merely a person's mode of expression. In comparison,
coping behaviors deal with a person's attempt to cope
with the environment. The conative needs ordinarily
call forth coping behaviors. Deprivation of any of the
needs leads to pathology of some sort. For example,
people's inability to reach self-actualization results in
metapathology; defined as an absence of values, a
lack of fulfillment, and a loss of meaning in life. Maslow
suggested that instinctoid needs are innately
determined even though they can be modified by
learning. Maslow also believed that higher level needs
(love, esteem, and self-actualization) are later on the
evolutionary scale than lower level needs and that they
produce more genuine happiness and more peak
experiences.
SELF- ACTUALIZATION
Maslow believed that a very small percentage of people

reach an ultimate level of psychological health called
self-actualization.
A. Values of Self-Actualizers
Maslow held that self-actualizing people are
metamotivated by such B-values as truth, goodness,
beauty, justice, and simplicity.

NOTES:
B. Definition and Description
Four criteria must be met before a person achieves
self-actualization: (1) absence of psychopathology, (2)
satisfaction of each of the four lower level needs, (3)
full realization of one's potentials for growth, and (4)
acceptance of the B-values.
C. Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People
Maslow listed 15 qualities that characterize self-
actualizing people, although not all self-actualizers
possess each of these characteristics to the same
extent. The characteristics of self-actualizing people
are: (1) more efficient perception of reality; they
often have an almost uncanny ability to detect
phoniness in others, and they are not fooled by sham;
(2) acceptance of self, others, and nature; (3)
spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness; they have
no need to appear complex or sophisticated; (4)
problem-centered; they view age-old problems from a
solid philosophical position; (5) the need for privacy,
or a detachment that allows them to be alone without
being lonely; (6) autonomy; they have grown beyond
dependency on other people for their self-esteem; (7)
continued freshness of appreciation and the ability
to view everyday things with a fresh vision and
appreciation; (8) frequent reports of peak experiences,
or those mystical experiences that give a person a
sense of transcendence and feelings of awe, wonder,
ecstasy, reverence, and humility; (9)
Gemeinschaftsgefühl, that is, social interest or a deep
feeling of oneness with all humanity; (10) profound
interpersonal relations but with no desperate need to
have a multitude of friends; (11) the democratic
character structure, or the ability to disregard
superficial differences between people; (12)
discrimination between means and ends, meaning
that self-actualizing people have a clear sense of right
and wrong, and they experience little conflict about
basic values; (13) a philosophical sense of humor, or
humor that is spontaneous, unplanned, and intrinsic to
the situation; (14) creativeness; they possess a keen
perception of truth, beauty, and reality; (15) resistance
to enculturation; they have the ability to set personal
standards and to resist the mold set by the dominant
culture.

NOTES:
D. Love, Sex, and Self-Actualization
Maslow compared D-love (deficiency love) to B-love
(love for being or essence of another person). Self-
actualizing people are capable of B-love; that is, they
have the ability to love without expecting something in
return. B-love is mutually felt and shared and not based
on deficiencies within the lovers.
Philosophy of Science
Maslow criticized traditional science as being value-
free, with a methodology that is sterile and
nonemotional. He argued for a Taoistic attitude for
psychology in which psychologists are willing to
resacralize their science, that is, to instill it with human
values and to view participants with awe, joy, wonder,
rapture, and ritual.
MEASURING SELF-ACTUALIZATION
Maslow's methods for measuring self-actualization
were consistent with his philosophy of science. He
began his study of self-actualizing people with little
evidence that such a classification of people even
existed. He looked at healthy people, learned what
they had in common, and then established a syndrome
for psychological health. Next, he refined the definition
of self-actualization, studied other people, and changed
the syndrome. He continued this process until he was
satisfied that he had a clear definition of self-
actualization. Other researchers have developed
personality inventories for measuring self actualization.
The most widely used of these is Everett Shostrom's
Personal Orientation Inventory (POI), a 150-forced-
choice inventory that assesses a variety of self-
actualization facets.

NOTES:
PERSON-CENTERED THEORY
OVERVEW
Although Carl Rogers is best known as the founder of
client-centered therapy, he also developed an important
theory of personality that underscores his approach to
therapy.
BIOGRAPHY
Carl Rogers was born into a devoutly religious family in
a Chicago suburb in 1902. After the family moved to a
nearby farm, Carl became interested in scientific
farming and learned to appreciate the scientific method.
When he graduated from the University of Wisconsin,
Rogers intended to become a minister, but he gave up
that notion and completed a PhD in psychology from
Columbia University in 1931. In 1940, after nearly a
dozen years away from an academic life working as a
clinician, he took a position at Ohio State University.
Later, he held positions at the University of Chicago
and the University of Wisconsin. In 1964, he moved to
California, where he helped found the Center for
Studies of the Person. He died in 1987 at age 85.
BASIC TENET
Person-centered theory rests on two basic
assumptions: (1) the formative tendency that states that
all matter, both organic and inorganic, tends to evolve
from simpler to more complex forms and (2) an
actualizing tendency, which suggests that all living
things, including humans, tend to move toward
completion, or fulfillment of potentials. However, in
order for people (or plants and animals) to become
actualized, certain identifiable conditions must be
present. For a person, these conditions include a
relationship with another person who is genuine, or
congruent, and who demonstrates complete
acceptance and empathy for that person.

NOTES:
THE SELF AND SELF-ACTUALIZATION
A sense of self or personal identity begins to emerge
during infancy, and once established, it allows a person
to strive toward self-actualization, which is a subsystem
of the actualization tendency and refers to the tendency
to actualize the self as perceived in awareness. The
self has two subsystems: (1) the self-concept, which
includes all those aspects of one's identity that are
perceived in awareness, and (2) the ideal self, or our
view of our self as we would like to be or aspire to be.
Once formed, the self concept tends to resist change,
and gaps between it and the ideal self result in
incongruence and various levels of psychopathology.
Awareness
People are aware of both their self-concept and their
ideal self, although awareness need not be accurate.
For example, people may have an inflated view of their
ideal self but only a vague sense of their self-concept.
Rogers saw people as having experiences on three
levels of awareness: (1) those that are symbolized
below the threshold of awareness and are ignored,
denied, or not allowed into the self-concept; (2) those
that are distorted or reshaped to fit it into an existing
self-concept; and (3) those that are consistent with the
self-concept and thus are accurately symbolized and
freely admitted to the self-structure. Any experience
not consistent with the self-concept—even positive
experiences—will be distorted or denied.
Needs
The two basic human needs are maintenance and
enhancement, but people also need positive regard
and self-regard. Maintenance needs include those for
food, air, and safety, but they also include our tendency
to resist change and to maintain our self-concept as it
is. Enhancement needs include needs to grow and to
realize one's full human potential. As awareness of self
emerges, an infant begins to receive positive regard
from another person, that is, to be loved or accepted.

