Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109

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Precision Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/precision

A review on cutting of industrial ceramic materials T

Rahul Rakshit, Alok Kumar Das ∗

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, 826004, Jharkhand, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Ceramics have garnered huge engineering applications in various manufacturing industries. This is due to their
Al2O3 excellent mechanical properties at high temperature, good oxidation stability and high hardness. However, their
Glass ceramics inherent brittleness properties have led to difficulty in giving proper shape through machining (achieving di-
Insulators mensional accuracy and precision) which limit their applications. In the present study, an elaborate literature
Strength
review on both non-conventional and hybrid machining/cutting techniques has been carried out for a better
Hybrid machining
understanding of machinability and surface integrity of ceramic materials. Few comparative studies and recent
innovative developments for efficient cutting of ceramics have also been discussed.

1. Introduction
Ceramics have become an important industrial material and are
being widely used in different fields for overcoming technological
limitations. Ceramics are generally inorganic crystalline substances
(glass being an exception) which are composed of metals and non-
metals bonded by ionic or covalent bonds.
Based on chemical composition, industrial ceramics are classified as
oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides, silicates and glass ceramics (Fig. 1).
In comparison to metals and polymers, the ability of ceramics to
withstand high operating temperatures makes them a leading en-
gineering material. Their stiffness and strength are comparable to that
of the metals and are generally chemically unreactive. Most of the
ceramics are insulators of heat and electricity and are resistant to ad-
verse environments. Most ceramics possess properties such as high
electrical resistance, high thermal resistance, greater chemical stability,
high corrosive resistance, superior wear resistance, temperature
strength and high hardness. The mechanical and physical properties of
major industrial ceramics are listed in Table 1.
These properties indicate the potential utilisation of ceramics for
engineering and medical applications. For example, silicon carbide,
tungsten carbide, and aluminium oxide are used as abrasives in
grinding wheel. Fireclay (composed mainly of alumina and silica),
alumina, zirconia, magnesia etc. are being used in refractory bricks.
Zirconium diboride, an ultra-high temperature ceramic (UHTC) and
boron nitride are used for making crucible. Silicon carbide and silicon
nitride possess high wear resisting and load carrying properties, so are
used for making wear resistant surfaces, bearings, turbo charger rotors
etc. Uranium oxide has usage in the nuclear reactors as fuel. Titanium
carbide is used as heat shields for the space shuttle. In engine and
turbine parts, high performance ceramics such as sialons are used. The
piezo electric ceramics such as lead titanate, barium titanate and lead
zirconate titanate (PZT) have wide applications in ultrasonic testing,
strain gauges, and MEMs devices. Also, ceramics are gaining acceptance
in making cutting tools and dies, fuel systems and valves in space ve-
hicles, automobile engine, military weapon systems, nuclear industries,
biological industries, heat exchanger and electronic substrates for mi-
crowave devices [4,5].
2. Cutting techniques for industrial ceramics
There have always been difficulty in cutting/machining of industrial
ceramics due to their extreme properties, which limit their applications.
Moreover, due to high hardness and brittleness, these materials are
more susceptible to fracture. Fig. 2 represents the various types of
cutting methods for industrial ceramics.
The conventional methods are unable to produce damage free cuts
and hence reduce the strength of these materials. A considerable
amount of cutting force is required which induces micro cracks on the
surface and edge chipping [6]. The alternative cutting techniques such
as wire electrical discharge machining, laser beam machining, abrasive
water jet machining and hybrid machining have also been applied by
various researchers worldwide to cut ceramics. Few of these techniques
are successful in producing high quality and accurate cutting surfaces
without degrading the parent material. These modern methods have
potential to overcome the barriers in fabrication of engineering com-
ponents from different ceramic materials.

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: eralok@yahoo.co.in (A.K. Das).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2019.05.009
Received 10 January 2019; Received in revised form 15 April 2019; Accepted 24 May 2019
Available online 29 May 2019
0141-6359/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Inc.
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109

Fig. 1. Classification of industrial ceramics.

Fig. 2. Various methods of ceramic cutting.

3. Conventional machining

The cutting of hard and brittle ceramics is being performed for
many decades. The initial cutting methods include diamond saw blade
cutting, abrasive wheel cutting, wire saw cutting and mechanical
mounting (scribing and breaking). Among these, diamond blade cutting
and wire cutting are extensively used in industries.
3.1. Abrasive wheel cutting
This is an economical method widely used for cutting of ceramics
for general fabrication purpose. The cutting abrasives include alumi-
nium oxide, silicon carbide, zirconia alumina, etc [7]. The material of
the wheel influences the cutting rate and wheel life. Silicon carbide
abrasives are generally accepted for cutting glass and other ceramics.
For industrial applications, diamond wheels are used for cutting of
ceramics. The diamond wheels can withstand high cutting speed and
have longer life compared to abrasive wheels.
3.2. Diamond saw cutting
This method is effective for cutting hard to cut materials with high as-
pect ratio using resin bonded diamond blades. It is possible to produce a
narrow kerf width using thin blades. But it is not possible to achieve cutting
accuracy with thin blades owing to its low stiffness. The deflection and wear
of the blade during cutting influence the surface quality and geometrical
accuracy. Yamasaka et al. [8] studied improvement in straightness of the
sliced material using thin diamond wheels. Similarly, many research works
were performed to analyze the wear mechanism of resin coated diamond
wheels through experiments and simulation processes [9–11]. In case of
diamond wheels, strength inhibiting defects are introduced in the cut
surface which are hard to detect. This happens when few diamond abrasives
are partially embedded into ceramic specimens and inevitably generate
minute fractures and flaws [12]. In the subsequent stages, processes like
lapping, polishing, ion beam implantation can repair such defects but these
are not very effective in restoring the properties of the ceramics for reliable
performance.
3.3. Mechanical mounting
This inexpensive method comprises of two steps viz; scribing and
breaking. It is widely used for cutting glass (LCD panels) and Si wafers. A
scribed line is formed on the surface of the material using a diamond scriber.
In some applications, cutting disc made of tungsten carbide is rotated along
the material surface leaving a scribed line. A mechanical bending moment is
applied along the scribed line for cutting/separating the material into two
pieces. The cracks initiate from the scribed lines and run through the
thickness of the material when the material is subjected to mechanical force
[13]. When the crack does not drive sufficiently deep into the thickness of
material, a relatively higher amount of breaking force is required to separate
the material. A variation in the optimal process parameters such as scribing
speed, scribing load and scribing disc dimensions can deviate the cutting
path from the scribed line. Ono et al. [14] studied the effect of wheel di-
mension on the crack formation and crack propagation. Optimization of
process parameters is required to prevent the formation of lateral cracks
which may propagate and result in defects. Now-a-days, the separating of
glass is being carried out by moving the defocused laser beam along the
scribed line. Tsai et al. [15] performed diamond scribing and laser separ-
ating of glass plate and established a relationship between the crack depth,
scribe depth, scribing force and the cutting speed. The quality of the laser

Table 1
Mechanical and physical properties of major industrial ceramics [1–3].
Industrial Ceramic Elastic Modulus Flexural Fracture Electrical Resistivity Thermal Conductivity Thermal Expansion Coefficient
(GPa) Strength Toughness at 25 °C at RT (20-1000 °C) (10−6/°C)
(MPa) (MPa.m½) (ohm. cm) (W/mK)

Alumina (99.9%) 393 455 5–6 > 1014 35 6.5–9.0

Zirconia 160–240 970–1350 10–12 > 1013 1.5–2.5 7–11
Silicon Carbide 480 550–1300 4.6 0.01–100 30–200 3.2–5
Silicon Nitride 290–320 900 6 107–1012 20–30 2.6–3.7
Fused quartz 71–75 80 0.67 6 × 1010 1.4 0.55
Tungsten Carbide 730 482–1200 2–3.8 2 × 10−5 120 4.5–7.1
Steatite 111 117–138 4.5 > 1014 2.5 7.0–8.5
Mullite 144–179 206 3 1014 4 3.5–6
Cordierite 70 117 1.7–3 > 1014 3 2.1–3
Borosilicate glass 67–80 34–69 0.78 1015 1.14 3.3
Zirconia Toughened Alumina 338 586 6 > 1014 24 6–7.1
(ZTA-14)
Aluminium titanate 5–30 60 0.4–4 > 1011 1.4–2.5 1.5–3.5

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R. Rakshit and A.K. Das Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of wire cutting mechanism with (a) abrasive slurry and (b) fixed diamond grits [19].

