ASM Handbook

Volume 4E
Heat Treating of Nonferrous Alloys
Prepared under the direction of the

ASM International Handbook Committee

Volume Editor
George E. Totten, Portland State University

Division Editors
D. Scott MacKenzie, Houghton International, Inc.

Olaf Kessler, Universitat Rostock

Sabit Ali, NBM Metals, Inc.

Ian Dempster, Wyman Gordon Forgings
Ronald Wallis

Rodney R. Boyer, RBTi Consulting

ASM International Staff

Steve Lampman, Senior Content Developer
Vicki Burt, Content Developer
Amy Nolan, Content Developer
Susan Sellers, Editorial Assistant

Madrid Tramble, Manager, Production

Patty Conti, Production Coordinator

Diane Whitelaw, Production Coordinator
Karen Marken, Senior Managing Editor
Scott D. Henry, Senior Manager, Content Development

Editorial Assistance
Elizabeth Marquard
Scott Ryan
Buz Riley

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ASM Handbook, Volume 4E, Heat Treating of Nonferrous Alloys Copyright © 2016 ASM International®
G.E. Totten and D.S.MacKenzie, editors All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org

Contents

Fundamentals of Nonferrous Heat Treatment 1

Annealing of Aluminum and Its Alloys
3 Jurgen Hirsch, Hydro Aluminium Rolled Products
Principles of Heat Treating of Nonferrous Alloys GmbH-R&D 137
Introduction 3
Diffusion in Metals and Alloys 3
Mechanisms and Microstructure Evolution during
Annealing 137
Annealing of Cold-Worked Metals 7
8 Annealing of Heat Treatable Aluminum Alloys 143
Recovery
Main Annealing and Process Parameters Affecting
Recrystallization 8
Final Properties 145
Grain Growth 11
of 12 Quenching of Aluminum Alloys
Homogenization Castings
D. Scott MacKenzie, Houghton International
Solid-State Phase Transformations 15
Niels Bogh, Bogh Industries
Isothermal Phase Transformations 18
Tom Croucher, Tom Croucher and Associates 148
Athermal Transformations 24
Quench Sensitivity of Alloys 149
Precipitation Hardening 25
Quench Mechanisms 151
Homogenization of Metal Alloys
32 Quench Severity and Cooling Rates 152
Paul D. Jablonski, U.S. Department of Energy
Water as a Quenchant 156
Homogenization—Overview of the Problem 33
Immersion Water Quenching 157
Segregation-Induced Incipient Melt Point 33
Spray or Fog Quenching 159
Estimating the Homogenization Heat Treatment Time 34
160
Polymer Quenchants
Using CALPHAD Methods to Optimize the Homogenization
Other Quenching Media 165
Heat Treatment 34
Quench-Factor Analysis 166
Computational Algorithm 35
Racking Practices 171
Summary 36
Quench Tank Systems 173
Annealing and Recrystallization 38
176
The Deformed State 38 Agitation Systems
Quench Sensitivity of Aluminum Alloys 179
Recovery 38
Time-Temperature-Property Diagrams 179
Recrystallization 39
Quench FactorAnalysis 182
Grain Growth 41
Classical Quench Factor Analysis 183
Heat Treatable Nonferrous Alloys
Assumptions in Quench Factor Analysis 184
Alexey Sverdlin, Milwaukee School of Engineering
44
Limitations of Quench Factor Analysis 185
Steven Lampman, ASM International
Modified Quench Factor Analysis 187
Aluminum Alloys 44
49 Jominy End-Quench Method 187
Magnesium Alloys
Continuous-Cooling Precipitation Diagrams 191
Nickel Alloys 51
Residual Stress in Heat Treatable Aluminum Alloys
Titanium and Titanium Alloys 53
and 57
/.S. Robinson, University of Limerick 198
Copper Copper Alloys
Introduction 198
Other Nonferrous Alloys 61
Origin and Magnitude of Residual Stresses 198
Thermal Stress Relief 201

Reducing Residual Stresses by Changing the Thermal

Heat Treating of Aluminum and Its Alloys 63
Gradient during Quenching 206
Metallurgy of Heat Treatable Aluminum Alloys Residual-Stress Relaxation Mechanical Means 208
by
D. Scott MacKenzie, Houghton International, Inc 65 211
Summary
Alloying Elements and Phases 65
Age Hardening of Aluminum Alloys
Other Microstructural Features 69 John Banhart, Technische Universitdt Berlin 214