NOTES:
People naturally value those experiences that satisfy
their needs for positive regard, but unfortunately, this
value sometimes becomes more powerful than the
reward they receive for meeting their organismic needs.
This sets up the condition of incongruence, which is
experienced when basic organismic needs are denied
or distorted in favor of needs to be loved or accepted.
As a result of experiences with positive regard, people
develop the need for self-regard which they acquire
only after they perceive that someone else cares for
them and values them. Once established, however,
self-regard becomes autonomous and no longer
dependent on another person's continuous positive
evaluation.
Conditions of Worth
Most people are not unconditionally accepted. Instead,
they receive conditions of worth; that is, they feel that
they are loved and accepted only when and if they
meet the conditions set by others.
Psychological Stagnation
When the organismic self and the self-concept are at
variance with one another, a person may experience
incongruence, anxiety, threat, defensiveness, and even
disorganization. The greater the incongruence
between self-concept and the organismic experience,
the more vulnerable that person becomes. Anxiety
exists whenever the person becomes dimly aware of
the discrepancy between organismic experience and
self-concept, whereas threat is experienced whenever
the person becomes more clearly aware of this
incongruence. To prevent incongruence, people react
with defensiveness, typically in the forms of distortion
and denial. With distortion, people misinterpret an
experience so that it fits into their self-concept; with
denial, people refuse to allow the experience into
awareness. When people's defenses fail to operate
properly, their behavior becomes disorganized or
psychotic. With disorganization, people sometimes
behave consistently with their organismic experience,
and sometimes in accordance with their shattered self-
concept.

NOTES:
PSYCHOTHERAPY
For client-centered psychotherapy to be effective, six

conditions are necessary: (1) A vulnerable client must (2)
have contact of some duration with a counselor who is (3)
congruent and who demonstrates (4) unconditional
positive regard and who (5) listens with empathy to a
client. In addition, the client must (6) perceives the
congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy.
If these conditions are present, then the process of
therapy will take place and certain predictable outcomes
will result.
A. Conditions
Three of these conditions are crucial to client-centered

therapy, and Rogers called them the necessary and
sufficient conditions for therapeutic growth. The first is
counselor congruence, or a therapist whose organismic
experiences are matched by an awareness and by the
ability and willingness to openly express these feelings.
Congruence is more basic than the other two conditions
because it is a relatively stable characteristic of the
therapist, whereas the other two conditions are limited to a
specific therapeutic relationship. Unconditional positive
regard exists when the therapist accepts and prizes the
client without conditions or qualifications. Empathic
listening is the ability of the therapist to sense the feeling
of a client and also to communicate these perceptions so
that the client knows that another person has entered into
his or her world of feelings without prejudice, projection, or
evaluation.
B. Process
Rogers saw the process of therapeutic change as taking

place in seven stages: (1) clients are unwilling to
communicate anything about themselves; (2) they discuss
only external events and other people; (3) they begin to
talk about themselves, but still as an object; (4) they
discuss strong emotions that they have felt in the past; (5)
they begin to express present feelings; (6) they freely
allow into awareness those experiences that were
previously denied or distorted; and (7) they experience
irreversible change and growth.
NOTES:
C. Outcomes
When client-centered therapy is successful, clients

become more congruent, less defensive, more open to
experience, and more realistic. The gap between their
ideal self and their true self narrows and as a
consequence, clients experience less physiological and
psychological tension. Finally, clients' interpersonal
relationships improve because they are more accepting
of self and others.
PERSON OF TOMORROW
If people receive the three necessary and sufficient
conditions for psychological health person, then they
will grow toward becoming the "fully functioning person"
or the "person of tomorrow." Rogers listed seven
characteristics of the person of tomorrow. First,
persons of tomorrow would be more adaptable and
more flexible in their thinking. Second, they would be
open to their experiences, accurately symbolizing them
in awareness rather than denying or distorting them.
Persons of tomorrow would listen to themselves and
hear their joy, anger, discouragement, fear, and
tenderness. A third characteristic would be a tendency
to live fully in the moment, experiencing a constant
state of fluidity and change. They would see each
experience with a new freshness and appreciate it fully
in the present moment. Rogers (1961) referred to this
tendency to live in the moment as existential living.
Fourth, persons of tomorrow would remain confident of
their own ability to experience harmonious relations with
others. They would feel no need to be liked or loved by
everyone, because they would know that they are
unconditionally prized and accepted by someone.
Fifth, they would be more integrated, more whole, with
no artificial boundary between conscious processes and
unconscious ones. Because they would be able to
accurately symbolize all their experiences in
awareness, they would see clearly the difference
between what is and what should be. Sixth, persons of
tomorrow would have a basic trust of human nature.
They would experience anger, frustration, depression,
and other negative emotions, but they would be able to
express rather than repress these feelings. Finally,
because persons of tomorrow are open to all their
experiences, they would enjoy a greater richness in life
than do other people. They would live in the present
and thus participate more richly in the ongoing moment.

NOTES:
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Rogers agreed with Maslow that scientists must
care about the phenomena they study and that
psychologists should limit their objectivity and
precision to their methodology, not to the creation of
hypotheses or to the communication of research
findings.
RECENT RESEARCH
More recently, other researchers have investigated
Rogers' facilitative conditions both outside therapy
and within therapy.
A. Self-Ideal, Congruence, and Mental Health:

Self-Discrepancy Theory
In the 1980s, E. Tory Higgins developed a version of

Rogers' model called self-discrepancy theory.
Higgins hypothesized that individuals with high
levels of self-discrepancy were most likely to
experience high levels of negative affect in their
lives, such as anxiety and depression. Ann Phillips
and Paul Silvia (2005) predicted that the negative
emotion experienced from either real-ideal or real-
ought discrepancies would be greatest when people
are more self-aware or self-focused. Their
hypothesis was supported by their findings when
they compared participants completing their
questionnaires in front of a mirror to participants
without a mirror.
Other researchers have found that college students

with a high discrepancy between real and ideal self-
perceptions tended to drink more alcohol in a
controlled setting (Wolfe & Maisto, 2000). Others
applied Higgins’ self-discrepancy theory to eating
disorders (Veale, Kinderman, Riley, & Lambrou,
2003), and to general mental health (Liao & Fan,
2003). In general, these results supported Rogers'
notion that people whose ideal self is at variance
with their real self may turn to unhealthy behaviors
as a means of coping with this discrepancy.

NOTES:
B. MOTIVATION AND PURSUIT OF GOALS
Rogers proposed (1951) that we all have an
organismic valuing process (OVP), or a natural
instinct guiding us toward the most fulfilling pursuits.
Ken Sheldon and colleagues (2003) explored the
existence of an OVP in college students. Their
hypothesis that if people have an OVP, over time they
will rate more inherently fulfilling goals as more
desirable than materialistic goals, was supported by
their findings. Schwartz and Waterman found from
their longitudinal study (2006) that the more self-
realizing experiences people have, the more intrinsic
motivation they are likely to experience, just as Carl
Rogers would have predicted.