Fig. 4. TEM images of the cross section of the wafers sliced with (a) loose abrasive slurry and (b) fixed abrasive diamond wire sawing. The solid and the broken lines
describe the depth of scratch and inside damage respectively [18].

broken surface was found better than that of the mechanically broken.
Many researchers have conducted experiments on the scribing process using
laser beam, which is discussed in section 4.2.2.
3.4. Wire saw cutting
Wire saw is a popular technique to cut ceramics as compared to dia-
mond saw blades, as it produces narrow kerf width and can cut complicated
contours with direction change of cutting wire [16]. Initially, stainless steel
wire with slurry of loose abrasives was used for cutting ceramics like silicon
carbide (Fig. 3a). The slurry is prepared by mixing oil/water/polyethylene
glycol with the loose abrasives (silicon carbide and diamond). This prepared
slurry provides low machining rate, and its recycling and retreating is a
problem. Moreover, the viscosity of the slurry changes with temperature. To
overcome the above problems, diamond impregnated wire is widely
accepted. Fixed abrasive diamond wire (Fig. 3b) can cut difficult to machine
ceramic at high cutting speed with better surface integrity with minimum
kerf width. The material removal mechanism involves the interactions be-
tween abrasive particles, substrate and moving wire. Generally, in fixed
abrasive diamond wire sawing, the wire remains unaffected during the
material removal process. Wu et al. [17] conducted biaxial flexural and four
point bending tests to compare the fracture strength of Si wafers cut by fixed
abrasive diamond wire and loose abrasive slurry. They reported that the
superior flexural strength of wafers was achieved with fixed abrasive dia-
mond wire sawing. Experiments conducted by Wantanabe et al. [18] de-
scribed the saw damage layers of the polycrystalline Si wafers using both the
sawing processes. The depth of scratch and inside damage were much lower
in fixed abrasive diamond wire compared to loose abrasive slurry sawing (as
shown in Fig. 4). Abrasives slurry sawing generates micro cracking while
fixed abrasive diamond wire sawing generates smooth grooves (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. SEM images of surface morphology of Si wafers (a) loose abrasive slurry (b) fixed abrasive diamond wire sawing [19].

