MB0034 Research Methodology Set 1 2

Name: Subject:
DEEPA RAJ.L Research Methodology
Roll Number: Assignment Number:
510927179 MB0034 – SET 1 & 2
Study Center: Date of Submission:
38 June, 2010
SMU Research Methodology
MBOO34 – Research Methodology
SET – 1
SOLVED ASSIGNMENT
1. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in social and business
sciences.
Answer:
Research simply means a search for facts – answers to questions and solutions to
problems. It is a purposive investigation. It is an organized inquiry. It seeks to find
explanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify the doubtful facts and to correct the
misconceived facts.
The search for facts may be made through either:

• Arbitrary (or unscientific) Method: It’s a method of seeking answers to
question consists of imagination, opinion, blind belief or impression. E.g. it was
believed that the shape of the earth was flat; a big snake swallows sun or moon
causing solar or lunar eclipse. It is subjective; the finding will vary from person to
person depending on his impression or imagination. It is vague and inaccurate. Or
• Scientific Method: this is a systematic rational approach to seeking facts. It
eliminates the drawbacks of the arbitrary method. It is objective, precise and arrives
at conclusions on the basis of verifiable evidences.
Therefore, search of facts should be made by scientific method rather than by arbitrary
method. Then only we may get verifiable and accurate facts. Hence research is a
systematic and logical study of an issue or problem or phenomenon through scientific
method.
Young defines Research as “a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical and
systematic techniques, aims to:
a) Discover of new facts or verify and test old facts,
b) Analyze their sequences, interrelationships and causal explanations,
c) Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories which would facilitate
reliable and valid study of human behaviour.
d) Kerlinger defines research as a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.
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Significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences

According to a famous Hudson Maxim, “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is
often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”. It
brings out the significance of research, increased amounts of which makes progress
possible. Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting the
development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business is
greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of government and
business has raised the use of research in solving operational problems. Research
assumes significant role in formulation of economic policy, for both the government and
business. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of an economic system.
Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the analysis of
needs and desires of the people, and the availability of revenues, which requires research.
Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the
consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision making of
policy-makers, although in itself it is not a part of research. In the process, research also
helps in the proper allocation of a country’s scare resources. Research is also necessary
for collecting information on the social and economic structure of an economy to
understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statistical
information though not a routine task, involves various research problems. Therefore,
large staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the government these days to
undertake this work. Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulation
involves three distinct stages of operation which are as follows:
• Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts
• Diagnoses of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying
them; and
• The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments
Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning
problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research,
market research, and motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking
business decisions. Market research is refers to the investigation of the structure and
development of a market for the formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases,
production and sales. Operational research relates to the application of logical,
mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems such as
cost minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivational
research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect to
market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analyzing the
motivations underlying consumer behaviour. All these researches are very useful for
business and industry, which are responsible for business decision making.
Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships and
seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of
knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses practical utility for the social
scientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient
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manner. This, research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own
sake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.
2. What is meant by research problem? And what are the characteristics of a good
research problem?
Answer:
Research really begins when the researcher experiences some difficulty, i.e., a
problem demanding a solution within the subject-are of his discipline. This general area
of interest, however, defines only the range of subject-matter within which the researcher
would see and pose a specific problem for research. Personal values play an important
role in the selection of a topic for research. Social conditions do often shape the
preference of investigators in a subtle and imperceptible way.
The formulation of the topic into a research problem is, really speaking the first
step in a scientific enquiry. A problem in simple words is some difficulty experienced by
the researcher in a theoretical or practical situation. Solving this difficulty is the task of
research.
R.L. Ackoffs analysis affords considerable guidance in identifying problem for research.
He visualizes five components of a problem.
1. Research-consumer: There must be an individual or a group which experiences
some difficulty.
2. Research-consumer’s Objectives: The research-consumer must have available,
alternative means for achieving the objectives he desires.
3. Alternative Means to Meet the Objectives: The research-consumer must have
available, alternative means for achieving the objectives he desires.
4. Doubt in Regard to Selection of Alternatives: The existence of alternative courses
of action in not enough; in order to experience a problem, the research consumer
must have some doubt as to which alternative to select.
5. There must be One or More Environments to which the Difficulty or Problem
Pertains: A change in environment may produce or remove a problem. A
research-consumer may have doubts as to which will be the most efficient means
in one environment but would have no such doubt in another.
Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:
1. Verifiable evidence: That is factual observations which other observers can see
and check.
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2. Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a

statement or describing things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to
unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or fantasizing.
3. Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or

measurement. This avoids colourful literature and vague meanings.
4. Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting

data in a systematic and organized way so that the conclusions drawn are reliable.
Data based on casual recollections are generally incomplete and give unreliable
judgments and conclusions.
5. Objectivity: That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It means
observation is unaffected by the observer’s values, beliefs and preferences to the
extent possible and he is able to see and accept facts as they are, not as he might
wish them to be.
6. Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since

human memory is fallible, all data collected are recorded.
7. Controlling conditions: That is controlling all variables except one and then
attempting to examine what happens when that variable is varied. This is the basic
technique in all scientific experimentation – allowing one variable to vary while
holding all other variables constant.
8. Training investigators: That is imparting necessary knowledge to investigators

to make them understand what to look for, how to interpret in and avoid
inaccurate data collection.
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3. What is hypothesis? Examine the procedures for testing hypothesis
Answer:
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables. It is a tentative
explanation of the research problem or a guess about the research outcome. Before
starting the research, the researcher has a rather general, diffused, even confused notion
of the problem. It may take long time for the researcher to say what questions he had
been seeking answers to. Hence, an adequate statement about the research problem is
very important. What is a good problem statement? It is an interrogative statement that
asks: what relationship exists between two or more variables? It then further asks
questions like: Is A related to B or not? How are A and B related to C? Is A related to B
under conditions X and Y? Proposing a statement pertaining to relationship between A
and B is called a hypothesis.
Procedure for Testing Hypothesis:
To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has
collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main
question is: whether the null hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedure
for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps that we undertake for making a choice
between the two actions i.e., rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis.
The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below:

1) Making a Formal Statement:
The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho) and
also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypothesis should clearly state,
considering the nature of the research problem. For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil
Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing capacity of an old bridge which
must be more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his hypothesis as under:
Null hypothesis HO: µ =10 tons
Alternative hypothesis Ha: µ >10 tons
Take another example. The average score in an aptitude test administered at the national
level is 80. To evaluate a state’s education system, the average score of 100 of the state’s
students selected on the random basis was 75. The state wants to know if there is a
significance difference between the local scores and the national scores. In such a
situation the hypothesis may be state as under:
Null hypothesis HO: µ =80
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Alternative hypothesis Ha: µ ≠ 80

The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must be accomplished with due
care in accordance with the object and nature of the problem under consideration. It also
indicates whether we should use a tailed test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type
greater than, we use alone tailed test, but when Ha is of the type “whether greater or
smaller” then we use a two-tailed test.
2) Selecting a Significant Level:
The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same
should have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for
the purpose. The factors that affect the level of significance are:
• The magnitude of the difference between sample ;
• The size of the sample;
• The variability of measurements within samples;
• Whether the hypothesis is directional or non – directional (A directional
hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say,
means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of the
purpose and nature of enquiry.
3) Deciding the Distribution to Use:

After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to
determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally remains between
distribution and the t distribution. The rules for selecting the correct distribution are
similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation.
4) Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value:

Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate value
from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In
other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.
5) Calculation of the Probability:

One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as
widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.
6) Comparing the Probability:

Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the
specified value for α, the significance level. If the calculated probability is equal to
smaller than α value in case of one tailed test (and α/2 in case of two-tailed test), then
reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the probability is
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greater then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject H0 we run a risk of (at most
level of significance) committing an error of type I, but if we accept H0, then we run
some risk of committing error type II.
Flow Diagram for Testing Hypothesis
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4. Write an essay on the need for research design and explain the principles of
experimental designs.
Answer:
The need for the methodologically designed research:

a)- In many a research inquiry, the researcher has no idea as to how accurate the results of
his study ought to be in order to be useful. Where such is the case, the researcher has to
determine how much inaccuracy may be tolerated. In a quite few cases he may be in a
position to know how much inaccuracy his method of research will produce. In either
case he should design his research if he wants to assure himself of useful results.
b)- In many research projects, the time consumed in trying to ascertain what the data
mean after they have been collected is much greater than the time taken to design a
research which yields data whose meaning is known as they are collected.
c)- The idealized design is concerned with specifying the optimum research procedure
that could be followed were there no practical restrictions.
Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:

1. The principle of replication:
The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied
in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the
experiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two
varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field into two parts and grow one
variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We can compare the yield of the
two parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of
replication to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one
variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can collect
the data yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The result
so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw without
applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated several
times for better results. Consequently replication does not present any difficulty, but
computationally it does. However, it should be remembered that replication is introduced
in order to increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with
which the main effects and interactions can be estimated.
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2. The principle of randomization:

It provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous
factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should design or
plan the ‘experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can
all be combined under the general heading of “chance”. For instance if we grow one
variety of rice say in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in
the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first half
in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic.
In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different parts
of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique i.e., we may apply
randomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects of extraneous factors.
As such, through the application of the principle of randomization, we can have a better
estimate of the experimental error.
3. Principle of local control:

It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the extraneous
factors, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range
as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should
plan the experiment in a manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in
which the total variability of the data is divided into three components attributed to
treatments, the extraneous factor and experimental error. In other words, according to the
principle of local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts, known
as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of
treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. In
general, blocks are the levels at which we hold an extraneous factors fixed, so that we can
measure its contribution to the variability of the data by means of a two-way analysis of
variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can eliminate the variability
due to extraneous factors from the experimental error.
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5. Distinguish between primary and secondary of data collection. Explain the

features, uses, advantages and limitations of secondary data. Which is the best
way of collecting the data for research”Primary or secondary”. Support your
answer.
Answer:
Primary Data:
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that
have not been previously collected e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher on
brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behavior
from a sample of consumers by interviewing them,.Primary data are first hand
information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing
etc.
Secondary Data:
These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another
purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiled
statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies
e.g., census reports , annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical
statement, Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency and finance
published by the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to Co-operatives
and Regional Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National sample survey
Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of international organizations
such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journals
newspapers etc.
Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished
records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by the
firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register
of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.
 Features of Secondary Sources
1. Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they
have certain common characteristics.
2. First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of
constructing tools and administering them.
3. Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over
collection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources
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are shaped by others. Clearly, this is a feature which can limit the research value
of secondary sources.
4. Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the
researcher using them need not have been present when and where they were
gathered.
 Use of Secondary Data

1. The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific
information from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose. For
example, the general statistical information in the number of co-operative credit
societies in the country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume
of business etc., may be taken from published reports and quoted as background
information in a study on the evaluation of performance of cooperative credit
societies in a selected district/state.
2. Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of
research may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be
compared with the national averages; the performance indicators of a particular
bank may be tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry
as a whole; and so on.
3. Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a
research project. Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis
of companies, Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies
on crimes, historical studies, and the like, depend primarily on secondary data.
Year books, statistical reports of government departments, report of public
organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises, Censes Reports etc, serve as major
data sources for such research studies.
 Advantages of Secondary Data

1. Secondary sources have some advantages:
2. Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their
source of documents and reports are located, collection of data is just matter of
desk work. Even the tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be
avoided, thanks to Xeroxing facilities.
3. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without
much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researcher’s space and
time reach.
4. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific
generalizations can be made.
5. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.
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6. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on
primary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The
researcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected.
 Disadvantages of Secondary Data

1. The use of a secondary data has its own limitations.
2. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specific
needs. The definitions adopted by those who collected those data may be
different; units of measure may not match; and time periods may also be different.
3. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy we
need to know how the data were collected.
4. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in
print, because of time lag in producing them. For example, population census data
are published tow or three years later after compilation, and no new figures will
be available for another ten years.
5. Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all
social scientists. Even if the location of the source is known, the accessibility
depends primarily on proximity. For example, most of the unpublished official
records and compilations are located in the capital city, and they are not within
the easy reach of researchers based in far off places.
6. Describe interview method of collecting data. State the conditions under which it
is considered most suitable. You have been assigned to conduct a survey on the
reading habits of the house wives in the middle class family. Design a suitable
questionnaire consisting of 20 questions you propose to use in the survey.
Answer:
1) Structured Directive Interview:

This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same questions are
put to all the respondents and in the same order. Each question is asked in the same way
in each interview, promoting measurement reliability. This type of interview is used for
large-scale formalized surveys.
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• Advantages: This interview has certain advantages. First, data from one
interview to the next one are easily comparable. Second, recording and coding
data do not pose any problem, and greater precision is achieved. Lastly, attention
is not diverted to extraneous, irrelevant and time consuming conversation.
• Limitation: However, this type of interview suffers from some limitations. First,
it tends to lose the spontaneity of natural conversation. Second, the way in which
the interview is structured may be such that the respondent’s views are minimized
and the investigator’s own biases regarding the problem under study are
inadvertent introduced. Lastly, the scope for exploration is limited.
2) Unstructured or Non-Directive Interview:
This is the least structured one. The interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely
about a give topic with a minimum of prompting or guidance. In this type of interview, a
detailed pre-planned schedule is not used. Only a broad interview guide is used. The
interviewer avoids channelling the interview directions. Instead he develops a very
permissive atmosphere. Questions are not standardized and ordered in a particular way.
This interviewing is more useful in case studies rather than in surveys. It is particularly
useful in exploratory research where the lines of investigations are not clearly defined. It
is also useful for gathering information on sensitive topics such as divorce, social
discrimination, class conflict, generation gap, drug-addiction etc. It provides opportunity
to explore the various aspects of the problem in an unrestricted manner.
• Advantages: This type of interview has certain special advantages. It can closely
approximate the spontaneity of a natural conversation. It is less prone to
interviewer’s bias. It provides greater opportunity to explore the problem in an
unrestricted manner.
• Limitations: Though the unstructured interview is a potent research instrument, it
is not free from limitations. One of its major limitations is that the data obtained
from one interview is not comparable to the data from the next. Hence, it is not
suitable for surveys. Time may be wasted in unproductive conversations. By not
focusing on one or another facet of a problem, the investigator may run the risk of
being led up blind ally. As there is no particular order or sequence in this
interview, the classification of responses and coding may required more time.
This type of informal interviewing calls for greater skill than the formal survey
interview.
3) Focused Interview:
This is a semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus the
discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to which the respondents have been
exposed. It takes place with the respondents known to have involved in a particular
experience, e.g, seeing a particular film, viewing a particular program on TV., involved
in a train/bus accident, etc. The situation is analyzed prior to the interview. An interview
guide specifying topics relating to the research hypothesis used. The interview is focused
on the subjective experiences of the respondent, i.e., his attitudes and emotional
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responses regarding the situation under study. The focused interview permits the
interviewer to obtain details of personal reactions, specific emotions and the like.
• Merits: This type of interview is free from the inflexibility of formal methods, yet
gives the interview a set form and insured adequate coverage of all the relevant
topics. The respondent is asked for certain information, yet he has plenty of
opportunity to present his views. The interviewer is also free to choose the
sequence of questions and determine the extent of probing,
4) Clinical Interview:
This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference. While the focused
interview is concerned with the effects of specific experience, clinical interview is
concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of the
individual’s life experiences.
The ‘personal history’ interview used in social case work, prison administration,
psychiatric clinics and in individual life history research is the most common type of
clinical interview. The specific aspects of the individual’s life history to be covered by
the interview are determined with reference to the purpose of the study and the
respondent is encouraged to talk freely about them.
5) Depth Interview:
This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the respondent’s opinion,
emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview guide. This requires much more
training on inter-personal skills than structured interview. This deliberately aims to elicit
unconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and emotions.
This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free expression of affectively
charged information. It requires probing. The interviewer should totally avoid advising or
showing disagreement. Of course, he should use encouraging expressions like “uh-huh”
or “I see” to motivate the respondent to continue narration. Some times the interviewer
has to face the problem of affections, i.e. the respondent may hide expressing affective
feelings. The interviewer should handle such situation with great care.
1. Start the interview. Carry it on in an informal and natural conversational style.

2. Ask all the applicable questions in the same order as they appear on the schedule
without any elucidation and change in the wording. Ask all the applicable questions
listed in the schedule. Do not take answers for granted.
3. If interview guide is used, the interviewer may tailor his questions to each
respondent, covering of course, the areas to be investigated.
4. Know the objectives of each question so as to make sure that the answers
adequately satisfy the question objectives.
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5. If a question is not understood, repeat it slowly with proper emphasis and

appropriate explanation, when necessary.
6. Talk all answers naturally, never showing disapproval or surprise. When the
respondent does not meet the interruptions, denial, contradiction and other
harassment, he may feel free and may not try to withhold information. He will be
motivated to communicate when the atmosphere is permissive and the listener’s
attitude is non judgmental and is genuinely absorbed in the revelations.
7. Listen quietly with patience and humility. Give not only undivided attention, but
also personal warmth. At the same time, be alert and analytic to incomplete, non
specific and inconsistent answers, but avoid interrupting the flow of information. If
necessary, jot down unobtrusively the points which need elaboration or verification
for later and timelier probing. The appropriate technique for this probing is to ask for
further clarification in such a polite manner as “I am not sure, I understood fully, is
this….what you meant?”
8. Neither argue nor dispute.
9. Show genuine concern and interest in the ideas expressed by the respondent; at
the same time, maintain an impartial and objective attitude.
10. Should not reveal your own opinion or reaction. Even when you are asked of your
views, laugh off the request, saying “Well, your opinions are more important than
mine.”
11. At times the interview “runs dry” and needs re-stimulation. Then use such
expressions as “Uh-huh” or “That interesting” or “I see” “can you tell me more about
that?” and the like.
12. When the interviewee fails to supply his reactions to related past experiences,
represent the stimulus situation, introducing appropriate questions which will aid in
revealing the past. “Under what circumstances did such and such a phenomenon
occur?” or “How did you feel about it and the like.
13. At times, the conversation may go off the track. Be alert to discover drifting, steer
the conversation back to the track by some such remark as, “you know, I was very
much interested in what you said a moment ago. Could you tell me more about it?”
14. When the conversation turns to some intimate subjects, and particularly when it
deals with crises in the life of the individual, emotional blockage may occur. Then
drop the subject for the time being and pursue another line of conversation for a while
so that a less direct approach to the subject can be made later.
15. When there is a pause in the flow of information, do not hurry the interview. Take
it as a matter of course with an interested look or a sympathetic half-smile. If the
silence is too prolonged, introduce a stimulus saying “You mentioned that… What
happened then?”
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MBOO34 – Research Methodology
SET – 2
SOLVED ASSIGNMENT
1. Write a short notes on the following:
Answer:
a) Null Hypothesis:
A null hypothesis is a hypothesis which a researcher tries to disprove. Normally,