NOTES:
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
OVERVIEW
Existential psychology began in Europe shortly after
World War II and spread to the United States, where
Rollo May played a large part in popularizing it. A
clinical psychologist by training, May took the view that
modern people frequently run away both from making
choices and from assuming responsibility.
ROLLO MAY
Rollo May was born in Ohio in 1909, but grew up in
Michigan. After graduating from Oberlin College in
1930, he spent 3 years as an itinerant artist roaming
throughout eastern and southern Europe. When he
returned to the United States, he entered the Union
Theological Seminary, from which he received a Master
of Divinity degree. He then served for 2 years as a
pastor, but quit in order to pursue a career in
psychology. He received a PhD in clinical psychology
from Columbia in 1949 at the relatively advanced age
of 40. During his professional career, he served as
lecturer or visiting professor at a number of universities,
conducted a private practice as a psychotherapist, and
wrote a number of popular books on the human
condition. May died in 1994 at age 85.
EXISTENTIALISM
• existence takes precedence over essence

• existentialists oppose the artificial split between
subject and object.
• search for meaning life.
• each of us is responsible for who we are and what
we will become
• antitheoretical position

NOTES:
BASIC CONCEPTS
According to existentialists, a basic unity exists
between people and their environments, a unity
expressed by the term Dasein, or being-in-the-world.
Three simultaneous modes of the world characterize us
in our Dasein:
Umwelt, or the environment around us;
Mitwelt, or our world with other people;
Eigenwelt, or our relationship with our self. People are
both aware of themselves as living beings and also
aware of the possibility of nonbeing or nothingness.
Note: Death is the most obvious form of nonbeing,
which can also be experienced as retreat from life's
experiences.
THE CASE OF PHILIP
Rollo May helped illustrate his concepts of existential
theory and therapy by the case of Philip, a successful
architect in his mid-50s. Despite his apparent success,
Philip experienced severe anxiety when his relationship
with Nicole (a writer in her mid-40s) took a puzzling
turn. Uncertain of his future and suffering from low
self-esteem, Philip went into therapy with Rollo May.
Eventually, Philip was able to understand that his
difficulties with women were related to his early
experiences with a mother who was unpredictable and
an older sister who suffered from severe mental
disorders. However, he began to recover only after he
accepted that his "need" to take care of unpredictable
Nicole was merely part of his personal history with
unstable women.
ANXIETY
People experience anxiety when they become aware
that their existence or something identified with it might
be destroyed. The acquisition of freedom inevitably
leads to anxiety, which can be either pleasurable and
constructive or painful and destructive.
A. NORMAL ANXIETY
Growth produces normal anxiety, defined as that which is
proportionate to the threat, does not involve repression,
and can be handled on a conscious level.

NOTES:
B. NEUROTIC ANXIETY
Neurotic anxiety is a reaction that is disproportionate to
the threat and that leads to repression and defensive
behaviors. It is felt whenever one's values are
transformed into dogma. Neurotic anxiety blocks
growth and productive action.
GUILT
Guilt arises whenever people deny their potentialities,
fail to accurately perceive the needs of others, or
remain blind to their dependence on the natural world.
Both anxiety and guilt are ontological; that is, they
refer to the nature of being and not to feelings arising
from specific situations.
INTENTIONALITY
The structure that gives meaning to experience and
allows people to make decisions about the future is
called intentionality. May believed that intentionality
permits people to overcome the dichotomy between
subject and object because it enables them to see that
their intentions are a function of both themselves and
their environment.
CARE, LOVE, AND WILL
Care is an active process that suggests that things
matter. Love means to care, to delight in the presence
of another person, and to affirm that person's value as
much as one's own. Care is also an important
ingredient in will, defined as a conscious commitment
to action.
A. Union of Love and Will
May believe that our modern society has lost sight of
the true nature of love and will, equating love with sex
and will with will power. He further held that
psychologically healthy people are able to combine
love and will because both imply care, choice, action,
and responsibility.
B. Forms of Love
May identified four kinds of love in Western tradition—
sex, eros, philia, and agape. He believed that
Americans no longer view sex as a natural biological
function, but have become preoccupied with it to the
point of trivialization. Eros is a psychological desire
that seeks an enduring union with a loved one. It may
include sex, but it is built on care and tenderness.
Philia, an intimate nonsexual friendship between two
people, takes time to develop and does not depend on
the actions of the other person. Agape is an altruistic
or spiritual love that carries with it the risk of playing
God. Agape is undeserved and unconditional.

NOTES:
FREEDOM AND DESTINY
Psychologically healthy individuals are comfortable with
freedom, able to assume responsibility for their
choices, and willing to face their destiny.
A. Freedom Defined
Freedom comes from an understanding of our destiny.
We are free when we recognize that death is a
possibility at any moment and when we are willing to
experience changes even in the face of not knowing
what those changes will bring.
B. Forms of Freedom
May recognized two forms of freedom: (1) freedom of
doing or freedom of action, which he called existential
freedom, and (2) freedom of being or an inner freedom,
which he called essential freedom.
C. Destiny Defined
May defined destiny as "the design of the universe
speaking through the design of each one of us." In
other words, our destiny includes the limitations of our
environment and our personal qualities, including our
mortality, gender, and genetic predispositions.
Freedom and destiny constitute a paradox because
freedom gains vitality from destiny, and destiny gains
significance from freedom.
Philip's Destiny
After some time in therapy, Philip was able to stop
blaming his mother for not doing what he thought she
should have done. The objective facts of his childhood
had not changed, but Philip's subjective perceptions
had. As he came to terms with his destiny, Philip
began to be able to express his anger, to feel less
trapped in his relationship with Nicole, and to become
more aware of his possibilities. In other words, he
gained his freedom of being.
The Power of Myth
According to May, the people of contemporary Western
civilization have an urgent need for myths. Because
they have lost many of their traditional myths, they turn
to religious cults, drugs, and popular culture to fill the
vacuum. The Oedipus myth has had a powerful effect
on our culture because it deals with such common
existential crises as birth, separation from parents,
sexual union with one parent and hostility toward the
other, independence in one's search for identity, and
finally death.

NOTES:
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
May saw apathy and emptiness—not anxiety or
depression—as the chief existential disorders of our time.
People have become alienated from the natural world
(Umwelt), from other people (Mitwelt) and from
themselves (Eigenwelt). Psychopathology is a lack of
connectedness and an inability to fulfill one's destiny.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
The goal of May's psychotherapy was not to cure patients
of any specific disorder, but rather to make them more
fully human. May said that the purpose of psychotherapy
is to set people free, that is, to allow them to make
choices and to assume responsibility for those choices.
RELATED RESEARCH
May's theory of personality does not easily lend itself to
direct empirical research. Nevertheless, some
researchers have investigated the concept of terror
management, which is based on more readily testable
hypotheses. Rollo May's existential theory has not
generated much objective, scientific research, a situation
that May would have approved. Nevertheless, one
existential topic to receive some empirical attention has
been existential anxiety and terror management. Ernest
Becker, an American psychiatrist inspired by Kierkegaard
and Otto Rank, has presented research that has been a
major source of inspiration for terror management
theorists.
A. Mortality Salience and Denial of Our Animal Nature
Jamie Goldenberg and colleagues found that cultural
worldviews (religion, politics, and social norms) and self-
esteem function to defend people against thoughts of
death, so that when death becomes salient through
disasters, death of a loved one, or images of death,
people respond by clinging more closely to cultural
worldviews and bolstering their self-esteem. They
predicted that mortality salience would increase feelings
of disgust, and their experiment found this prediction to be
true. Goldenberg and colleagues found that their results
supported the basic terror management assumption that
people distance themselves from animals because
animals remind us of our own physical mortality.