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R. Rakshit and A.K. Das
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of multi wire sawing arrangement using slurry [19].
For cutting multiple samples or ingots simultaneously, multi wire
slurry sawing [19,20] is introduced. The wire is looped around rollers
or wire guides and multiple strands of wire web are formed due to
which the samples get sliced into thousands of wafers (Fig. 6). This
method is widely used for slicing wafers owing to its higher pro-
ductivity. Oscillating wires produce smoother surfaces as compared to
non-oscillating wires. Wu et al. [21] investigated the influence of the
reciprocating motion of the wire on the cut surface quality of silicon
wafers used in solar cells. As the wire speed becomes slower when the
wire movement direction is reversed, the obtained surface is not uni-
form. Meng et al. [22] explored fixed abrasive diamond endless wire
cutting of Al2O3/TiC. They reported that high wire speed reduced
surface roughness, wire wear and cutting forces but with increased
cutting speed, wear of the wire, roughness of the produced surface in-
creased. Similar observations were reported by Hardin et al. [23] while
performing a set of experiments for slicing 75 mm diameter SiC wafers
using fixed abrasive diamond wire.
The use of small sized diamond grit can reduce the micro cracks,
stagnation grooves and pulverisation on the machined surface and en-
hance the surface integrity. Clark et al. [24] performed fixed abrasives
diamond wire cutting of foam ceramics to investigate the wear and life
of diamond wire. The diamond grits were exposed and subjected to
fracture while effectively cutting the foam ceramics. A small length of
contact between the wire and the sample was maintained constantly
throughout the cutting process. The rocking wire motion mechanism
was designed to maintain a consistent contact length between work-
piece and wire and enhance the cut quality.
The important models for predicting and explaining the cutting and
material removal mechanisms in wire sawing include rolling indenting
model [25] and scratching indenting model [26]. The model demon-
strates the mechanical interactions among substrate, wire and abra-
sives. Yang and Kao [26] predicted the relationship between material
removal rate and process parameters combined with mechanical
properties of the substrate. They reported that material removal rate
increased with the wire speed, external load, size of abrasives and
modulus of elasticity of substrate. The wire size, contact area between
wire and substrate, yield strength and fracture toughness of substrate
had a negative impact on the material removal rate. Wang et al. [27]
developed a theoretical force model for detailed understanding of micro
and nano scratching on brittle materials with diamond abrasives.
Hexahedron, octahedron and multiply twinned series of diamond grits
were discussed. They validated this model with micro and nano
scratching tests and found it apt for obtaining better surface quality SiC
wafers using wire sawing.
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Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109
Many researchers have reported that the temperature of slurry is
slightly higher than that of the moving wire due to heat generation by
the viscous forces in the slurry. Johnsen et al. [28] studied the heat
transfer and temperature distribution experimentally and computa-
tionally to investigate the influence of temperature variation on the
cutting performance. The viscous dissipation reduced the effectiveness
of slurry carrying abrasive particles in the sawing channel.
As diamonds and silicon carbide are costly abrasives; thus, the wire
saw cutting becomes very expensive. These materials account for
25–30% of the total wafer slicing cost. So, the conventional cutting is
able to produce dimensionally accurate surfaces, but it is not a cost
effective process. The proper disposal of the used slurry comprising of
substrate particles (Si debris) and abrasives particles is mandatory to
prevent environmental issues. As the SiC particles are expensive so,
many novel techniques have been developed to separate substrate
particles and SiC for recycling [29–31]. Though wire cutting can pro-
duce comparatively advanced cuts compared to diamond saw blade
cutting, but deeper caves are generated on the machined surface due to
pull out of the diamond grits in fixed abrasive diamond wire sawing.
This results in the formation of sub surface damages, micro cracks, and
scratches. These ceramics are used in electronic components, so defects
such as chipping, micro cracks, non-linearity and angled cuts generated
due to these conventional cutting can affect the performance of the
finished product.
4. Non-conventional machining
The inabilities of the conventional cutting techniques have led to
the development of modern techniques to cut the ceramics and to
minimise cracks and damages. These are economical method for cutting
ceramics without much disturbing the material properties. The material
wastage and scarp are minimised in these alternative cutting techni-
ques. These methods include wire electrical discharge machining, laser
beam machining, abrasive water jet machining and hybrid machining
which are discussed in the following sections.
4.1. Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM)
Wire EDM is a very promising technology, which can produce in-
tricate shapes. The introduction of CNC to the wire EDM for controlling
various motions has increased its capabilities for different 2D contour
cutting.
4.1.1. Principle and working
In wire EDM, copper, brass or zinc coated wire of diameter
0.05–0.3 mm is used to slice hard to machine electrical conductive
materials through thermal erosion process. During the process, a series
of electric spark is generated in between the wire electrode and the
work piece which melts and vaporises the work and the tool material. A
continuous flow of dielectric fluid (as a coolant) coaxial with the wire is
maintained throughout the cutting process for efficient removal of
molten material from the spark zone in the form of debris. Pulsating
voltage is used to create a spark between the electrodes. When the
supplied voltage reaches a critical value, a plasma channel is generated,
and spark is initiated. This leads to a sharp rise in temperature at a point
as a result of which substrate material at that point melts and vaporises.
The plasma channel breaks when the pulsating power supply is turned
off due to which temperature starts reducing suddenly. This allows the
dielectric to remove the debris from the machined surface [32,33]. Wire
with tension is continuously fed without any contact with the work-
piece. A clearance of 0.025–0.05 mm is maintained automatically be-
tween the workpiece and the wire based on the machining parameters.
The setup of WEDM is shown in Fig. 7.
Generally, deionised water is used as the dielectric fluid in wire
EDM. In many cases, the workpiece is completely submerged under the
dielectric which helps in stabilisation of temperature [34]. Kunieda
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of WEDM setup [40].
et al. [35] performed wire cutting in gas atmosphere without using any
liquid dielectric. The dry WEDM process improved the straightness and
roughness of cut surfaces due to reduction in vibration compared to
conventional WEDM. It was possible to achieve corrosion free cutting,
but this process reduced the MRR and generated streak marks on the
finished surface.
4.1.2. Assisting electrode method
Electric discharge machining is generally used for machining elec-
trically conductive materials. Among different types of ceramics, boron
carbide B4C and titanium boride TiB2 are naturally conductive ceramics
[36]. Recent studies have reported that non-conductive materials can
also be machined by using an assisting electrode method [37]. The first
trial was done on a sialon/nickel joined to understand the process. In-
itially, it was observed that discharge was occurring at the metallic
surface and interface. After some time when metallic diffusion started,
discharge was established on the ceramic surface. So, the metal acted as
a trigger which initiated the machining on an insulated surface. This
encouraged the cutting of insulated ceramics using assisting electrode
method. In this technique, metal plates and metal meshes which act as
assisting electrode are placed on both the sides of the ceramic work-
piece (Fig. 8). The conductive particles are generated from the metallic
surfaces and carbon from the decomposed dielectric. These particles are
diffused on the surface of the non-conducting ceramics and develop a
conducting layer which enables cutting.
Mohri et al. [37] presented a study on the wire cutting of non-
conductive sialon ceramic of 2 mm thickness by assisting electrode
method. The ceramic workpiece was covered with copper mesh fol-
lowed by copper plates on both sides. In this experiment, brass wire
electrode of 0.2 mm diameter and kerosene oil (working fluid) were
used. By Auger electron spectroscopy, the presence of a thin layer of
copper and carbon was confirmed on the machined surface. It was
concluded that the conductive layer formed on the ceramic surface
Fig. 8. Construction of assisting electrode [37].
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Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109
helped in machining. Mohri et al. [38] performed high speed wire EDM
cutting of 7 mm thick Si3N4 ceramic which was coated with TiN layer
by PVD technique. Kerosene was used as dielectric. The coated layer of
titanium nitride was acting as an assisting electrode. For high speed
cutting of insulating ceramics, it was desirable to keep the discharge
duration longer for better diffusion of carbon particles on the insulating
surface. Gotoh et al. [39] described the parameters to control the
electrically conductive surface layer for stable machining. Also, the
discharge current should be set at a lower level to avoid wire breakage.
Tungsten or molybdenum wire possess higher tensile strength at ele-
vated temperature, so are used for cutting at higher temperatures.
Another way to machine or cut a non -conductive ceramic is by
doping it with a conductive material. Matsuo et al. [40] used wire EDM
to cut non-conductive zirconia and alumina ceramic by doping it with
TiC and NbC. An optimum level of carbide content (vol 28% for NbC
and 30% for TiC) was observed which gave the maximum machining
rate of the ceramics.
4.1.3. Foil electrode EDM method
It is observed that during WEDM, the vibration in the wire reduces
accuracy and increases the kerf width. To reduce this vibration, a new
technique for cutting silicon carbide ceramics was developed, and its
feasibility was studied by Zhao et al. [41]. They used copper foil elec-
trode of thickness varying from 50 to 200 μm and width 15 mm which
was loaded by using a tension fixture to minimise the tool vibration.
The foil fixture (Fig. 9) was connected to the Z axis of die sinking EDM,
and cutting was performed by servo feeding the tool towards the
workpiece.
They observed that polarity of the foil influences the machining
characteristics. Fig. 10 shows that a higher material removal rate is
attained when the tool is negative because of large discharge energy
distribution in the anode. So, lower tool wear ratio is found when the
foil is negative. The tool wear ratio is increased when the thickness of
foil is reduced because of higher average heat flux due to small working
area of the thinner foil.
They also highlighted the effect of pulse duration and depth of cut
on output variables such as kerf width, cutting speed and tool wear. A
minimum kerf width of 100 μm was attained using foil electrode
method. Zhao et al. [42] utilised running ultra-thin multi foil tool
electrode for slicing SiC ingots into wafers. The average area slicing
speed was enhanced due to larger discharge area in multi slicing
compared to single slicing. The wire breakage problem in multi WEDM
was also solved using multi foil slicing method.
4.1.4. Research progress
Zhao, Kunieda and Abe [41] reported a comparative study on ma-
terial removal rate, kerf width, surface roughness and wire electrode
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup arrangement for tension
loaded foil electrode [41].
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das
Fig. 10. (a) Variation of metal removal rate with discharge current and tool polarity and (b) Variation of tool wear ratio with foil thickness and tool polarity [41].
breakage of SiC and SKD11. It was analysed that the SiC ingots have
higher material removal rate compared to steel under same machining
conditions due to Joule heating effect and thermal cracks generation.
So, material removal in edmed SiC took place due to melting and va-
porising and also due to cracking and fracturing. Pramanick et al. [43]
conducted experiments on conductive boron carbide and examined the
optimum roughness and cutting rate at pulse on time of 30 μs, pulse off
time of 52 μs, dielectric pressure of 8kg/cm2 and feed rate of 2100 mm/
min. A regression model was formulated for surface roughness and
machining speed. Cheng, Eubank and Gadalla [44] performed ma-
chining on ZrB2 ceramics and ZrB2- Cu composite using die sinking
EDM, wire EDM and diamond saw. The experiment showed that the
machining rate in EDM was increasing with the increase in pulse
duration, current and pulse frequency. The diamond saw cut has lower
cutting rate because of high hardness of the ZrB2 based materials.
Sanchez et al. [45] conducted a set of experiments on boron carbide B4C
and Si infiltrated SiC and reported that the cutting rate increased with
decreasing pulse off time, but after attaining a certain minimum pulse
off time, the wire broke due to instability in machining. They observed
that cutting rate increased with increasing voltage and it is also de-
pendent on the thickness of the workpiece.
Many authors have investigated the inter relationships between process
parameters and other variables for optimizing the WEDM process. Tarng
et al. [46] utilised neural network model for solving multi response opti-
mization problems and estimated cutting rates and surface finish for various
machining parameters. Various modelling of WEDM process have also been
carried out by various researchers for predicting the process performance. A
simulation system was developed by Han et al. [47] which was successful in
reproducing the discharge phenomena in WEDM. Liu and Esterling [48]
designed a solid modelling method to represent WEDM cut geometry. Hou
et al. [49] presented a simulation of thermal stress and temperature field
distribution of Si3N4 insulating ceramic while machining with wire-EDM. A
double layer structure model was designed for simulating the discharge
condition using FEM. A new WEDM method to cut SiC ingots was developed
by Kimura et al. [50]. A multi wire EDM with track shaped section electrode
wire was used to slice the ceramic with an aim to reduce kerf width and
cracks on machined surface. This track shaped section brass electrode of-
fered high tension loading compared to circular section wire and therefore
minimised the wire vibration. This technique provided multi point slicing of
ceramics at a particular time in a very efficient manner.
The major disadvantage with EDM is the formation of heat effected
zone and surface damages that not only affects the surface integrity but
also lowers the Weibull modulus. The Weibull modulus of flexural
strength is used to characterise the surface integrity of ceramics. The
diamond saw cut specimen shows higher Weibull modulus compared to
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Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109
EDMed specimen [51]. Lok and Lee [52] measured the flexural strength
of sialon and Al2O3-TiC ceramics using three point and four point
quarter bending test. It was observed that mean flexural strength re-
duced by 32% and 67% respectively due to formation of surface cracks
on machined surface. To obtain a highly accurate surface finish is ex-
tremely difficult due to wire vibration and wire static defection (wire
lag) [53]. So, few studies have also been conducted for understanding
the wire's mechanical behaviour while machining. Many control stra-
tegies to prevent wire breakage have also been developed by various
researchers [54,55].
4.2. Laser beam machining (LBM)
Ceramics cutting is routinely carried out by laser beam machining.
It is an abrasion less technique in which the material is neither sub-
jected to cutting forces nor vibration. Most importantly this technique
has a much higher cutting rate as compared to both conventional and
other non-conventional techniques. There are various types of lasers
such as CO2 lasers, Nd:YAG lasers, fiber lasers, excimer lasers which are
used for cutting of ceramic. CO2 lasers are popular in industries for
cutting because of its high power with output beam at eye safer wa-
velength. Nd:YAG lasers are capable of storing more energy than gas
lasers due to the Q-switching ability which generates high peak powers
in short pulse duration. Despite various advancements in their design,
these lasers have poor efficiencies (1–10%) and poor optical beam
qualities. To overcome this, Fiber lasers may be used which has distinct
advantages which includes high efficiency (20–40% wall plug effi-
ciency), compact size, better beam quality, no hard optic resonator,
reduced chiller size, low maintenance cost; this laser has wide industrial
applications as compared to other [56,57].
4.2.1. Principle and working
A highly collimated coherent beam of light is ejected from the laser
source which gets reflected from the deflector and falls on the work-
piece after traveling through the focussing lens. The high power in-
tensity of the beam melts and/or vaporises the material in the focussing
zone (working spot) due to a tremendous increase in temperature.
Highly pressurized gas is allowed to flow in the direction of laser beam,
to blow away the molten metal which generates a cutting edge [58–62]
(Fig. 11). These pressurized gases, called assist gases, sometimes che-
mically react with the workpiece during cutting operation. The small-
sized focussed beam diameter generates a narrow kerf width with an
angle of taper and narrow heat affected zone.
Lasers are capable of producing continuous wave (CW) and pulsed
mode (nano, pico and femto second) powers in the range of few Watts
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of Nd:YAG laser cutting [50].