Strengthening Mechanisms 72 Methods to Characterize Aging Processes 215

Process of Precipitation 74 Difficulties 215

Precipitation in Specific Alloy Systems 82 Aging in Various Groups of Alloys 215

Solution Heat Treating 88 Al-Mg-Si and Al-Mg-Si-Cu Alloys 215

Quenching 92 Al-Mg-Si Alloys 216

Stretching or Mechanical Deformation after Quenching 99 Al-Mg-Si-Cu Alloys 221

Precipitation Heat Treatments 102 Al-Cu, Al-Cu-Mg, and Al-Si-Cu Alloys 221
Aluminum Alloy Nomenclature and Temper Designations 114 Aluminum-Copper Alloys 221
Aluminum Alloy Designations 114 Al-Cu-Mg and Al-Mg-Cu Alloys 225
Basic Temper Designations 117 Al-Si-Cu Alloys 229
Cast Aluminum Alloys and Tempers 121 Lithium-Containing Alloys 229
Wrought Aluminum Alloys and Tempers 126 Al-Cu-Li Alloys 230

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 Al-Mg-Li Alloys 230 Heat Treating of Copper and Its Alloys 309
Al-Mg-Zn and Al-Mg-Zn-Cu Alloys 230
Heat Treating of Copper and Copper Alloys 311
Al-Mg-Zn Alloys 231
Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys 232 Copper Alloys 311

Retrogression and Reaging Strengthening Mechanisms 313

J.S. Robinson, University of Limerick 240 Precipitation Hardening 315

Development Background 240 Homogenizing 318

Process Description 240 Annealing 318

Effects of RRA
Stress Relieving 321
242
Heat Treating Equipment 322
Conclusions 243
Heat Treatment Practices of Annealing and Recrystallization of Coppers 325
Age-Hardenable
Aluminum Alloys 245 Coppers 326

Age Hardening Alloys 248 Strengthening of Copper 328

General Aging Chracteristics 254 Annealing of Copper 330

2014 256 Stress Relaxation of Copper Wire 333

2017 (Duralumin) 258 Heat Treating of Brasses

2024 258 Sabit Ali, NBM Metals, Inc 335

Solution Heat Treating (2024) 258 Types of Brasses 336

Precipitation Heat Treating 259 Wrought Brasses 346

Other 2xxx Cast Brasses 348

Alloys 261
4xxx and 6xxx Stress Relieving 350
Alloys 262
4032 262 Annealing of Wrought Brasses 350