the null hypothesis represents the current view/explanation of an aspect of the world that
the researcher wants to challenge. The null hypothesis is a hypothesis which the
researcher tries to disprove, reject or nullify.The 'null' often refers to the common view of
something, while the alternative hypothesis is what the researcher really think is the cause
of a phenomenon.
An experiment conclusion always refers to the null, rejecting or accepting H0 rather than
H1.
A researcher may postulate a hypothesis:
H1: Tomato plants exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather
than in soil.
And a null hypothesis:
H0: Tomato plants do not exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost
rather than soil.
b)Exploratory research:
• It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar

problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge.
• It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It usually
takes the form of a pilot study.
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• The purpose of this research may be to generate new ideas, or to increase the
researcher’s familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation of the
problem or to gather
information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study.
• Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies.
“At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations;
at the second, the discovery of relationships between variables.”
The objective of exploratory research is to gather preliminary information that will help
define problems and suggest hypotheses.
c) Random Sampling:
Random Sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is also

known as random sampling. It provides a known nonzero chance of selection for each
population element. It is used when generalization is the objective of study, and a greater
degree of accuracy of estimation of population parameters is required. The cost and time
required is high hence the benefit derived from it should justify the costs.
d)Rank Order Correlation:
Charles Edward Spearman, a British psychologist devised a

method for measuring correlation between two variables based on ranks given to the
observations. This method is adopted when the variables are not capable of quantitative
measurements like intelligence, beauty etc. in such cases, it is impossible to assign
numerical values for change taking place in such variables. It is in such cases rank
correlation is useful.
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient is given by
rk = 1- 6 * D ^2 / n (n2-1)
Where D is the difference between ranks and n, number of pairs correlated.
3rd Sem, MBA 18

2. Elaborate the format of a research report touching briefly on the mechanics of

writing.
Answer:
Communicate to a Specific Audience:

The first step is to know the audience, its background, and its objectives. Most
effective presentations seem live conversations or memos to a particular person as
opposed to an amorphous group. Audience identification affects presentation decisions
such as selecting the material to be included and the level of presentation. Excessive
detail or material presented at too low a level can be boring. The audience can become
irritated when material perceived as relevant is excluded or the material is presented at
too high level. In an oral presentation, the presenter can ask audience whether they
already know some of the material.
Frequently, a presentation must be addressed to two or more different audiences.
In a written presentation, an executive summary at the outset can provide an overview of
the conclusions for the benefit of those in the audience who are not interested in details.
The presentation must respect the audience’s time constraints. An appendix can be used
to reach some people selectively, without distracting the others. Sometimes introduction
to a chapter or a section can convey the nature of the contents, which certain audiences
may bypass.
Structure the Presentation:

Each piece of presentation should fit into the whole, just as individual pieces fit
into a jigsaw puzzle. The audience should not be muttering. The solution to this is to
provide a well-defined structure. The structure should include an introduction, a body,
and a summary. Further, each of the major sections should be structured similarly. The
precept is to tell the audience what you are going to say, say it and then tell them what
you said. Sometimes you want to withhold the conclusion to create interest.
Introduction should play several roles.
• First, it should provide audience interest.
• A second function is to identify the presentation’s central idea or objective.
• Third, it should provide a road map to the rest of the presentation so that the
audience can picture its organisation and flow.
3rd Sem, MBA 19