to Kilo Watts. In CW, laser light is emitted continuously whereas, in

pulsed mode, laser light is emitted periodically. CW laser discharges
severe heat shocks which results in ceramic fracture. Short-pulsed
duration lasers are favourable for thin ceramics because they enhance
the machining quality. Ultrashort pulsed laser further improves the
quality because it removes material without formation of the molten
layer. In the case of thick ceramics, it is desirable to use long pulsed
duration laser as high material removal rate is required [61,62]. Fig. 12
shows the increase in surface roughness of laser cut ceramics with in-
creasing thickness.
Various type of assist gases that are used for cutting include ni-
trogen, oxygen, argon, helium, and air. Many researchers have ex-
amined the influence of assist gas type on cutting performance of the
ceramics [63–65]. Nitrogen is generally recommended for cutting of
alumina owning to its good balance of ionization energy and thermal
conductivity compared to other assist gases. Various researchers have
reported that the material properties such as reflectivity and thermal
conductivity of the substrate influence the surface characteristics of the
substrate [60]. It is difficult to machine highly reflecting materials like
silver and gold. It has been found that thermal stresses get induced in
materials of low thermal conductivity which cause spalling and
cracking of the substrate.

4.2.2. Laser controlled thermo splitting

Laser controlled thermo splitting (LCT) is a new innovative tech-
nique for precise cutting of glass, quartz glass and brittle ceramics Fig. 13. Description of LCT process: 1. glass workpiece 2. laser beam 3.
focussing optical lens 4. air water mixture as coolant 5. nozzle 6. micro cracks
(Fig. 13). When the workpiece is heated by the laser beam, compressive
(Qcomp: compressive stress, Qten: tensile stress) [66].
stresses are generated in the surface layers. The coolant is applied

Fig. 12. SEM images of cut surfaces of (a) 4 mm (b) 6 mm and (c) 10 mm ceramics using laser cutting [85].

96
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das
immediately following the laser beam owing to which tensile stresses
are generated. When generated tensile stresses exceed the ultimate
strength of the material, it results in micro cracks formation. This
process is also known as laser scribing. Kondratenko et al. [66] dis-
cussed the various forms of LCT. It was observed that no micro defects
occurred along the cut line and edge of the workpiece during LCT of
glass. Also, the mechanical strength of the cut edges increases due to
thermal hardening by the sudden application of coolant. Yamamoto
et al. [67] conducted LCT technique on soda lime glass ceramics and
investigated the influence of glass thickness on crack depth and scribe
conditions.
Saman et al. [68] used thermal stress cleaving technique to cut si-
licon wafers. In this process, the laser beam is irradiated over a small
area creating compressive stress. The surrounding tensile stress pro-
pagates towards the laser spot and introduces a crack/micro groove.
This crack propagates along laser beam path and wafer gets separated
without using coolant. This method eliminates chips formation and
produces good surface finish compared to mechanical mounting.
Santiago et al. [69] performed simultaneous pre-scoring approach
to cut 2.54 mm thick alumina ceramics using pulsed CO2 laser. A cus-
tomised beam delivery system (dual beam output with a single source)
was used to cut groove on the surface and dictate the crack path ahead
of cutting. A low power laser beam was used for scoring and dictating
the beam path while a high power beam was used for cutting. The in-
fluence of spacing between two beams on cut quality and premature
fracture was also highlighted. This method was found feasible for cut-
ting thick ceramics with faster cutting rates and reduced cracks.
4.2.3. Research progress
Chen et al. [65] discussed high quality fiber laser cutting of 1 mm
Al2O3 electronic ceramic. A comparative study was made using assist
gas as nitrogen and oxygen at a pressure of 6 bar. It was found that N2
resulted in black cutting surface while O2 did not show any such affect.
A set of experiments were performed by Yan et al. [63] to achieve
striation free cutting using nanosecond pulsed Nd:YAG laser. They
suggested that if the cutting was vaporization driven continuous cutting
(low pulse frequency), then the melt oscillation could be controlled
with no striation formation. Table 2 shows the effect of assist gas on
striation characteristics during Nd: YAG laser cutting of alumina plate.
Wee et al. [64] discussed a detailed statistical analysis of the striation
formation in ceramics during laser cutting.
Wang et al. [70] reported on femtosecond laser cutting of thin
alumina plates of thickness 250 μm and 381 μm. Their paper high-
lighted the influence of focus position and transverse speed on the cut
quality of alumina. It was observed that minimum kerf width and taper
angle were attained when the focus point was placed below the sub-
strate surface. A comparative study of alumina and water soluble PVA
coated alumina was presented in which surface cleanness, debris ac-
cumulation, and cracks formation were studied (shown in Fig. 14).
Radtke et al. [71] examined the influence of assist gas (He) and the
wavelength of the laser on kerf depth. It was concluded that with an
increased number of passes, geometries of higher aspect ratio could be
easily cut.
Yilbas et al. [72] investigated the environmental effects of waste
material generated during laser cutting. The study was focussed on
Ti6Al4V alloy, alumina, steel 304 and Inconel 625. The experiments
were conducted with pulsed CO2 laser and nitrogen as assisting gas.
Based on life cycle assessment it was examined that Inconel 625 was the
major cause of environmental degradation.
A set of experiments was performed by Chen et al. [73] to highlight
the effect of assisting gas pressure and cutting speed on grain size and
thickness of the recast layer. The microstructure of the recast layers at
different regions along the kerf is shown in Fig. 15. A FEM model was
derived for analyzing the solidification mechanism and microstructure
along the kerf. A pulsed Nd:YAG laser cutting on 4 mm thick mullite
alumina was carried out by Quintero et al. [74] for quantitative analysis
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Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109
of cut heat affected zone (HAZ). In this paper, a detailed study on HAZ
was explored. The influence of laser power, gas pressure, cutting speed
and pulse duration on HAZ and cut quality were highlighted.
Black and Chua [75] examined the influence of various assist gases
(compressed air, nitrogen, oxygen and argon) on surface roughness of
alumina ceramics. There was no significant variation in surface
roughness due to various assist gases. To enhance the cutting quality,
multi pass and underwater cutting in various modes (straight line, an-
gular, curvilinear and square) were also conducted. It was observed that
both under water and multi pass cutting reduced temperature gradient
but re-solidification of molten material increased in under water cut-
ting.
A major obstacle that affects the cutting quality is the induced
thermal stress. This stress results in crack propagation. Different tech-
niques such as multi pass cutting, underwater cutting, water jet assisted
cutting, dual beam arrangement and substrate preheating have been
performed to minimise the crack damage [76–80]. The elimination of
premature fractures while cutting thick ceramics is also a challenge. It
can be controlled by lowering the heat build-up and thermal stress on
the substrate. So multiple pass cutting or interrupted cutting is prac-
ticed to lower the thermal input and high temperature build up. But it
reduces the process speed. So, few innovative methods such as pre-
scoring [69] and multi beam cutting [81] are explored which cut thick
ceramics at a faster rate with minimal damage. These methods help in
controlling the step temperature gradients and cooling rates and hence
eliminate crack formation. Yilbas et al. [82] performed circular cuts on
3 mm thick alumina tiles using N2 as assisting gas. The temperature and
stress fields were analysed using ABAQUS, and residual stress was
calculated using XRD technique. Striation marks and dross attachment
at kerf exit were observed due to drag force generated by assist gas. A
temperature variation (decay) was observed in the neighbourhood of
the cut region due to the low thermal conductivity of alumina. Yilbas,
Akhtar and Karatas [83] also examined the temperature and stress field
distribution in CO2 laser cut 5 mm thick alumina. Yan et al. [61] de-
signed a finite element model to simulate thermal stress distribution
and temperature field and predicted the crack formation characteristics.
The mechanism of controlled fracture and surface breaking of alu-
mina during laser cutting was highlighted by Tsai and Chen [84]. The
fracture mechanisms were analysed using fractographic observations
and stress analysis. It was observed that the breaking surface showed
four distinct regions characterized by evaporation region, columnar
grain region, intergranular fracture region and trans granular fracture
region respectively from top to bottom. The evaporation region was
formed due to heat concentration with minute cracks. Major cracks
were formed in columnar grain region due to solidification of melted
material. Due to a decrease in temperature, tensile stress was induced
which extended the crack to the intergranular region and caused in-
stability which resulted in the formation of trans granular fracture re-
gion. Ji et al. [85] also discussed single pass crack free cutting of 10 mm
thick alumina with pulsed CO2 laser. It was concluded that with high
peak power at a low duty cycle, full through piercing with minimal heat
flux could be attained effectively in thick ceramics. Lu, Siores and Wang
[86] derived an empirical relation for crack formation in ceramics as-
suming that the cracks initiated when the tensile strain attained the
critical (fracture) strain of the material. J. Pascual-Cosp et al. [80] gave
a detailed study on the catastrophic breakdown in highly vitrified
ceramics. The study revealed that thermal shocks were produced due to
the incoming cold gas jet during the cutting process that led to crack
formation but crack propagation was limited due to visco-plastic flu-
ency of material during cooling, thus preventing catastrophic break-
down.
A detailed comparative study on the influence of injection system on
the cutting of advanced ceramics by Nd-YAG laser was carried out by
Quintero et al. [87]. The aerodynamic interaction influence of flowing
jet on the ceramic cut surface and HAZ characteristics were studied.
The investigation revealed that HAZ zone could be significantly avoided
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109