NOTES:
B. Fitness as a Defense against Mortality
Awareness
If thoughts of death are highly anxiety provoking,
then people should protect themselves against
thoughts of death (terror-management) by doing
things that can decrease their likelihood of dying,
such as exercising and performing other healthy
behaviors. Jamie Arndt and colleagues investigated
this issue and found support for the hypothesis that,
for people who value health and fitness, thoughts of
death are related to greater interest in health-related
behaviors. They also confirmed the importance of
distinguishing between proximal or conscious and
distal or unconscious defenses against death. In
summary, terror management seems to be a
powerful force behind much of human behavior.

NOTES:
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL
OVERVIEW
Gordon Allport had a short but pertinent visit with Freud
in Vienna, a meeting that changed Allport's life and
altered the course of personality psychology in the
United States. In Allport's mature theory, his major
emphasis was on the uniqueness of each individual.
Allport built a theory of personality as a reaction against
what he regarded as the non-humanistic positions of
both psychoanalysis and animal-based learning theory.
However, Allport was eclectic in his approach and
accepted many of the ideas of other theorists.
GORDON ALLPORT
Gordon W. Allport was born in Indiana in 1897. He
received an undergraduate degree in philosophy and
economics from Harvard. After receiving a PhD from
Harvard, Allport spent 2 years studying under some of
the great German psychologists, but he returned to
teach at Harvard. Two years later he took a position at
Dartmouth, but after 4 years at Dartmouth, he returned
to Harvard, where he remained until his death in 1967.
PERSONALITY
Allport defined personality as "the dynamic organization
within the individual of those psychophysical systems
that determine [the person's] behavior and thought.”
This definition includes both physical and psychological
properties and both stability and flexibility. Also,
personality not only is something but it does something;
that is, it includes both behavior and thinking.

NOTES:
B. WHAT IS THE ROLE OF CONSCIOUS
MOTIVATION?
More than any other personality theorist, Allport
recognized the importance of conscious motivation.
His emphasis of conscious motivation probably began
with his short-lived discussion with Freud, when Allport
had not yet selected a career in psychology. Rather
than viewing Freud's comments as an expression of an
unconscious motive, Allport believed that Freud missed
the point of Allport's story. Whereas Freud would
attribute an unconscious desire in the story of the
young boy on the tram car, Allport saw the story as an
expression of a conscious motive.
C. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A

HEALTHY PERSON?
Several years before Maslow conceptualized the self-
actualizing personality, Allport listed six criteria for
psychological health. These include (1) an extension
of the sense of self, (2) warm relationships with others,
(3) emotional security or self-acceptance, (4) a realistic
view of the world.
STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
To Allport, the most important structures of personality
are those that permit description of the individual in
terms of individual characteristics, and he called these
individual structures personal dispositions.
A. Personal Dispositions
Allport distinguished between common traits, which
permit inter-individual comparisons, and personal
dispositions, which are peculiar to the individual. He
recognized three overlapping levels of personal
dispositions, the most general of which are cardinal
dispositions that are so obvious and dominating that
they can not be hidden from other people. Not
everyone has a cardinal disposition, but all people have
5 to 10 central dispositions, or characteristics around
which their lives revolve. In addition, everyone has a
great number of secondary dispositions, which are less
reliable and less conspicuous than central traits.

NOTES:
B. Motivational and Stylistic Dispositions
Allport further divided personal dispositions into (1)
motivational dispositions, which are strong enough to
initiate action and (2) stylistic dispositions, which refer
to the manner in which an individual behaves and
which guide rather than initiate action.
C. Proprium
The proprium refers to all those behaviors and
characteristics that people regard as warm and central
in their lives. Allport preferred the term proprium over
self or ego, because the latter terms could imply an
object or thing within a person that controls behavior,
whereas proprium suggests the core of one's
personhood.
MOTIVATION
Allport insisted that an adequate theory of motivation
must consider the notion that motives change as
people mature and also that people are motivated by
present drives and wants.
A. A Theory of Motivation
To Allport, people not only react to their environment,
but they also shape their environment and cause it to
react to them. His proactive approach emphasized the
idea that people often seek additional tension and that
they purposefully act on their environment in a way that
fosters growth toward psychological health.
Functional Autonomy
Allport's most distinctive and controversial concept is
his theory of functional autonomy, which holds that
some (but not all) human motives are functionally
independent from the original motive responsible for a
particular behavior. Allport recognized two levels of
functional autonomy: (1) perseverative functional
autonomy, which is the tendency of certain basic
behaviors (such as addictive behaviors) to perseverate
or continue in the absence of reinforcement: and (2)
propriate functional autonomy, which refers to self-
sustaining motives (such as interests) that are related
to the proprium. According to Allport, a behavior is
functionally autonomous to the extent that it seeks new
goals, as when a need (eating) turns into an interest
(cooking).

NOTES:
THE STUDY OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Allport strongly felt that psychologists should develop
and use research methods that study the individual
rather than groups.
A. Morphogenic Science
Allport favored morphogenic procedures over
nomothetic ones. Morphogenic investigations study
only one person at a time person and are opposed to
nomothetic methods that study large numbers of
people. Presently, nearly all psychology studies
investigate groups of people. Allport's two most famous
morphogenic reports were the diaries of Marion Taylor
and the letters from Jenny.
B. The Diaries of Marion Taylor
In the late 1930's, Allport and his wife became
acquainted with diaries written by a woman they called
Marion Taylor. These diaries, along with descriptions
on Marion Taylor by her mother, younger sister, favorite
teacher, friends, and a neighbor provided the Allports
with a large quantity of material that could be studied
using morphogenic methods. However, the Allports
never published this material.
C. Letters From Jenny
Even though Allport never published data from Marion
Taylor's dairies, he did publish a second case study—
that of Jenny Gove Masterson, whose son had been
Gordon Allport's college roommate. During the last 11
1/2 years of her life, Jenny wrote a series of 301 letters
to Gordon and Ada Allport (although Allport tried to hide
the identity of the young couple who had received
these letters). Two of Gordon Allport's students, Alfred
Baldwin and Jeffrey Paige, used a personal structure
analysis and factor analysis respectively, while Allport
used a common-sense approach to discern Jenny's
personality structure as revealed by her letters. All
three approaches yielded similar results, suggesting
that morphogenic studies can be reliable.