It is better to divide the body of the presentation into two to five parts. The
audience will be able to absorb only so much information. If that information can be
aggregated into chunks, it will be easier to assimilate. Sometimes the points to be made
cannot be combined easily or naturally. In that case, it is necessary to use a longer list.
One way to structure the presentation is by the research questions. Another method that is
often useful when presenting the research proposal is to base it on the research process.
The purpose of the presentation summary is to identify and underline the
important points of the presentations and to provide some repetition of their content. The
summary should support the presentation communication objectives by helping the
audience to retain the key parts of the content. The audience should feel that there is a
natural flow from one section to another.
Create Audience Interest:
The audience should be motivated to read or listen to the presentation’s major

parts and to the individual elements of each section the audience should know why the
presentation is relevant to them and why each section was included. A section that cannot
hold interest should be excluded or relegated to appendix.
The research purpose and objectives are good vehicles to provide motivation. The
research purpose should specify decisions to be made and should relate to the research
questions. A presentation that focuses on those research questions and their associated
hypothesis will naturally be tied to relevant decisions and hold audience interest. In
contrast, a presentation that attempts to report on all the questions that were included in
the survey and in the cross- tabulations often will be long, uninteresting and of little
value. As the analysis proceeds and presentation is being prepared, the researcher should
be on the lookout for results that are exceptionally persuasive, relevant, interesting, and
unusual. Sometimes, the deviant respondent with strange answers can provide the most
insight in his or her responses that are pursued and not discarded.
Be Specific and Visual:
Avoid taking or writing in the abstract. If different members of the audience have
different or vague understandings of important concepts, there is a potential problem.
Terms that are ambiguous or not well known should be defined and illustrated or else
omitted. The most interesting presentations usually use specific stories, anecdotes,
studies, or incidents to make points.
Address Validity and Reliability Issues:
The presentation should help the audience avoid misinterpreting the results. The
wording of the questions, the order in which they are asked, and the sampling design are
among the design dimensions that can lead to biased results and misinterpretations. The
presentation should not include an exhaustive description of all the design considerations.
Nobody is interested in a textbook discussion of the advantages of telephone over mail
surveys, or how you locate homes in an area sampling design.
3rd Sem, MBA 20

The presentation should include some indication of the reliability of the results.
At the minimum, it always should be clear what sample size was involved. The key
results should be supported by more precise information in the form of interval estimates
or a hypothesis test. The hypothesis test basically indicates, given the sample size, what
probability exists that the results were merely an accident of sampling. If the probability
of the latter is not low, then the results probably would not be repeated. Do not imply
more precision than is warranted.
3. Discuss the importance of case study method.
Answer:
Let us discuss the criteria for evaluating the adequacy of the case
history or life history which is of central importance for case study. John Dollard has
proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows:
i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is, the case drawn
out from its total context for the purposes of study must be considered a member of the
particular cultural group or community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must
be done with a view to identify thee community values, standards and their shared way of
life.
ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is, the action of the
individual cases must be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situation. In
other words, the social meaning of behaviour must be taken into consideration.
iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized.
That is, in case of an individual being the member of a family, the role of family in
shaping his behaviour must never be overlooked.
iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behavior must be
clearly shown. That is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological
organism, the man, gradually blossoms forth into a social person, are especially fruitful.
v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through adulthood must
be stressed. In other words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-
relationships between thee person’s various experiences.
vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of the
important criteria for the life history is that a person’s life must be shown as unfolding
itself in the context of and partly owing to specific social situations.
3rd Sem, MBA 21

vii) The life history material itself must be organized according to some conceptual
framework, this in turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level.
4. Give the importance of frequency tables and discuss the principles of table
construction, frequency distribution and class intervals determination
Answer:
Construction of Frequency Table Frequency tables provide a “shorthand”
summary of data. The importance of presenting statistical data in tabular form needs no
emphasis. Tables facilitate comprehending masses of data at a glance; they conserve
space and reduce explanations and descriptions to a minimum. They give a visual picture
of relationships between variables and categories. They facilitate summation of item and
the detection of errors and omissions and provide a basis for computations.
It is important to make a distinction between the general purpose tables and specific
tables. The general purpose tables are primary or reference tables designed to include
large amount of source data in convenient and accessible form. The special purpose
tables are analytical or derivate ones that demonstrate significant relationships in the data
or the results of statistical analysis. Tables in reports of government on population, vital
statistics, agriculture, industries etc., are of general purpose type. They represent
extensive repositories and statistical information. Special purpose tables are found in
monographs, research reports and articles and reused as instruments of analysis. In
research, we are primarily concerned with special purpose.
a) Principles of Table Construction:
There are certain generally accepted principles of rules relating to construction of tables.
They are:
1. Every table should have a title. The tile should represent a succinct description of the
contents of the table. It should be clear and concise. It should be placed above the body of
the table.
2. A number facilitating easy reference should identify every table. The number can be
centered above the title. The table numbers should run in consecutive serial order.
3. The captions (or column headings) should be clear and brief.
4. The units of measurement under each heading must always be indicated.
5. Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed directly beneath the
table and in order to obviate any possible confusion with the textual footnotes such
reference symbols as the asterisk (*) DAGGER (+) and the like may be used.
3rd Sem, MBA 22