Table 2
Surface profile of laser cut alumina at 415 W power, 186 mm/min scanning speed, 15 kHz pulse rate and 0.5 mm nozzle stand of distance at 1 bar assist gas pressure
[63].
SEM images of surface profile Close up view of surface profile Assist gas

Nitrogen

Helium

Argon

Oxygen

Compressed air

by proper selection of input parameters and suitable design of injection made to improve the laser cut quality by using off-axial supersonic
system. The effective flushing of molten metal could be carried out by axisymmetric rectangular nozzle instead of converging-coaxial nozzle
designing an alternative gas injection system. An investigation was for injecting the assist gas [88]. It resulted in reduction of roughness

98
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das
Fig. 14. Debris accumulation on the laser cut ceramic (a) without PVA coating and (b) with PVA coating [70].
Fig. 15. SEM images of the microstructure of recast layer at (a) upper region (b) middle region and (c) lower region [73].
and dross free cut due to efficient removal of molten materials. Quin-
tero et al. [89] also designed three types of gas ejection systems and
analysed the mechanism of material removal in ceramics by pulsed
laser fusion cutting. Research studies have shown that laser inclination
angle has a detrimental effect on the cut quality. Mullick [90] reported
that inclined beam influenced the absorption capability of the material,
striation depth, power distribution and shear stress distribution.
4.3. Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM)
Abrasive water jet machining is a non-conventional machining
technique widely used in construction, automotive industries, aero-
space, and environmental technology. It is a non-contact process used
for cutting hard as well as soft, brittle and fibrous materials such as
metals, super alloys, ceramics, composite, glass, rocks, plastics etc. This
recent cutting technique has some inherent advantages over another
cutting process like negligible heat affected zone, high machining ver-
satility with multidirectional cutting ability and high flexibility to
machine any material of any thickness. Most importantly, it is an en-
vironment-friendly process [91,92].
4.3.1. Principle and working
A water jet composed of abrasive particles is passed through a small
diameter orifice nozzle. The momentum transfer between water and
abrasives generates a highly focussed and pressurized high velocity jet
stream which is applied to the substrate and cuts and removes the
material by erosion [92] (Fig. 16). The cutting edge obtained does not
require any further machining to improve the surface finish.
The abrasives used in AWJM are mostly garnet, aluminium oxide, si-
licon carbide, silica sand, zirconium, glass bead etc. The penetration depth
of the jet is dependent on the hardness of the substrate and abrasives.
Results have shown that, when the hardness ratio is maintained between 1.0
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Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109
and 1.1, the material removal rate is improved significantly [93]. The taper
angle is also influenced by the hardness of the abrasives [93]. Silicon car-
bide is the hardest abrasive which retains its cutting ability as it flows down.
So, a relatively lower taper angle is formed, and maximum depth of cut is
generated.
While machining in AWJM, it is observed that the kerf width and taper
angle are interrelated. The width of cut at the top surface is always greater
than that at the lower surface and hence taper cut is achieved. It was re-
ported by Wang [94] and Rahman [95] that as the abrasives flowed down
the jet, their kinetic energy decreased and relative strength zone of jet got
narrowed down. With increment in stand-off distance, the width of cut and
taper angle increases due to the divergence of the jet stream. Also, with the
increase in work feed rate, the average width of cut reduces as the jet re-
mains in contact with the material for a shorter period, but taper of cut
increases as cutting is less effective at the jet exit. Similarly, with an increase
in abrasive jet velocity, the kinetic energy of the jet increases which leads to
better penetration capability, reduction of angle taper and surface roughness
when transverse speed of the jet medium is medium [96]. The major
drawback of AWJM is that it generates enormous noise and provides a
messy working environment.
4.3.2. Research progress
The striated marks on the machined surface affect the surface finish of
the material. The striations are generally present in the lower region of the
cut surface, and the upper is free from striations. Chen et al. [97] gave a
detailed investigation on the cut quality of alumina ceramics. It was ob-
served that the top cut surface was smooth with no striations or pits. The
middle region showed striations marks without pits, and the lower region
was full of pits. Various researchers have presented different reasons and
mechanisms for striation formation. Chen and Siores [98] emphasized that
the kinetic energy distribution of the abrasives particles played a major role
in striation formation along with other process parameters and induced
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das
Fig. 16. Schematic diagram of AWJM setup [101].
Fig. 17. Various types of taper cut in AWJM [104].
vibration while machining. Chen, Siores and Wong [99] conducted a set of
cutting experiments to investigate the cut quality using multidirectional
abrasive water jet. The jet impact angle (angle between the plane of
workpiece and jet) was varied to study the formation and pattern of stria-
tion mark and also the maximum penetration depth. The influence of os-
cillation angle and oscillation frequency on the upper smooth zone of kerf
was also analysed.
Hocheng and Chang [100] performed AWJ cutting on 0.65 mm and
1.35 mm Al2O3 plate and 5 mm and 10 mm Si3N4 ceramic to analyze the
kerf formation. Rouniyar et al. [101] and Upadhyai et al. [102] high-
lighted the effect of hydraulic pressure, stand-off distance and traverse
speed on surface roughness and kerf properties of 16 mm thick PZT
ceramics during AWJM. A regression model was designed to predict the
roughness of the cut geometry. Ghosh et al. [103] also analysed the
variation in kerf width and surface roughness of 10 mm thick Al2O3
ceramic which was cut using silicon carbide grits. It was reported that
better surface roughness was obtained at hydraulic pressure of 400
Mpa, abrasive flow rate of 15 g/min, feed rate of 4 mm/min and stand
off distance of 4 mm. Minimum kerf width was achieved at 400 MPa
hydraulic pressure, 25 g/min abrasive flow rate, 6 mm/min feed rate,
and 6 mm standoff distance.
Krajcarz et al. [104] reported a detailed observation of the influence
of transverse speed on kerf width and taper angle while cutting of 9 mm
thick ceramic plates. The different types of kerf taper formation have
been shown in Fig. 17.
A detailed investigation was carried out by Gupta and Sakharwade
[105] on the effects of nozzle jet diameter ratio on AWJM performance.
It was reported that with an increase in nozzle jet diameter ratio, the
cutting velocity gradually increased but skin friction coefficient,
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Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109
turbulent intensity and pressure decreased.
The capability of AWJM is not limited to ceramics only. Vigano
et al. [106] performed precision cutting of 35 mm thick Yttria stabilized
zirconia alumina ceramic sponge with 5 axis AWJ cutting machine. The
cutting performance of filled ceramic sponge and ceramic sponge were
investigated. It was concluded that temporary filling procedure in
ceramic sponges helped in maintaining jet coherence and obtaining
near net shape cutting. Feed rate of 150 mm/min and pressure of
380 MPa were found to be suitable for preserving the integrity of these
fragile structures.
A parametric study on various process parameters for cutting 10 mm
thick dense silicon nitride Si3N4 was made by Ghosh et al. [107]. The
multi-response optimization was done by Grey- Taguchi method. The
results revealed that for achieving combined quality characteristics of
surface roughness, MRR and kerf width, the contributions of water jet
pressure, transverse speed, abrasive flow rate and stand-off distance
were 76.18%, 11.42%, 10.81% and 1.53% respectively.
With enormous efforts, various predictive models have been pre-
sented for predicting AWJM characteristics and enhancing the ma-
chining performance. Wang and Liu [108] developed predictive models
for depth of cut and degree of taper for profile cutting and straight slit
cutting by AWJM. The effectiveness of these models was evaluated by
cutting an 87% alumina substrate. Rahman [95] derived an erosion
based cutting model which established a relationship between max-
imum cutting depth and fracture toughness and other material prop-
erty. This erosion based model was used to investigate the effect of
process variables on the depth of cut. Wang [94] designed a predictive
model based on dimensional analysis technique for predicting the depth
of cut during AWJ contouring of alumina. The model was validated by
conducting a set of cuttings on 25.4 mm thick 87% pure alumina
ceramic with various process variables. Zeng and Kim [109] studied the
erosion mechanism in polycrystalline ceramics. An erosion model was
derived to analyze the network cracking and plastic flow during AWJ
cutting. It was concluded that erosion rate depended on the size of
grains and the fracture energy of the material. Hlavac et al. [110] de-
signed a theoretical model for reducing the shape distortion during
curved trajectory cutting. They reported that by proving appropriate
tilting angle to the jet, the shape deformation could be eliminated. A
mathematical model for depth of cut was designed for amorphous
ceramics by Aich et al. [111]. The optimization of process parameters
was carried out by particle swarm optimization (PSO). The erosion
behaviour in amorphous ceramics was also investigated. As reported by
them, the material removal in the top surface and bottom surface were
dominated by brittle fracture and plastic deformation respectively
(shown in Fig. 18).
Table 3 presents a summarised information of the results of the non-
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das
Fig. 18. SEM images of (a) top surface (fragmentation of surface) and (b) bottom surface (gradual plastic deformation) [111].
conventional ceramic cutting methods.
4.4. Comparative study on different non-conventional methods
It is quite evident that the best suitable method for cutting brittle
ceramics depends on various parameters as discussed in Table 4.
From Table 4, it is observed that abrasive water jet machining is
comparatively a better solution for machining/cutting ceramics. The
AWJM process has no restriction for cutting very thick electrically non-
conductive ceramics (limitation of WEDM) and reflective ceramic ma-
terials (limitation of LBM). A major advantage of using AWJM is that a
machined surface with minimal burrs and without any melted edges
and HAZ can be obtained. Moreover, no hazardous gases and UV ra-
diation are released which makes it an eco-friendly cutting process.
5. Hybrid machining
The non-conventional cutting processes discussed above have some
limitations which reduce their cutting efficiency and accuracy, preci-
sion and quality of the cut geometry. To enhance their performance,
few innovative machining techniques have been developed. Hybrid
machining processes involve controlled and simultaneous interactions
of two or more machining mechanism and/or tools/energy sources
which affect the performance characteristics [115]. These combine the
advantages of two different processes and develop a new process which
is more efficient and effective than any of the single process.
5.1. Hybrid laser assisted water jet machining
Laser cutting of ceramics always results in thermal stresses or
thermal shocks which cause micro cracks in the brittle ceramics. To
reduce these thermal damages, hybrid laser assisted water jet cutting is
developed.
5.1.1. Principle and working
In hybrid laser water jet cutting (shown in Fig. 19), the laser beam is
only used for softening and heating the substrate, and the material is
removed by the impact of the pressurized water jet. The water jet is
flown off axially on the softened material. Hybrid laser water jet ma-
chining is able to minimise the induced thermal stress because of two
reasons. Firstly, the material is not removed by vaporization or melting
phenomenon, so lesser amount of laser input energy is required. Sec-
ondly, the workpiece is cooled by the water jet, so, the thermal effect on
the workpiece is reduced. The water jet nozzle has to move simulta-
neously with the laser beam head during traverse motion. In general,
water jet nozzle can have three motions explained in Fig. 20; along its
own axis (stand-off distance), along the horizontal traverse direction
101
Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109
(offset distance) and inclination with the laser head (impact angle). The
process parameters that govern the hybrid laser water jet machining are
laser power, pulse duration, and frequency, traverse speed, water jet
pressure, water jet stand-off and offset distance and impact angle of
waterjet nozzle.
The interference of water jet with laser beam affects the machining
performance. If there is large offset distance between laser target point
and water jet channel such that the point is outside the channel
(Fig. 21a), then laser beam passes through a thin layer of water before
reaching the workpiece. In this case, there will be less heat dissipation.
But if the laser's target point overlaps with the water jet channel
(Fig. 21b), then a thick layer of water will act as a disturbance for the
laser beam to strike and heat the substrate. So, in hybrid laser water jet
machining, the formed water layer affects laser beam quality and dis-
sipates laser heat energy through water. As a result, more heat energy
will have to be supplied by the laser beam so that the required amount
reaches the substrate for heating and softening. An optimum offset
distance is to be maintained to minimise the disturbance and loss and
for easy cutting of material at low pressure [116].
5.1.2. Research progress
Feng et al. [117] investigated the surface quality of micro grooved
single crystal SiC with conventional laser machining and different water
assisted laser machining. It was observed that better cutting quality
(straight and clean edges) was achieved with hybrid laser water jet
machining. Underwater cutting produced discontinuous grooves and
low pressure water jet machining was unable to produce any groove.
Molian et al. [119] presented a comparative study on surface quality of
aluminium nitride plate, cut by conventional CO2 laser and hybrid laser
assisted water jet cutting. It was observed that a narrow kerf width with
no HAZ and slag inclusion was obtained in hybrid cutting. Feng et al.
[120] used a nano second pulsed fiber laser and a water jet nozzle to
generate micro grooves on the sample. As reported by them, with in-
creasing laser power, MRR was increased but with increasing stand-off
distance and jet pressure, MRR was reduced. Also, narrow heat affected
zone and recast layer were formed.
Yang et al. [121] used a different arrangement for machining thin
materials by coupling pulsed laser beam with low pressure water jet,
termed as water guided laser machining. In this cutting technique, the
water jet is coaxially passed with the laser beam from the same nozzle.
The water jet acts as optical fibre where the total internal reflection of
laser beam takes place. The cutting action is carried out by the laser.
Feng et al. [118] designed analytical models of temperature field dis-
tribution for determining the characteristics of micro grooved SiC and
deeper understanding of the material removal mechanism in hybrid
laser water jet machining. Bao et al. [116] investigated on smooth
particle hydrodynamic (SPH) technique for understanding the influence
 Table 3
Summarized information of results of non- conventional ceramic cutting.
Cutting process Material Experiments Process parameters Results References
(Thickness)