NOTES:
BIOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY
HANS EYSENCK
He was born in Berlin in 1916, but as a teenager, he
moved to London to escape Nazi tyranny. Eysenck
was trained in the psychometrically oriented
psychology department of the University of London,
from which he received a bachelor's degree in 1938
and a PhD in 1940. Eysenck was perhaps the most
prolific writer of any psychologist in the world, and his
books and articles often stirred worldwide controversy.
He died in September of 1997.
BASICS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factor analysis is a mathematical procedure for
reducing a large number of scores to a few more
general variables or factors. Correlations of the
original, specific scores with the factors are called
factor loadings. Traits generated through factor
analysis may be either unipolar (scaled from zero to
some large amount) or bipolar (having two opposing
poles, such as introversion and extraversion). For
factors to have psychological meaning, the analyst
must rotate the axes on which the scores are plotted.
Eysenck used an orthogonal rotation whereas Cattell
favored an oblique rotation. The oblique rotation
procedure ordinarily results in more traits than the
orthogonal method.

NOTES:
EYSENCK'S FACTOR THEORY
Compared to Cattell, Hans Eysenck (1) was more likely
to theorize before collecting and analyzing data; (2)
extracted fewer factors; (3) used a wider variety of
approaches to gather data.
A. Criteria for Identifying Factors
Eysenck insisted that personality factors must (1) be
based on strong psychometric evidence, (2) fit an
acceptable genetic model, (3) make sense theoretically,
and (4) possess social relevance.
B. Hierarchy of Behavior Organization
Eysenck recognized a four-level hierarchy of behavior
organization: (1) specific behaviors or cognitions; (2)
habitual acts or cognitions; (3) traits, or personal
dispositions, and (4) types or superfactors.
DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY
A. Extraversion
Extraverts are characterized by sociability,
impulsiveness, jocularity, liveliness, optimism, and
quick-wittedness, whereas introverts are quiet, passive,
unsociable, careful, reserved, thoughtful, pessimistic,
peaceful, sober, and controlled. Eysenck, however,
believed that the principal difference between
extraverts and introverts is one of cortical arousal level.
B. Neuroticism
Like extraversion/introversion, neuroticism/stability is
largely influenced by genetic factors. People high in
neuroticism have such traits as anxiety, hysteria, and
obsessive-compulsive disorders. They frequently have
a tendency to overreact emotionally and to have
difficulty returning to a normal state after emotional
arousal. They often complain of physical symptoms
such as headache and backache, but they also may be
free from psychological symptoms.
C. Psychoticism
The latest and weakest of Eysenck's personality factors
is psychoticism/superego. High psychotic scores may
indicate anxiety, hysteria, egocentricism,
nonconformance, aggression, impulsiveness, hostility,
and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Both normal and
abnormal individuals may score high on the neuroticism
scale.

NOTES:
CATTELL VS EYSENCK
(1) He was more likely to theorize before collecting and
analyzing data;
(2) extracted fewer factors
(3) used a wider variety of approaches to gather data.
AROUSAL THEORY
It explains behavioral differences in terms of the
interactions between inherited levels of nervous system
arousal and levels of environmental stimulation.
• Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS):
part of the central nervous system located in the
lower brain stem; it is involved in the arousal of the
cerebral cortex
• Autonomic nervous system: part of the peripheral
nervous system usually not under the individual's
voluntary control that regulates the operation of
internal organs and glands; it consists of sympathetic
and parasympathetic subsystems
• Extraverts: brains have lower innate levels of
arousal and are less responsive to stimulation
• Introverts: brains have higher innate levels of
arousal and are more sensitive to stimulation
• Autonomic activation and neuroticism
• Visceral brain: parts of the brain that underlie
emotional feelings and expression; also known
as the limbic system
• Neurotics have lower thresholds for activity in
the visceral brain and greater responsivity of
the sympathetic nervous system (division of
the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes
the body's resources for action); thus, neurotics
overreact to even mild forms of stimulation
PERSONALITY AND DISEASE

For many years, Eysenck researched the relationship
between personality factors and disease. He teamed
with Ronald Grossarth-Maticek to study the connection
between personality characteristics and both cancer
and cardiovascular disease. According to this
research, people with a helpless/hopeless attitude are
more likely to die from cancer, whereas people who
react to frustration with anger and emotional arousal
are more much more likely to die from cardiovascular
disease.

NOTES:
THE BIG FIVE
ROBERT MCCRAE AND PAUL T. COSTA, JR.

Robert Roger McCrae was born April 28, 1949 in
Maryville, Missouri, the youngest of three children. After
completing an undergraduate degree in philosophy
from Michigan State University, he earned a PhD in
psychology from Boston University. Following the lead
of Raymond Cattell, he began using factor analysis as
a means of measuring the structure of human traits.
After completing his academic work, McCrae began
working with Paul Costa at the National Institute of
Health, where he is still employed.
Paul T. Costa Jr. was born September 16 in Franklin,
New Hampshire. He earned his undergraduate degree
in psychology from Clark University and a PhD from the
University of Chicago. In 1978 he began working with
Robert McCrae at the National Institute of Aging, where
he continues to conduct research on human
development and aging. The collaboration between
Costa and McCrae has been unusually fruitful, with well
over 200 co-authored research articles and chapters,
and several books.
FIVE FACTORS FOUND

As late as 1983, McCrae and Costa were arguing for a
three-factor model of personality, but by 1985 they
begin to report work on the five factors of personality,
having added agreeableness (A) and
conscientiousness (C). Costa and McCrae did not fully
develop the A and C scales until the revised NEO-PI
personality inventory appeared in 1992. Recently, the
five factors have been found across a variety of
cultures and using a number of languages. In addition,
the five factors show some permanence with age; that
is, adults tend to maintain a consistent personality
structure as they grow older.

NOTES:
DESCRIPTION OF THE FIVE FACTORS
McCrae and Costa agreed with Eysenck that
personality traits are basically bipolar, with some
people scoring high on one factor and low on its
counterpart.
• People who score high on N tend to be anxious,
temperamental, self-pitying, self-conscious,
emotional, and vulnerable to stress-related
disorders, whereas people with low scores on N tend
to have opposite characteristics.
• People who score high on E tend to be affectionate,
jovial, talkative, a joiner, and fun-loving, whereas low
E scorers tend to have opposing traits.
• High O scorers prefer variety in their life and are
contrasted to low O scorers who have a need for
closure and who gain comfort in their association
with familiar people and things.
• People who score high on A tend to be trusting,
generous, yielding, acceptant, and good natured.
Low A scorers are generally suspicious, stingy,
unfriendly, irritable, and critical of other people.
• People high on the C scale tend to be ordered,
controlled, organized, ambitious, achievement-
focused, and self-disciplined. Together these
dimensions make up the personality traits of the five
factor model, often referred to as the "Big-Five.“
EVOLUTION OF THE FIVE-FACTOR THEORY

Originally, the five factors were simply a taxonomy, a
classification of personality traits. By the late 1980s,
Costa and McCrae were confident that they had found
a stable structure of personality. In shaping a theory
from the remnants of a taxonomy, McCrae and Costa
were insisting that their personality structure was able
to incorporate change and growth into its tenets and to
stimulate empirical research as well as organize
research findings. In other words, their Five-Factor
taxonomy was being transformed into a Five-Factor
Theory (FFT).