6. If the data in a series of tables have been obtained from different sources, it is
ordinarily advisable to indicate the specific sources in a place just below the table.
7. Usually lines separate columns from one another. Lines are always drawn at the top
and bottom of the table and below the captions.
8. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.
9. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and “plus” or “minus”
signs should be in perfect alignment.
10. Columns and rows that are to be compared with one another should be brought closed
together.
11. Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column and
totals of columns at the bottom.
12. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories, different kinds of
type, spacing and identifications can be used.
13. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical,
alphabetical or according to magnitude Numerical categories are usually arranged in
descending order of magnitude.
14. Miscellaneous and exceptions items are generally placed in the last row of the table.
15. Usually the larger number of items is listed vertically. This means that a table’s
length is more than its width.
16. Abbreviations should be avoided whenever possible and ditto marks should not be
used in a table.
17. The table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible.
b) Frequency Distribution:
Variables that are classified according to magnitude or size are often arranged in
the form of a frequency table. In constructing this table, it is necessary to determine the
number of class intervals to be used and the size of the class intervals.
A distinction is usually made between continuous and discrete variables. A continuous
variable has an unlimited number of possible values between the lowest and highest with
no gaps or breaks. Examples of continuous variable are age, weight, temperature etc. A
discrete variable can have a series of specified values with no possibility of values
between these points. Each value of a discrete variable is distinct and separate. Examples
of discrete variables are gender of persons (male/female) occupation (salaried, business,
profession) car size (800cc, 1000cc, 1200cc)
In practice, all variables are treated as discrete units, the continuous variables
being stated in some discrete unit size according to the needs of a particular situation. For
example, length is described in discrete units of millimetres or a tenth of an inch.
c) Class Intervals:
Ordinarily, the number of class intervals may not be less than 5 not more than 15,
depending on the nature of the data and the number of cases being studied. After noting
the highest and lower values and the feature of the data, the number of intervals can be
easily determined.
3rd Sem, MBA 23

For many types of data, it is desirable to have class intervals of uniform size. The
intervals should neither be too small nor too large. Whenever possible, the intervals
should represent common and convenient numerical divisions such as 5 or 10, rather than
odd division such as 3 to 7. Class intervals must be clearly designated in a frequency
table in such a way as to obviate any possibility of misinterpretation of confusion. For
example, to present the age group of a population, the use of intervals of 1-20, 20-50, and
50 and above would be confusing. This may be presented as 1-20, 21-50, and above 50.
Every class interval has a mid point. For example, the midpoint of an interval 1-20 is 10.5
and the midpoint of class interval 1-25 would be 13.
One-Way Tables: One-way frequency tables present the distribution of cases on only a
single dimension or variable. For example, the distribution of respondents of gender, by
religion, socio economic status and the like are shown in one way tables (Table 10.1)
lustrates one-way tables. One way tables are rarely used since the result of frequency
distributions can be described in simple sentences. For instance, the gender distribution of
a sample study may be described as “The sample data represents 58% by males and 42%
of the sample are females.”
Tow-Way Table: Distributions in terms of two or more variables and the relationship
between the two variables are show in two-way table. The categories of one variable are
presented one below another, on the left margin of the table those of another variable at
the upper part of the table, one by the side of another. The cells represent particular
combination of both variables. To compare the distributions of cases, raw numbers are
converted into percentages based on the number of cases in each category. (Table 10.2)
illustrate two-way tables.
Another method of constructing a two-way table is to state the percent of representation

as a within brackets term rather than as a separate column. Here, special care has been
taken as to how the percentages are calculated, either on a horizontal representation of
data or as vertical representation of data. Sometimes, the table heading itself provides a
meaning as to the method of representation in the two-way table.
3rd Sem, MBA 24

