LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between the different types of groups.

● In organizational behavior, a ​group ​is two or more individuals, interacting and
interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.
● Groups can be either formal or informal.
● A ​formal group ​is defined by the organization’s structure, with designated work
assignments and established tasks.
○ In formal groups, the behaviors team members should engage in are stipulated
by and directed toward organizational goals.
● In contrast, an ​informal group i​ s neither formally structured nor organizationally
determined.
○ Informal groups in the work environment to meet the need for social contact.

Social Identity
● Our tendency to personally invest in the accomplishments of a group is the territory
of ​social identity theory
● Social identity theory​ proposes that people have emotional reactions to the failure
or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied to what- ever happens
to the group.
○ Our social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with
other people, and research indicates they bring us better health and lower levels
of depression because we become less likely to attribute negative situations to
internal or insurmountable reasons.
○ However, to experience these good outcomes, we need to feel our social
identities are positive.
● Within our organizations and workgroups, we can develop many identities through:
1. Relational Identification, ​when we connect with others because of our
roles, and (2)
2. Collective ​identification, when we connect with the aggregate
characteristics of our groups.
● Often, our identification with our workgroups is stronger than with our organizations,
but both are important to positive outcomes in attitudes and behaviors.
○ Additionally, if we have low identification in relation to the group, there may be
increased among by group members.
○ If we have low identification with our organizations, we may experience
decreased satisfaction and engage in fewer organizational citizenship behaviors
(OCBs).

Ingroups and Outgroups

● Ingroup favoritism ​occurs when we see members of our group as better than
other people, and people not in our group as all the same.
 ● Whenever there is an ingroup, there is by necessity an ​outgroup​, which is
sometimes everyone else, but is usually an identified group known by the
ingroup’s members.
● Ingroups and outgroups pave the way for ​social identity threat​, which is akin to
stereotype threat
○ With social identity threat, individuals believe they will be personally
negatively evaluated due to their association with a devalued group, and
they may lose confidence and performance effectiveness.

2. Describe the punctuated-equilibrium model of group development.

● Punctuated-Equilibrium Model: ​A set of phases that temporary groups go through that
involves transitions between inertia and activity.
● Temporary groups with finite deadlines pass through a unique sequencing of actions (or
inaction):
○ Their first meeting sets the group’s direction, (2) the first phase of group activity is
one of inertia and thus slower progress, (3) a transition takes place exactly when
the group has used up half its allotted time, (4) this transition initiates major
changes, (5) a second phase of inertia follows the transition, and (6) the group’s
last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity.
○ This pattern, called the ​punctuated-equilibrium model

3. Show how role requirements change in different situations.

● Workgroups shape members’ behavior, and they also help explain individual behavior as
well as the performance of the group itself.
● Some defining group properties are ​roles, norms, status, size, cohesiveness, and
diversity.
● A ​role​ is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given
position in a social unit.
○ We are required to play a number of diverse roles, both on and off our jobs.
○ As we’ll see, one of the tasks in understanding behavior is grasping the role a
person is currently playing.
● Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals.
● Our view of how we’re supposed to act in a given situation is a ​role perception​.
○ We get role perceptions from stimuli all around us—for example, friends, books,
films, and television
● Role expectations ​are the way others believe you should act in a given context.
● In the workplace, we look at role expectations through the perspective of the
psychological contract​: an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and
employers.
○ This agreement sets out mutual expectations.
● When compliance with one role requirement may make it difficult to comply with another,
the result is ​role conflict​.
○ At the extreme, two or more role expectations may be contradictory.
● Similarly, we can experience ​interrole conflict​ ​when the expectations of our different,
separate groups are in opposition.
○ An example can be found in work–family conflict
● Within organizations, most employees are simultaneously in occupations, workgroups,
divisions, and demographic groups, and these identities can conflict when the
expectations of one clash with the expectations of another.
Professor’s slides

LO1) Distinguish Between Different Types of Groups

● A ​group ​is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have
come together to achieve particular objectives.
● Groups can be either formal or informal.
○ Formal groups:​ those defined by the organization’s structure.
○ Informal groups: ​alliances that are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined.
● Social identity theory:​ considers when and why individuals consider themselves
members of groups.
○ People have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because
their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group.
○ Social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with people.
● Ingroups and Outgroups
○ Ingroup favoritism ​occurs when we see members of our group as better than
other people, and people not in our group as all the same.
○ Whenever there is an ingroup, there is by necessity an ​outgroup​, which is
sometimes everyone else, but is usually an identified group known by the
ingroup’s members.
● Social Identity Threat
○ Ingroups and outgroups pave the way for ​social identity threat​, which is akin to
stereotype threat.
○ Individuals believe they will be personally negatively evaluated due to their
association with a devalued group, and they may lose confidence and
performance effectiveness.