NOTES:
A. Units of the Five-Factor Theory
McCrae and Costa predict behavior through an
understanding of three central or core components and
three peripheral ones. The three core components
include: (1) basic tendencies, (2) characteristic
adaptations, and (3) self-concept. Basic tendencies are
the universal raw material of personality. Characteristic
adaptations are acquired personality structures that
develop as people adapt to their environment. Self-
concept refers to knowledge and attitudes about
oneself. Peripheral components include (1) biological
bases, which are the sole cause of basic tendencies;
(2) objective biography, which is everything a person
does or thinks over a lifetime; and (3) external
influence, or knowledge, views, and evaluations of the
self.
B. Basic Postulates
The two most important core postulates are basic
tendencies and characteristic adaptations.
Basic tendencies have four postulates—individuality,
origin, development, and structure.
The individuality postulate stipulates that every adult
has a unique pattern of traits.
The origin postulate assumes that all personality traits
originate solely from biological factors, such as
genetics, hormones, and brain structures.
The development postulate assumes that traits develop
and change through childhood, adolescence, and mid-
adulthood.
The structure postulate states that traits are organized
hierarchically from narrow and specific to broad and
general.

NOTES:
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
OVERVIEW
Bandura's social cognitive theory takes an agentic
perspective, meaning that humans have some limited
ability to control their lives. In contrast to Skinner,
Bandura (1) recognizes that chance encounters and
fortuitous events often shape one's behavior; (2) places
more emphasis on observational learning; (3) stresses
the importance of cognitive factors in learning; (4)
suggests that human activity is a function of behavior
and person variables, as well as the environment; and
(5) believes that reinforcement is mediated by
cognition.
ALBERT BANDURA
Albert Bandura was born in Canada in 1925, but he has
spent his entire professional life in the United States.
He completed a PhD in clinical psychology at the
University of Iowa in 1951 and since then has worked
almost entirely at Stanford University, where he
continues to be an active researcher and speaker.
Learning
A. Observational Learning
The heart of observational learning is modeling, which
is more than simple imitation, because it involves
adding and subtracting from observed behavior. At
least three principles influence modeling: (1) people are
most likely to model high-status people, (2) people who
lack skill or status are most likely to model, and (3)
people tend to model behavior that they see as being
rewarding to the model.

NOTES:
Bandura recognized four processes that govern
observational learning: (1) attention, or noticing what a
model does; (2) representation, or symbolically
representing new response patterns in memory; (3)
behavior production, or producing the behavior that one
observes; and (4) motivation; that is, the observer must
be motivated to perform the observed behavior.
B. Enactive Learning
All behavior is followed by some consequence, but
whether that consequence reinforces the behavior
depends on the person's cognitive evaluation of the
situation.
TRIADIC RECIPROCAL CAUSATION

Social cognitive theory holds that human functioning is
molded by the reciprocal interaction of (1) behavior; (2)
personal factors, including cognition; and (3)
environmental events—a model Bandura calls triadic
reciprocal causation.
A. Differential Contributions
Bandura does not suggest that the three factors in the
triadic reciprocal causation model make equal
contributions to behavior. The relative influence of
behavior, environment, and person depends on which
factor is strongest at any particular moment.
B. Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events
The lives of many people have been fundamentally
changed by a chance meeting with another person or
by a fortuitous, unexpected event. Chance encounters
and fortuitous events enter the triadic reciprocal
causation paradigm at the environment point, after
which they influence behavior in much the same way
as do planned events.
HUMAN AGENCY
Bandura believes that human agency is the essence of
humanness; that is, humans are defined by their ability
to organize, regulate, and enact behaviors that they
believe will produce desirable consequences.

NOTES:
A. Core Features of Human Agency
Human agency has four core features: (1) intentionality,
or a proactive commitment to actions that may bring
about desired outcomes: (2) foresight, or the ability to
set goals; (3) self-reactiveness, which includes
monitoring their progress toward fulfilling their choices;
and (4) self-reflectiveness, which allows people can
think about and evaluate their motives, values, and life
goals.
B. Self-Efficacy
How people behave in a particular situation depends in
part on their self-efficacy, that is, their beliefs that they
can or cannot exercise those behaviors necessary to
bring about a desired consequence. Efficacy
expectations differ from outcome expectations, which
refer to people's prediction of the likely consequences
of their behavior. Self-efficacy combines with
environmental variables, previous behaviors, and other
personal variables to predict behavior. It is acquired,
enhanced, or decreased by any one or combination of
four sources: (1) mastery experiences or
performance, (2) social modeling, or observing
someone of equal ability succeed or fail at a task; (3)
social persuasion or listening to a trusted person's
encouraging words; and (4) physical and emotional
states, such as anxiety or fear, which usually lowers
self-efficacy. High self-efficacy and a responsive
environment are the best predictors of successful
outcomes.
C. Proxy Agency
Bandura also recognizes the influence of proxy agency
through which people exercise some partial control
over everyday living. Successful living in the 21st
century requires people to seek proxies to supply their
food, deliver information, provide transportation, etc.
Without the use of proxies, modern people would be
forced to spend most of their time securing the
necessities of survival.
D. Collective Efficacy
Collective efficacy is the level of confidence that people
have that their combined efforts will produce social
change. At least four factors can lower collective
efficacy. First, events in other parts of the world can
leave people with a sense of helplessness; second,
complex technology can decrease people's perceptions
of control over their environment; third, entrenched
bureaucracies discourage people from attempting to
bring about social change; and fourth, the size and
scope of worldwide problems contribute to people's
sense of powerlessness.

NOTES:
SELF-REGULATION
By using reflective thought, humans can manipulate
their environments and produce consequences of their
actions, giving them some ability to regulate their own
behavior. Bandura believes that behavior stems from a
reciprocal influence of external and internal factors.
A. External Factors in Self-Regulation
Two external factors contribute to self-regulation: (1)
standards of evaluation, and (2) external reinforcement.
External factors affect self-regulation by providing
people with standards for evaluating their own
behavior.
B. Internal Factors in Self-Regulation
Internal requirements for self-regulation include: (1)
self-observation of performance; (2) judging or
evaluating performance; (3) and self reaction, including
self-reinforcement or self-punishment.

NOTES:
COGNITIVE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
OVERVIEW
Both Julian Rotter and Walter Mischel believe that
cognitive factors, more than immediate reinforcements,
determine how people will react to environmental
forces. Both theorists suggest that our expectations of
future events are major determinants of performance.
JULIAN ROTTER
Julian Rotter was born in Brooklyn, New York in 1916.
As a high school student, he became familiar with
some of the writings of Freud and Adler, but he majored
in chemistry rather than psychology at Brooklyn
College. In 1941, he received a PhD in clinical
psychology from Indiana University. After World War II,
he took a position at Ohio State, where one of his
students was Walter Mischel. In 1963, he moved to the
University of Connecticut and has remained there since
retirement.
ROTTER'S INTERACTIONIST THEORY IS BASED
ON FIVE BASIC HYPOTHESES:
• humans interact with their meaningful environments

• human personality is learned
• personality has a basic unity
• motivation is goal directed
• people are capable of anticipating events
DELAY OF GRATIFICATION
A reference to the observation that people some of the
time will prefer more valued delayed rewards over
lesser valued immediate ones.