6005 262 Recrystallization and Grain Growth 351

6009 262 Heat Treating of Bronzes

6010 262 Sabit Ali, NBM Metals, Inc 355

6013 262 Tin Bronzes (Phosphor Bronzes) 355

6061 262 Aluminum Bronzes 361

Other 6xxx Alloys 263 Silicon Bronzes 371

7xxx Alloys 264 Beryllium Bronzes (Beryllium-Copper Alloys) 383

Other High-Copper Alloys 395
7049 265
7050 265
7175 266
Heat Treating of Nickel and Its Alloys 397
7075 266
7475 267 Heat Treatment Metallurgy of Nickel-Base
Alloys
2xx.x Casting Alloys 268 Ian Dempster, Wyman Gordon Forgings
3xx.x Casting Alloys 270 Ronald Wallis 399
4xx.x Casting Alloys 273 Nickel Alloying and Phases 399
lxx.x Casting Alloys 273 Nickel Alloys 404
Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloy Castings Heat Treatment Processes and Guidelines 410
Geoffrey K.Sigworth, Consultant 274 Homogenization 412
Al-Cu and Al-Cu-Mg (2xx) Alloys 274 Annealing 413
Al-Zn-Mg (7xx) Alloys 280 Annealing Methods 416
Al-Si-Mg Alloys 281 Stress Relieving and Stress Equalization 417
Al-Si-Cu and Al-Si-Cu-Mg Alloys 285 Solution Treating 417
Recent Developments 286 Stabilization 419
Additional Reading and Resources 287 Aging 420
Hardness and Electrical Conductivity Testing of Direct-Age Process 420
Aluminum Alloys 289 Differential (Dual-Microstructure) Heat
Electrical Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys 289 Treatment 420
Eddy-Current Conductivity Measurements 291 Heat Treatment Modeling 422
Conductivity and Aging in 2024 294 Heat Treatment of Wrought Nickel Alloys
Modeling and Simulation of the Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys William Mankins, Metallurgical Services Incorporated
Michael Reich and Olaf Kessler, Universitat Rostock 296 Steven Lampman, ASM International 426
Heat Treatment Simulation Model 296 Wrought Nickel Alloys 427
Input Materials Data 296 Wrought Processing and Annealing 429
Yield Strength Model Based on Microstructure 297 Wrought Solid-Solution Alloys 431
Flow Curve Model Based on Mechanical Tests 298 Heat Treating of Solid-Solution Nickel Alloys 434
Example of Aluminum Quenching Simulation 299 Age-Hardenable Alloys 439
Nitriding of Aluminum and Its Alloys Annealing of Age-Hardenable Alloys 442
H.-J. Spies and Anke Dalke, Technische Universitat Bergakademie Solution Treating for Age Hardening 442
Freiberg 302 Aging 443
Nitriding Technology and Nitride Mechanism 303 Effects of Cold Working 446
Structure and Properties of Nitrided Layers 304 Heat Treatment of y' Nickel Alloys 447
Nitriding Behavior of Aluminum Alloys 304 Heat Treatment of y' Nickel-Iron Superalloys 450
Combination Technologies 305 Heat Treatment of y" Nickel-Iron Superalloys 453
Summary 306 Powder Metallurgy Superalloys 455

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Heat Treatment of Cast Nickel-Base Alloys Recovery and Recrystallization 541
John Martin and Matthew Donachie, Rensselaer at Neocrystallization 544
Hartford 459 Quenching of Titanium and Control of Residual Stresses
Nickel-Base Casting Alloys 460 Xin Yao, Weber Metals Inc 546
Heat Treatments 465 Effects of
Alloying Elements 546
Strengthening Mechanisms 466 Aluminum- and Molybdenum-Equivalent Coefficient of
Industrial Casting Heat Treatment 470 Beta Stabilization 546
Cast Superalloy Heat Treatment 471 Classification and Microstructures of Titanium Alloys 546
Solution Treating of Cast Superalloys 471 Heat Treatment of Titanium Alloys 549
Aging of Cast Superalloys 474 Quenching of Titanium Alloys 549
Polycrystalline Cast Superalloys 474 Jominy End Quench and Hardenability 551
Directionally Solidified Castings 475 Control of Residual Stresses 552
Diffusion Coatings 478 Effect of Heat Treatment on Mechanical Properties of
Titanium Alloys
Heat Treating of Titanium and Its Alloys 479
Reviewed and revised by Rodney R. Boyer, RBTi Consulting and
Introduction to Titanium and Its Alloys John Foltz, ATI 555
Reviewed and revised by John Foltz, ATI and Michael Gram, Commercially Pure Titanium 556
Timet 481 Alpha and Near-Alpha Titanium Alloys 556
The Titanium Atom 481 Alpha-Beta Alloys 560
Alloying Elements 482 Beta Alloys 565
Classes of Titanium Alloys 488 General Comparison of Mechanical Properties 567
Titanium Alloy Microstructures 495 Summary 571
Metallurgy of Titanium Alloy Heat Treatment Modeling and Simulation of Microstructure Evolution
Reviewed and revised by Rodney R. Boyer, RBTi Consulting and during Heat Treatment of Titanium Alloys
John Foltz, ATI 498 Rongpei Shi, The Ohio State University
Equilibrium Phase Relationships 499 Dong Wang, The Ohio State University and Xi'an Jiaotong University
Metastable Phases and Metastable Phase Diagrams 500 Yunzhi Wang, The Ohio State University 573
Examples of Phases Present after Quenching 503 Phase Transformation and Microstructure Evolution in
Transformation Kinetics 504 Titanium Alloys 573
Heat Treatment 504 Fundamentals of Heat Treatment of Titanium Alloys 576
Titanium-Aluminum Alloy 508 Crystallography and Symmetry Analysis of
Contamination during Heat Treatment 509 P —> a Transformation 579
Summary 509 CALPHAD Thermodynamic and Kinetic Modeling 583
Heat Treating of Titanium and Titanium Alloys Phase Field Microstructure Modeling 584
Charles Carson, Fort Wayne Wire Die, Inc., Retired 511 Applications 587
Effects ofAlloying Elements on a/p Transformation 511 Summary and Future Outlook 598
Alloy Types and Heat Treatment Response 513 Nitriding of Titanium Alloys
Stress-Relief Anneal 513 Edward Roliriski, Advanced Heat Treat Corp 604
Annealing Practices for Mechanical Property Fundamentals 605
Enhancement 514 Nitriding Methods Applicable to Titanium 607
Straightening, Sizing, and Flattening 515 Kinetics of Nitriding 611
Solution Treating and Aging 515 Nitriding Combined with Heat Treatment 611
Quenching 516 Properties of Nitrided Titanium Alloys 612
Scaling and Oxidization 517 Summary of the Effect of Nitriding on Surface Properties of
Age Hardening 517 Titanium and Two-Phase a + P Alloy: The Effect of
Alpha Case 518 Nitriding Temperature 615
Hydrogen Embrittlement 522 Applications of Nitriding to Titanium Products 616
Growth during Heat Treatment 524 Conclusions 616
Heat Treating Procedures and Furnaces 524
Heat Treating of Other Nonferrous Alloys 623
Quenching 527
Fixtures for Distortion Control 528 Heat Treatment of Cobalt-Base Alloys
Heat Treating Checklist 528 D.L. Klarstrom, Specialty Metals Consultancy, LLC 625
Appendix A—Methods for Determination of the p-Transus Cobalt Alloy Metallurgy 625
Temperature 528 Wear-Resistant Cobalt Alloys 626
Metallographic Method 528 Heat-Resistant Cobalt Alloys 628
Calculation Method 529 Cobalt-Base Corrosion-Resistant Alloys 631
High-Temperature Differential Thermal Analysis Heat Treatments 632
Method 532
Heat Treating of Low-Melting-Point Alloys 634
Deformation and Recrystallization of Titanium and
Heat Treating of Lead and Lead Alloys 634
Its Alloys 535
Heat Treating of Tin-Rich Alloys 636
Deformation 535 Heat Treating of Zinc Alloys 637
Development of Texture in Titanium 537 Heat Treating of Magnesium Alloys
Texture Strengthening 538 Revised by Trevor Abbott, Magontec 640
Strain Hardening 540 Heat Treatment Designations 640
Strain Effects 540
Alloy Designations 640
Superplasticity 541 Influence of Grain Size 641