LO2) Integrating Cohesiveness and Diversity for Group Effectiveness

● Diversity: ​degree to which members of the group are similar to, or different from, one
another.
○ Increases group conflict, especially in the short term.
● Culturally and demographically diverse groups may perform better over time.
○ May help them be more open-minded and creative.
 ● Faultlines

LO3) Group Decision Making

● Strengths of group decision making:
○ More complete information and knowledge
○ Increased diversity of views
○ Increased acceptance of solutions
● Weaknesses of group decision making:
○ Time consuming
○ Conformity pressures
○ Dominance of a few members
○ Ambiguous responsibility
● Effectiveness and efficiency of group decisions:
○ Accuracy
○ Speed
○ Creativity
○ Acceptance
● Groupthink: situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from
critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views.
● Groupshift: ​a change between a group’s decision and an individual decision that a
member within the group would make.
● Most group decision making takes place in ​interacting groups
○ Members meet face-to-face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to
communicate with each other.
● Interacting groups often censor themselves and pressure individual members toward
conformity of opinion.
● Brainstorming ​can overcome pressures for conformity.
○ In a brainstorming session:
■ The group leader states the problem.
■ Members then “free-wheel” as many alternatives as they can.
■ No criticism is allowed.
■ One idea stimulates others, and group members are encouraged to “think
the unusual.”
● The ​nominal group technique: ​restricts discussion or interpersonal communication
during the decision making process.
○ Group members are all physically present, but members operate independently.
○ Permits the group to meet formally but does not restrict independent thinking, as
does the interacting group.
● Nominal groups outperform brainstorming groups.
○ Steps for a nominal group:
■ Each member independently writes down his/her ideas on the problem.
■ After this silent period, each member presents one idea to the group.
■ The ideas are discussed for clarity.
 ■ Each group member rank-orders the ideas.
■ The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision.

Implications for Managers

● Recognize that groups can dramatically affect individual behavior in organizations, to
either positive or negative effect. Therefore, pay special attention to roles, norms, and
cohesion—to understand how these are operating within a group is to understand how
the group is likely to behave.
● To decrease the possibility of deviant workplace activities, ensure that group norms do
not support antisocial behavior.
● Pay attention to the status aspect of groups. Because lower-status people tend to
participate less in group discussions, groups with high status differences are likely to
inhibit input from lower-status members and reduce their potential.
● Use larger groups for fact-finding activities and smaller groups for action-taking tasks.
With larger groups, provide measures of individual performance.
● To increase employee satisfaction, make certain people perceive their job roles
accurately.

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. What are the different types of groups?
 a. A ​group ​is defined as two or more individuals, interdependent, and interacting,
who have come together to attain particular objectives.
b. The different types of groups include:
i. Formal groups: Formal groups constitutes the one defined by the
organization’s structure; with designated work assignments ir established
tasks.
1. In formal groups, the behavior that the team members should
engage in are specified by and aligned towards the organizational
goals.
ii. Informal groups: In contrast, an informal group is neither formally
structured nor organizationally determined.
1. Informal groups are naturally formed in the workplace that appear
in retort to the need for social contact.

2. What are the key components of the punctuated-equilibrium model?

a. Punctuated-Equilibrium Model ​refers to the set of stages through which the
temporary group performs a process that involves transactions between inertia
and the activity.
b. The sequence of action is the key step in the punctuated-equilibrium model.It
includes
i. The initial meeting of temporary groups.
ii. The slower progress of the group activity from inertia
iii. Transactions takes place in the group when half of the allotted time is
over
iv. Changes due to transaction
v. The second phase of inertia
vi. The final group meeting
c. The temporary groups pass through the above-mentioned phases in the
punctuated-equilibrium model.
d. Punctuated-equilibrium model refers to the set of stages through which the
temporary group performs a process that involves transaction between the inertia
and the activity.
3. How do role requirements change in different situations?
a. Yes, role requirements change in different situations.
b. A role is defined as a set of anticipated behavior form accredited to someone
occupying a particular position in a public unit.
c. People react to the role requirements and their relationship to the other group
members.
d. Every being is required to play a number of varied roles, both on and off their
jobs.
e. Different groups enforce different requirements on people
f. Majority of these roles are compatible while some create conflicts.
 g. Research indicates that people enact multiple roles, people learn roles from
stimuli around them, and that people have the capability to swap roles rapidly
when they identify that the situation and its demands noticeably require major
changes.