NOTES:
PREDICTING SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS
A. Behavior Potential
Behavior potential is the possibility that a particular
response will occur at a given time and place in relation
to its likely reinforcement.
B. Expectancy
People's expectancy in any given situation is their
confidence that a particular reinforcement will follow a
specific behavior in a specific situation or situations.
C. Reinforcement Value
Reinforcement value is a person's preference for any
particular reinforcement over other reinforcements if all
are equally likely to occur.
REINFORCEMENT VALUE
• Internal reinforcement is the individual's perception
of an event
• External reinforcement refers to society's
evaluation of an event.
• Reinforcement-reinforcement sequences suggest
that the value of an event is a function of one's
expectation that a particular reinforcement will lead
to future reinforcements.
D. PSYCHOLOGICAL SITUATION
The psychological situation is that part of the external
and internal world to which a person is responding.
BASIC PREDICTION FORMULA
Basic prediction formula, which states that the potential

for a behavior to occur in a particular situation in
relation to a given reinforcement is a function of
people's expectancy that their behavior will be followed
by that reinforcement in that situation.

NOTES:
PREDICTION OF GENERAL BEHAVIOR
A. Generalized Expectancies
To make more general predictions of behavior, one
must know people's generalized expectancies, or their
expectations based on similar past experiences that a
given behavior will be reinforced.
B. Needs
Needs refer to functionally related categories of
behaviors. Rotter listed six broad categories of needs,
with each need being related to behaviors that lead to
the same or similar reinforcements
NEEDS
(1) recognition-status (2) dominance (3) independence
(4) protection-dependence (5) love and affection; and
(6) physical
Three need components
(1) need potential, or the possible occurrences of
a set of functionally related behaviors directed
toward the satisfaction of similar goals;
(2) freedom of movement, or person's overall
expectation of being reinforced for performing
those behaviors that are directed toward
satisfying some general need
(3) need value, or the extent to which people
prefer one set of reinforcements to another.
C. General Prediction Formula
The general prediction formula states that need
potential is a function of freedom of movement and
need value. Rotter's two most famous scales for
measuring generalized expectancies are the Internal-
External Control Scale and the Interpersonal Trust
Scale.
D. Internal and External Control of Reinforcement
E. Interpersonal Trust Scale
It measures the extent to which a person expects the
word or promise of another person to be true.

NOTES:
MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
Rotter defined maladaptive behavior as any persistent
behavior that fails to move a person closer to a desired
goal.
• Changing goals
• Eliminate low expectancies
WALTER MISCHEL
Walter Mischel was born in Vienna in 1930, the second

son of upper-middle-class parents. When the Nazis
invaded Austria in 1938, his family moved to the United
States and eventually settled in Brooklyn. Mischel
received an MA from City College of New York and a
PhD from Ohio State, where he was influenced by
Julian Rotter. He is currently a professor at Columbia
University.
BACKGROUND OF THE COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE

PERSONALITY SYSTEM
Mischel originally believed that human behavior was

mostly a function of the situation, but more lately he
has recognized the importance of relatively permanent
cognitive-affective units. Nevertheless, Mischel's
theory continues to recognize the apparent
inconsistency of some behaviors.
COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE THEORY
It accounts for variability across situations as well as

stability of behavior within a person.
THE CONSISTENCY PARADOX
It refers to the observation that, although both lay

people and professionals tend to believe that behavior
is quite consistent, research suggests that it is not.
BEHAVIORAL SIGNATURE OF PERSONALITY
Personality has a signature that remains stable across

situations even as his behavior changes.

NOTES:
PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY
GEORGE KELLY
George Alexander Kelly was born on a farm in Kansas
in 1905. During his school years and his early
professional career, he dabbled in a wide variety of
jobs, but he eventually received a PhD in psychology
from the University of Iowa. He began his academic
career at Fort Hays State College in Kansas; then after
World War II, he took a position at Ohio State. He
remained there until 1965 when he joined the faculty at
Brandeis University. He died 2 years later at age 61.
BASIC TENET
It holds that people anticipate events by the meanings
or interpretations that they place on those events.
KELLY'S PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION
Kelly believed that people construe events according to
their personal constructs, rather than reality.
A. Person as Scientist
People attempt to solve everyday problems in much
the same fashion as do scientists
B. Scientist as Person
Because scientists are people, their pronouncements
should be regarded with the same skepticism as any
other data.
C. Constructive Alternativism
Kelly believed that all our interpretations of the world
are subject to revision or replacement.

NOTES:
PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
People look at their world through templates that they
create and then attempt to fit over the realities of the
world.
A. Basic Postulate
Human behavior is shaped by the way people
anticipate the future.
CONSTRUCTION COROLLARY
Although no two events are exactly alike, we construe
similar events as if they were the same.
INDIVIDUALITY COROLLARY
People have different experiences, they can construe
the same event in different ways.
ORGANIZATIONAL COROLLARY
People organize their personal constructs in a
hierarchical system, with some constructs in a
superordinate position and other subordinate to them.
DICHOTOMY COROLLARY
Assumes that people construe events in an either/or
manner, e.g., good or bad.
CHOICE COROLLARY
People tend to choose the alternative in a dichotomized
construct that they see as extending the range of their
future choices.
RANGE COROLLARY
It states that constructs are limited to a particular range
of convenience; that is, they are not relevant to all
situations.
EXPERIENCE COROLLARY
Suggests that people continually revise their personal
constructs as the result of their experiences.
MODULATION COROLLARY
Assumes that only permeable constructs lead to
change; concrete constructs resist modification through
experience.