xi
 Relationship between Hardness and Mechanical Annealing of Refractory Metals

Properties 641 John L. Johnson, Elmet Technologies LLC 664

Precipitation Hardening of Magnesium Alloys 641 Annealing Practices 664

Effects of Individual Elements on Precipitation Hardening . . .
642 Tungsten and Tungsten Alloys 664

Types of Heat Treatment 643 Molybdenum and Molybdenum Alloys 665

Effects ofMajor Variables 645 Niobium and Niobium Alloys 665

Equipment and Processing 646 Tantalum and Tantalum Alloys 666

Prevention of Heat Treating Problems 647 Rhenium 666
Heat Treatment of Weld-Repaired Components 647 Heat Treating of Uranium and Uranium Alloys
Evaluation of Heat Treated Parts 647 Reaffirmed by Robert Hackenberg, Los Alamos National
Prevention and Control ofMagnesium Fires 648 Laboratory 667
Heat Treating of Magnesium Alloy Metal-Matrix Composites Metallurgical Characteristics of Depleted Uranium 667

Chongchen Xiang and Nikhil Gupta, New York University ....

650 Grain Size and Orientation Control 667
Introduction 650 Cold Working 668
Characteristics of Magnesium Alloys 650 Annealing 668
Microstructure 651 Dilute Alloys of Depleted Uranium 670
Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloy Systems 653 Metastable High Alloys 673
Heat Treatment of Magnesium-Matrix Composites 655 Processing and Equipment 674

Annealing of Precious Metals Examples of Heat Treatment 676

Grigory Raykhtsaum, LeachGarner Company 660 Licensing and Health and Safety Requirements 676
Pure Precious Metals 660
Gold Jewelry Alloys 660 Reference Information 679

Silver-Copper Alloys 661 Index 681

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