4. How do group norms influence an individual’s behavior?

a. A group is any number of persons sharing a common goal and work together in
achieving the set goal.
b. Group norms ​refer to the informal set of rules that influence and guide the
behavior of the individual in the group.
c. These are the forces that influence the workplace behavior and the actions of the
individuals in the group.
d. Norms tell the individuals the way of communicating, acting, and sharing the
resources among one another in the group.
e. Group norms vary from group to group depending on various factors.
f. Every group develops its own norms, habits, and patterns on how things are to
be done.
g. Group norms influence the individual’s behavior in the following:
i. The way of communicating with one another in social and workplace
gatherings.
ii. How to work and what level of performance standard is to be maintained
based on the group status
iii. How to share the common resources among one another
iv. How to physically move and work among the group
v. How one should look, physical appearance and dress code to be followed
vi. How much hard work one should undergo.
h. For example,
i. In case of a formal work group the individuals should abide by the rules in
the group such as reporting, talking, addressing them properly,
maintaining proper dress code and information sharing etc.
ii. In case of an informal group there are no such formalities. This includes
social gatherings where people come out in casuals, move freely with one
another, have dinner together and enjoy time without much formal rules.
i. Therefore, the group norms act as guidelines for individual’s behavior by
controlling their actions in the group.
5. How do status and size differences affect group performance?
a. Status ​refers to the socially defined rank to the groups or to the members of the
group.
i. It is a significant motivator
b. Size and status has a direct impact on the group performance
i. Understanding the status and size of the group helps the team members
improve the performance of the group.
 ii. The status and size of the group defines the social interaction within a
group.
c. It helps the manager to manage the group effectively, if the group size is less.
i. The social status will motivate members to work hard in order to attain the
goals and to retain the social image.
d. Ability of the person or the capability of the group and the personal character
decides the status of the group.
i. Status and size of the group determines the performance of the groups
and determines the ability of the group.
6. How can cohesiveness and diversity support group effectiveness?
a. Group cohesiveness ​is the point at which the group members are attracted
towards each other and are motivated to stay in the group for the next task.
b. Group diversity ​is the degree to which the members of the group are similar or
different from one another.
i. It is the uniqueness of each individual
c. Cohesiveness and diversity of the group have greater impact on the productivity
of the group.
i. It affects the group’s efficiency
ii. A research states that high cohesive group is more effective and
productive than low cohesive group
d. The group that is lagging in diversity will lead to conflict within the group
members during the early stages of group formation.
i. Low cohesive group without diversity will increase conflicts between the
members.
ii. They will not be able to attain the goal efficiently.
e. The group members should take steps to make their group cohesive and diverse.
i. It will increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the group
ii. It will also increase the social status of the members. The group members
can attain the goal successfully
7. What are the strengths and weaknesses of group (versus individual) decision making?
a. Strengths of group (versus individual) decision making:
i. Access to more knowledge and information
1. Groups generate more comprehensive knowledge and
information.
2. By combining the abilities of several individuals, groups, bring in
more contribution as well as heterogeneity into the decision
process
ii. Increased diversity of views:
1. The group provides greater variety of views. This opens up the
prospect to consider more alternatives and approaches.
iii. Hamper creativity
1. Diversity can inflict performance even in the creative teams.
iv. Increased acceptance of solutions
 1. Group decision result in increased approval of solutions.
2. Group members who have actively participated in decision making
are more likely to strongly support and influence others to accept
it.
b. Weakness of group (vs individual) decision making
i. Time consuming
1. Group decisions are time consuming because groups typically
take time to reach a solution
2. Conformity pressures
a. Conformity pressures exist.
b. The yearning by group member to be considered and
accepted as strength to the group can crush any explicit
disagreement
3. Dominance
a. The group discussion is likely to be dominated by one or a
few authoritative members.
b. If the group consists of members with low and medium
ability members, the group’s overall efficiency will suffer.
4. Ambiguous responsibility
a. Group decisions suffer from ambiguous responsibility.
b. In any individual decision, it is clear who is accountable for
the final outcomes. However, in a group decision the
accountability of any single member is weakened.