WEDM B4C Effect on machining speed and Pulse on time = 30 μs, pulse off time = 52 μs, Current = 200 A, Optimal machining rate and surface roughness were Pramanick et al.
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das

(5 mm) surface roughness Water pressure = 8 kg/cm2 0.594 mm/min and 2.09 μm respectively. [43]
(optimal)
Assisting electrode WEDM Sialon (2 mm) Mechanics of machining insulating Brass wire dia. = 0.2 mm, Groove width of 0.27–0.29 mm and average machining Mohri et al. [37]
ceramics Kerosene oil, wire feed rate = 120 mm/s, tension force = 150 gf rate of 0.33 mm/min was achieved due to formation of
(optimal) conductive layer.
Foil EDM SiC (10 mm) Effect on machining rate and kerf Copper foil thickness = 0.05 mm, open voltage = 120 V, Minimum kerf width of 0.1 mm was achieved at inlet Zhao et al. [41]
width discharge duration = 1 μs, duty factor = 6.255, Discharge Negative polarity is favourable for high machining
current = 8 A (optimal) rate.
WEDM ZrB2, ZrB2-Cu Effect on MRR Current = 0.5–1.25 A, pulse duration = 1–3.5 μs, In ZrB2, MRR increased at high energy input. Cheng et al. [44]
frequency = 6-15 KHz ZrB2-Cu had low MRR and wear due to formation of
copper oxide layer. So, can be used as machining tool.
WEDM Al2O3/TiC Effect on mechanical properties Discharge voltage = 55 V, Current = 5,10,14 A Flexural strength, Weibull modulus and hardness of Jianxin et al.
WEDM were lower compared to diamond blade [51]
cutting.
Pulsed CO2 laser Al2O3 (10 mm) Analysis of crack free CPL laser Peak power = 3500 W, piercing time = 0.1–0.5 s, piercing High peak power and low duty cycle and appropriate Ji et al. [85]
cutting pitch = 0.03–0.05 mm, duty cycle < 30% piercing time slot produces crack free cuts
Diamond scribing and CO2 laser Glass (0.63 mm) Analysis of breaking surface Laser power = 70 W, cutting speed = 35 mm/s, scribing High scribing load, high cutting velocity. Tsai and Huang
breaking load = 900 g, laser spot dia. = 8.5 mm Laser breaking gave better cut quality than mechanical [15]
(optimal) breaking.
Nano second pulsed Nd:YAG Alumina (1 mm) Striation free cutting Power 360 = 420 W, pulse repetition rate = 12–15 kHz, cutting Striation free cutting by evaporation governed cut Yan et al. [63]
laser speed of 120–270 mm/min, with 1–1.5 bar nitrogen assist gas. process.
Nitrogen provided stable and striation free cut
Fiber laser Alumina Influence on flexural strength Power = 500 W Maximum strength at focus position below substrate Adelmann et al.