NOTES:
FRAGMENTATION COROLLARY
It states that people's behavior can be inconsistent
because their construct systems can readily admit
incompatible elements.
COMMONALITY COROLLARY
It suggests that our personal constructs tend to be
similar to the construction systems of other people to
the extent that we share experiences with them.
SOCIALITY COROLLARY
It states that people are able to communicate with other
people because they can construe those people's
constructions.
• The Rep Test
The purpose is to discover ways in which clients
construe significant people in their lives. Clients place
names of people they know on a repertory grid in order
to identify both similarities and differences among these
people
Page #
NOTES:
PERSONOLOGY
BASIC INFORMATION
Name: Henry Murray
Place: New York
Date: 1893
Occupation: Psychologist
BASIC TENET
Personality is rooted in the brain.
BASIC CONCEPTS
• Human lives and the factors that influence their
course.
• To study individuals, it is useful to separate the
totality into identifiable and manageable units.
• Proceeding, the basic unit. A brief and significant
pattern that has beginning and end. E.g. writing
• Serial, succession of proceeding. E.g. friendship,
career
• Serial Program, operated by ordination which leads
to fulfillment of goal
Page #
NOTES:
NEEDS
• A construct representing a force in the brain that
organizes our perception, understanding, and
behavior in such a way as to change an unsatisfying
situation and increase our satisfaction.
• Psychogenic needs, function mostly in unconscious
level; it plays major role in personality.
PRESS
• To characterize clearly the behavior.
• Forces from the objects or persons within the
environment that help or hinder people in fulfilling
goals.
Two types:
Alpha Press – actual properties or attributes in
environment.
Beta Press – individual’s subjective perception of the
environment.
TAT (Thematic Apperception Test), a projective test
that reveal their underlying motives, concerns, and the
way they see the world.
Page #
NOTES:
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
BASIC INFORMATION
Name: David Buss
Place: Indiana
Date: 1953 (64 years old)
Mediocre teenager who got involved in drugs during
high school years.
BASIC TENET
Human thought and behavior stemmed from evolutionary
perspective; it assumes that the true origins of personality
traits reach far back in ancestral times.
“It is not the strongest of the species that survive, nor

the most intelligent, but the one most responsive to
change.”
Charles Darwin
BASIC CONCEPT OF EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
change over time
Page #
NOTES:
MISCONCEPTIONS ON EVOLUTION
• Evolution produces a pattern of relationships

among lineages that is tree-like, not ladder-like.
• Just because we tend to read phylogenies from
left to right mean it will be considered as is;
There is no correlation with level of
"advancement."
• For any speciation event on a phylogeny, the
choice of which lineage goes to the right and
which goes to the left is arbitrary.

NOTES:
APPLICATIONS
Artificial Selection
Humans select particular
desirable traits in a
breeding species.
The common flu virus changes (evolves) enough every

year that a new flu vaccine must be produced to protect
the human population from repeat infection. In addition,
a significant number of bacteria strains have evolved
antibiotic-resistance to the human-devised drugs that
previously would have killed them.
NATURAL SELECTION
It does not involve effort, trying, or wanting. Natural

selection naturally results from genetic variation in a
population and the fact that some of those variants may
be able to leave more offspring in the next generation
than other variants.
Page #
NOTES:
EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS
• Adaptations, evolved strategies that solve important
survival and/or reproductive problems; often product
of natural selection.
• By-products, traits that happen as a result of
adaptations but are not of functional design.
• Noise, “random effects” occurs when evolution
produces random changes in the design that don’t
affect the function.
MECHANISMS
Solutions to basic problems of life produced from the
process of natural selection
• Physical Mechanisms – physiological organs and
systems evolved to solve problems of survival
• Psychological Mechanisms – internal and specific
cognitive, motivational, and personality system that
solve specific survival and reproduction problems.
Psychological Mechanisms
Three main categories related to personality:
Goals/drives/motives
Emotions
Personality Traits
Goals/drives/Motives/ Emotions
• Power –dominance, aggression, status, negotiation

of hierarchy
• Intimacy – love, attachment, alliance
Page #
NOTES:
Personality Traits
• Surgency/extraversion/dominance
• Agreeableness/hostility
• Conscientiousness
• Emotional Stability/Neuroticism
• Openness/Intellect
Note: Surgency, disposition to experience positive
emotional states and to engage in one’s environment
and to be sociable and confident
Big five factors represent a more evolutionarily

plausible way of dividing up human nature
• Scoring high/low doesn’t imply +/- of the
personality factor
• There’s no way of knowing how a person will
react in a situation until you know their scores
on all relevant factors
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
• Environmental Factors - child, pregnancy – toxins,
drugs, radiation, diseases, diet/lifestyle etc., birth
trauma, or any good/bad experiences
• Genetic factors
• Non adaptive variation – Neutral genetic mutation
• Maladaptive Source – genetic defect or
environmental trauma
MAJOR TAKEAWAY
Developmental plasticity allows us to alter our
strategies in order to exploit circumstances in while we
grow up.
Page #
NOTES:
References:
• Feist, J. & Feist, G. (2009). Theories of

personality (7th ed.). USA: McGraw−Hill
Companies
• Tria, D. & Limpingco. (2007). Personality (3rd
ed.). Quezon City, Philippines: Ken Inc.
• Daniel, V. Object relations theory. Retrieved
as of 2016 from
https://www.sonoma.edu/users/d/daniels/obje
ctrelations.html
• University of Berkeley, retrieved from
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/
0_0_0/evo_07
Other references:
• Cervone, D. & Pervine, L. (2013).

Personality: Theory and research (12th ed.).
USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Cloninger, S. (2004). Theories of personality:
Understanding persons (4th ed.). New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
• Ryckman, R. (2008).Theories of personality
(9th ed.). USA: Thomson Wadsworth
“You will either step forward into growth, or

you will step backward into safety.”
~Abraham Maslow
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Feist & Feist Reference Ryckman Reference

PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOANALYTIC & NEOLYTIC

DISPOSITIONAL THEORY HUMANISTIC/EXISTENTIAL

Personality derives from the Latin word persona,

Personality can be defined as a pattern of relatively

It studies both science and the behavior of scientists;

The study of human personality helps us understand

THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF PERSONALITY

Philosophy—the love of wisdom—is a broader term

BUILDING SCIENTIFIC THEORIES

WHY DIFFERENT THEORIES?

TESTING THE THEORIES: RESEARCH METHODS

• Three major methods of empirical testing:

• Independent variables - variables actively

• It is a general procedure for establishing an

• It is a technique involving the intensive study of a

POSITIVE TRUE FALSE

• True positives – Hits; see the presence

SUBSTITUTE THE ERRORS TO SEE ITS APPLICATION

POSITIVE CORRECT TYPE I ERROR

NEGATIVE TYPE II ERROR CORRECT

CONFLUENT LEARNING CAREER DEVELOPMENT INC. Page #

DIMENSIONS FOR A CONCEPT OF

SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ASSESSING

Assessing personality is more difficult than providing

COMMON METHODS OF ASSESSING

Freud saw mental functioning as operating on three

THE ROLE OF CONSCIOUS, PRECONSCIOUS, AND

INSTINCTS: THE DRIVING FORCES IN

Image from Feist & Feist, 2009

NOTE: There are two ways to approach anxiety:

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LEVELS OF THE PSYCHE

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• Persona: role human beings play in order to

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NOTE: It was Carl Jung who first studied self-

DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE

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• Extraversion: characterized by an outgoing

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Word Association Test

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Alfred Adler was born in 1870 in a Viennese suburb, a

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STRIVING FOR SUCCESS OR SUPERIORITY

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UNITY AND SELF-CONSISTENCY OF

B. Conscious and Unconscious

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• Ruling type: person who strives for personal

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THREE DEVELOPMENTAL PROBLEMS OF LIFE:

• Society or communal life: we must learn to

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INTRODUCTION TO HORNEY'S PSYCHOANALYTIC

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C.THE IMPORTANCE OF CHILDHOOD

BASIC HOSTILITY AND BASIC ANXIETY