102
(0.63 mm) Cutting speed = 50–300 mm/s [112]
Pulse time = 1 ms
Gas pressure = 6–12 bar
Pulsed Nd:YAG laser Si3N4 (2.15 mm) Effect on surface roughness Lamp current = 25 A, cutting speed = 20 mm/s Initially decreased and then increased with increasing Kaur et al. [113]
Pulse frequency = 7 KHz lamp current, pulse frequency and cutting speed.
(optimal) Minimum surface roughness = 3 μm
CO2 laser Alumina Influence on recast layer Power = 200 W Thickness increases from upper to middle region and Chen et al. [73]
(1 mm) Cutting speed = 500–1500 mm/min then decreases to lower region as high cooling rate in
N2 gas pressure = 1–8 bar middle region
Laser scribing using nano second Al2O3 (0.6 mm) and Effect of pulse duration Pulse on time = 30 fs and 60 ns, Femtosecond scribing efficiently removed the material Iwai et al. [114]
and femtosecond laser Si wafer (0.75 mm) Wavelength = 800 nm, 1047 nm, as no bump was observed. Improved cut at pulse
Power = 0.7 W, 24 W duration = 30-600 fs
for femtosecond and nanosecond laser respectively.
Pulsed Nd:YAG laser Mullite (4 mm) Characteristics of HAZ Laser Power = 270–430 W, pulse frequency = 10–200 Hz, Minimum HAZ area (0.2–0.3 mm2) achieved at pulse Quintero et al.
cutting speed = 2.5, 5 mm/s, gas pressure = 3,5,8,12 bar frequency 20–50 Hz. [74]
Nd:YAG laser PSTZ (8.3 mm) Influence of heating temp. on pulse frequency = 180 Hz, pulse Heating the substrate reduces thermal gradient which Murray et al.
recast layer micro cracking length = 0.4 ms, cutting speed = 100 mm/min, and an O2 assist lowers the recast layer micro cracking. [76]
gas pressure = 2 bar (optimal)
Pulsed Nd:YAG laser Mullite (4 mm) Influence of gas injection system on Power = 430 W, cutting speed = 5 mm/s, pulse Off axis supersonic nozzle ejected the molten material Quintero et al.
cut quality frequency = 120 Hz, pulse duration = 1 ms, gas more effectively. [87]
pressure = 8 bar
AWJM Glass Influence of garnet, SiC and Al2O3 Jet pressure = 10-50 ksi, Smallest tapered cut and maximum width of cut was Khan and Haque
abrasives on width of cut and Standoff distance = 1–5 mm, achieved by SiC due to high hardness [93]
tapered cut Feed rate = 10–60 mm/min
AWJM Alumina (15 mm and Effect on surface roughness Jet pressure = 350 MPa, garnet abrasives, abrasives flow Surface roughness increases at the bottom of cut with Joshi et al. [96]
30 mm) rate = 320, 390 g/min, traverse speed = 37–390 mm/min increasing thickness
AWJM Alumina (12.7 mm Study on cut surface characteristics Jet pressure = 138–345 MPa, standoff distance = 2–6 mm, Upper zone- smooth surface, Chen et al. [97]
and 25.4 mm) abrasives flow rate = 575–910 g/min, traverse Middle zone- striations, lower zone- striations, pits and
speed = 20–50 mm/min ballooning effect.
AWJM Al2O3 (10 mm) Parametric analysis on kerf width Jet pressure = 4000 bar, standoff distance = 6 mm, abrasives Minimum kerf width of 1.33 mm was achieved Ghosh et al.
Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109

flow rate = 25 g/min, traverse speed = 6 mm/min (optimal) [103]

R. Rakshit and A.K. Das Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109

Table 4
Comparison of different non-conventional ceramic cutting methods.
Parameters WEDM LBM AWJM

Cutting rate (mm/min) Slow Fast Fast

(0.5–10) (50-6000) (10-500)
Refs. [37,43,45] Refs. [63,73,74,113] Refs. [93,96,97]
Ceramic thickness (mm) Thin and thick Thin and medium Thick and thin
(0.5–30) (0.5–10) (0.5–30)
Refs. [32–52] Refs. [60–80] Refs. [92–105]
Electrically non -conductive Ceramic cutting Possible with special arrangement Always possible Always possible
Reflective ceramic cutting Possible Not possible or difficult Possible
Material hardening Yes Yes No
HAZ Yes (narrow) Yes (broad) No
Burr formation Minimal Yes Minimal
Noise Low Low High
Environment friendliness Low Low High
Operating costs Low Low High

Fig. 19. Setup of hybrid laser assisted water jet machining [119].

platinum as an auxiliary electrode are used for machining. KOH or

Fig. 20. Setting parameters in hybrid laser water jet machining [118].
of water on debris removal.
5.2. Electrochemical discharge assisted wire machining
This method combines the mechanism of electrochemical discharge
machining (ECDM) and wire sawing for cutting of brittle ceramics. A
high temperature is attained in ECDM which helps in spalling the
ceramic with a reciprocating wire.
5.2.1. Principle and working
Wire electrochemical discharge assisted machining has gained wide
acceptance for cutting brittle non-conductive ceramics. A brass, copper
or tungsten as electrode wire and chemically reactive graphite or
NaOH are used as the electrolyte. When the electrolyte is continuously
supplied coaxially with the wire electrolyte and high potential voltage
is applied between two electrodes, droplets are formed; inside which
oxygen and hydrogen bubbles are generated by the auxiliary electrode
and electrode wire respectively (Fig. 22). The accumulation of gas
bubbles results in the formation of stable insulated gas film which leads
to initiation of sparks and material gets removed.
In some cases, electrochemical assisted diamond wire cutting is also
used for cutting brittle ceramics. When DC voltage is supplied to the
wire (negative electrode) and the assisting electrode (positive elec-
trode), electrochemical reaction initiates and wire gets surrounded by a
hydrogen gas film. This film electrically insulates the wire from the
electrolyte. When the DC voltage overcomes the breakdown voltage,
electric sparks occur within the gas film surrounding the wire [122].
This increases the temperature and lowers the strength of the workpiece
and the reciprocating wire cuts the ceramic. The schematic diagram has
been shown in Fig. 23. The gas film stability is disturbed by the for-
mation of bubbles during the electrochemical reaction which affects the
machining performance. Sometimes the presence of chips in the elec-
trolyte results in secondary discharges due to which the bubbles start
accumulating in-between the wire and workpiece. Generally, NaCl is
used as electrolyte owning to its good electrical conductivity and non-
corrosive nature.
The spraying velocity of the electrolyte plays a vital role in the
generation of electric discharges. When low velocity is maintained, it
leads to the accumulation of bubbles surrounding the wire due to
electrochemical reactions and electric discharges. If high velocity is
maintained, the gas film is blown away by the electrolyte and wire
insulation is hampered. So only an ideal electrolyte spraying velocity

103
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das
Fig. 21. Laser water jet interaction under different waterjet offset distances where hw implies water layer thickness and Oj implies impact angle. (a) no overlap and
(b) overlap of laser and water jet [116].
Fig. 22. Schematic diagram of H2 and O2 bubbles inside a KOH droplet during
WECDM [127].
Fig. 23. Schematic diagram of electrochemical assisted diamond wire cutting
[124].
can make the cutting possible and efficient.
5.2.2. Research progress
It is difficult to generate electric discharges for thick ceramics as the
hydrogen gas film alone is incapable of providing an electrically in-
sulating environment around the wire. If the DC voltage is increased,
then it results in wire breakage. So, in such situations, an oil film is
coated on the diamond wire which along with gas film electrically in-
sulate the wire from the electrode [123]. For this experimental study,
5 mm and 36 mm glass plate, 10 mm alumina sheet and stainless steel
assisting electrode were used. NaCl solution with 20% mass con-
centration was sprayed into the cutting zone with a nozzle. As observed
by them, MRR and surface roughness increased with increasing DC
voltage, counterweight and wire speed. The oil film was found to be
effective for cutting thick ceramics. Wang et al. [124] also reported
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Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109
similar results for MRR and surface roughness while cutting insulating
ceramics. In this paper, the influence of concentration of electrolyte on
the threshold breakdown voltage was also discussed.
Peng and Liao [125] conducted experiments on borosilicate optical
glass and quartz bars of 10–30 mm diameter to investigate the perfor-
mance of electrochemical discharge assisted traveling wire cutting.
Copper and tempered stainless steel wires (0.25 mm diameter) of
WEDM and KOH and NaOH as electrolyte were used for comparative
study. It was noticed that the pulsed DC power supply produced stable
and higher energy sparks compared to constant DC power supply. It was
concluded that by rotating the bars the taper angle of cut could be re-
duced, and sliced surface quality could be improved.
The cutting accuracy is affected by wire vibration and improper
insulation by the gas film. So, abrasives of different concentration and
sizes are mixed to the electrolyte to improve the cut quality. Chemical
etching, electrical discharge, and abrasives cutting altogether enhance
the machining performance. Yang et al. [126] added silicon carbide
(SiC) abrasives to KOH electrolyte for improving over cut in 1.2 mm
thick glass plates. In pure electrolyte, cracks are produced on the ma-
chined surface whereas with the addition of abrasives, the micro cracks
are refined which reduces the surface roughness (Fig. 24).
Kuo et al. [127] performed slit cutting of quartz glass by supplying
the KOH electrolyte in droplets. A brass wire as cathode and graphite
auxiliary electrode as an anode was used and the electrolyte was ap-
plied in the titrated flow. The rapid electrolyte replenishment reduced
the bubble accumulation and ensured stable gas film insulation. The
laser cutting was also performed on the same workpiece which pro-
duced uneven machined surface with cracks (Fig. 25). So, good surface
quality and efficient machining were produced by the titrated electro-
lytic flow.
6. Comparative study between hybrid machining and other
processes
It is possible to achieve near damage free micro grooving or cutting
of ceramics with hybrid laser wet jet machining. The material is re-
moved at lower energy densities as compared to conventional laser
cutting. A large heat affected zone is created in traditional laser cutting
(Fig. 26a) which can be easily minimised by using hybrid laser wet jet
cutting (Fig. 26b).
So, it is a novel technique to cut ceramics before reaching their
melting point and eliminating the formation of recast layer.
The electrochemical assisted wire cutting facilitates spalling of
ceramics which improves the MRR compared to conventional wire
sawing. But at the same time, the spalling mechanism results in the
formation of craters (Fig. 27b) on the machined surface which lowers
the surface roughness.
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das
Fig. 24. SEM images of machined surfaces for (a) pure electrolyte and (b) abrasives added electrolyte [126].
Fig. 25. SEM images of machined quartz glass during laser cutting and WECDM
with titrated electrolytic flow [127].
Ito et al. [128] proposed selective laser assisted milling for precision
cutting of brittle glass. It was reported that the average roughness
profile was reduced by 74% compared with the conventional cutting
method. The high quality machined surface in laser assisted milling is
shown in Fig. 28b. An investigation on the generated chips (Fig. 28c
and d) revealed that the chips morphology changed from crack type to
quasi continuous type (cylindrical with twisted marks) by the applica-
tion of selective laser assisted milling.
Wee et al. [129] conducted laser ablation on silicon wafer in air and
under water stream. As reported by them, water removes the debris and
spatter formation is reduced. But the flowing water stream cannot at-
tain a smoother ablated surface compared with air because of the
Fig. 26. Comparison of the surface topography of SiC crystal after (a) conventional laser cutting and (b) hybrid laser water jet cutting [118].
105
Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109
reduction in laser intensity under water (shown in Fig. 29).
Table 5 describes the material removal rate and attainable surface
finish of non-conventional and hybrid ceramic cutting processes.
7. Future scope
It is obvious that many researchers have developed novel techniques
to overcome the limitation barriers of non-traditional ceramic cutting
methods. But the optimization of these methods still remains a chal-
lenge as small change in individual parameter effects the machining
performance in a complex manner. In addition, due to the complicated
mechanism of material removal, stochastic and deterministic techni-
ques including mathematical models and algorithms are necessary for
optimizing the process. Moreover, future research work should be fo-
cussed upon multi objective optimization.
A major problem that occurs in wire EDM is the breakage and
bending of the electrode wire. A high heat flux per unit length of
electrode wire is generated at the discharge spot which leads to un-
stable machining conditions and results in wire breakage. So, an ad-
vanced study is recommended to enhance the machining efficiency
without wire breakage. The complete dross elimination during laser
cutting of ceramics is still a challenge. Few techniques like water as-
sisted laser cutting, off-axis assisting gas nozzle have already been
practiced to eliminate dross formation, but more intensive investigation
is required. Future research should be concentrated on cutting of thick
and reflective ceramics which acts an obstacle to such a versatile cut-
ting method. Generally, erosion behaviour for crystalline ceramics
during AWJM has been studied in detail. The erosion mechanism in
amorphous materials should be taken into consideration. Panoptic re-
search is required on process monitoring and control for wide
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109

Fig. 27. SEM images of the machined surface of alumina during (a) conventional diamond wire cutting and (b) electrochemical discharge assisted diamond wire
cutting [123].

Fig. 28. SEM images of machined surface formed by (a) conventional and (b) selective laser assisted machining. SEM images of chips generated by (c) conventional
and (d) selective laser assisted machining [128].

acceptance of these processes in machining industries.
Hybrid machining involves the use of different forms of energy
which makes the material removal mechanisms quite complex. So, a
detailed investigation is required to fully understand the simultaneous
and controlled interaction of various process mechanisms. Multi scale
modelling for simulating and optimizing the hybrid machining pro-
cesses is indispensable. In hybrid laser water jet machining, thermal
shocks are generated due to laser heating and water jet expelling from
the substrate. These induce formation of micro cracks in the substrate.
In electrochemical assisted wire cutting, thick non-conductive and
brittle ceramics can be cut, but micro cracks and craters are formed on
the machined surface which raise the surface roughness values as
compared to conventional wire cutting. These impediments are re-
quired to be eliminated. As hybrid cutting processes are still at the
research stage, so, industrial implementation of these processes can be
considered as future work.

106
R. Rakshit and A.K. Das Precision Engineering 59 (2019) 90–109

Fig. 29. Morphology of Si entrance hole (a) in air and (b) under flowing water stream [129].

Table 5 cutting hard and insulating ceramics. LBM has been successful in gen-
Material removal rate and attainable surface finish of non- conventional and erating crack free and striation free cutting under certain parameters.
hybrid ceramic cutting processes. LCT method can produce defect free cuts with enhanced mechanical
Non- conventional Material Material Surface References strength in glass and other ceramics. AWJM is considered as a better
and hybrid cutting (thickness in removal rate Finish (μm) method for cutting grooves and scribes in thick ceramics. This process is
process mm) (mm3/min) environment-friendly.
From the comparative study, it is evident that hybrid machining is
Wire electrical B4C (5) 0.45–0.6 3.83 [43]
discharge ZrB2 2.085 – [44] efficient in cutting ceramics with improved surface characteristics such
machining SiSiC (30) – 3.5 [45] as roughness, HAZ etc. As the material is removed in hybrid water jet
Sialon 4.2–6 – [52] machining in its solid state, at a temperature below its melting point, a
(2.62) very narrow heat affected zone (HAZ) is formed. It generates better
Laser beam machining Alumina (1) – 2.7–8.3 [63]
Si3N4 (2.15) – 3 [113]
crack free cut surfaces compared to dry laser cutting. Hybrid cutting
Alumina 0.1–0.4 – [132] methods are still at the research stage and further investigation is re-
(10) – 9–14 [75] quired for the better understanding of process mechanism and in-
Alumina dustrial implementation.
(9.2)
Abrasive water jet Alumina – 4.5 [97]
machining (12.7) – 0.03–0.25 [103] Acknowledgments
Alumina 30–120 – [130]
(10) 3–9 – [130] The author acknowledges the support offered by the professors of
Al2O3 (0.65) Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad,
Si3N4 (1.35)
Hybrid laser water jet SiC wafers 0.402 – [120]
India.
machining (0.36) – 4.2 [131]
Alumina (1) References
Electrochemical Alumina (5) 7.3 0.62–0.85 [123]
discharge assisted Glass (10) 4.47 0.33 [123]
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