5. Write a short notes on the following:
Answer:
(a). Type I error and type II error:
In the context of testing of hypothesis there are basically two types of errors that
researchers make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true & we may accept H0 when it is not
true. The former is known as Type I & the later is known as Type II. In other words,
Type I error mean rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted & Type II
error means accepting of hypothesis which should have been rejected. Type I error is
donated by α (alpha), also called as level of significance of test; and Type II error is
donated by β(beta).
Decision
Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 (true) Correct decision Type I error (α error)
Ho (false) Type II error (β error) Correct decision
The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is

understood as the level of significance of testing the hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at
5%, it means there are about chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. We
can control type I error just by fixing it at a lower level. For instance, if we fix it at 1%,
we will say that the maximum probability of committing type I error would only be 0.01.
But with a fixed sample size, n when we try to reduce type I error, the probability of
committing type II error increases. Both types of errors can not be reduced
3rd Sem, MBA 25

simultaneously. There is a trade-off in business situations, decision-makers decide the

appropriate level of type I error by examining the costs of penalties attached to both types
of errors. If type I error involves time & trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals that
should have been accepted, where as type II error means taking a chance that an entire
group of users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one
should prefer a type I error to a type II error means taking a chance that an entire group of
users of this chemicals compound will be poisoned, then in such a situation one should
prefer a type II error. As a result one must set very high level for type I error in one’s
testing techniques of a given hypothesis. Hence, in testing of hypothesis, one must make
all possible effort to strike an adequate balance between Type I & Type II error.
(b). One tailed and two tailed test:
In the context of hypothesis testing these two terms are quite important and must
be clearly understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample
mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypnotized value of the mean of the
population. Such a test inappropriate when we haveH0: µ= µ H0 and Ha: µ≠µ H0 which
may µ>µ H0 or µ<µ H0. If significance level is % and the two-tailed test to be applied,
the probability of the rejection area will be 0.05 (equally split on both tails of curve as
0.025) and that of the acceptance region will be 0.95. If we take µ = 100 and if our
sample mean deviates significantly from µ, in that case we shall accept the null
hypothesis. But there are situations when only one-tailed test is considered appropriate. A
one-tailed test would be used when we are to test, say, whether the population mean in
either lower than or higher than some hypothesized value.
(c). Selecting the significance level:
The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of

significance and such the same should have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5%
level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of
significance are:
• The magnitude of the difference between sample ;
• The size of the sample;
• The variability of measurements within samples;
Whether the hypothesis is directional or non – directional (A directional hypothesis is

one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level
of significance must be adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of enquiry.
3rd Sem, MBA 26

6. Explain Karl Pearson Co-efficient of correlation. Calculate Karl Pearson coefficient

for the following data:
Answer:
X(hei 174 175 176 177 178 182 183 186 189 193
ght-
cm)
Y(we 61 65 67 68 72 74 80 87 92 95
ight-
kg)
Karl Pearson’s Co-Efficient of Correlation is a mathematical method for

measuring correlation. Karl Pearson developed the correlation from the covariance
between two sets of variables. Karl Pearson’s Co-Efficient of Correlation is denoted by
symbol r. The formula for obtaining Karl Pearson’s Co-Efficient of Correlation is:
Direct method
X Y dx dy dx2 dy2 dxdy

174 61 -8 -13 64 169 104
175 65 -7 -9 49 81 63
176 67 -6 -7 36 49 42
177 68 -5 -6 25 36 30
178 72 -4 -2 16 4 8
(A)182 (A)74 0 0 0 0 0
183 80 1 6 1 36 6
3rd Sem, MBA 27

186 87 4 13 16 169 52
189 92 7 18 49 324 126
193 95 11 21 121 441 231
Total -7 21 377 1309 662
R= ∑dxdy/N – (∑dx/N x ∑dy/N)
√(∑dx2/N) - √(∑dx/N)2 x √(∑dy2/N) - √(∑dy/N)2
662/10 – (-7/10 x 21/10)

= = 0.986 Answer
√377/10 – (-7/10)2 x √1309/10 – (21/10)2
3rd Sem, MBA 28

MB0034 Research Methodology Set 1 2

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Name: Subject:

DEEPA RAJ.L Research Methodology

Roll Number: Assignment Number:

510927179 MB0034 – SET 1 & 2

Study Center: Date of Submission:

MBOO34 – Research Methodology

The search for facts may be made through either:

3rd Sem, MBA 2

Significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences

3rd Sem, MBA 3

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:

3rd Sem, MBA 4

2. Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a

3. Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or

4. Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting

6. Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since

8. Training investigators: That is imparting necessary knowledge to investigators

3rd Sem, MBA 5

3. What is hypothesis? Examine the procedures for testing hypothesis

The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below:

3rd Sem, MBA 6

Alternative hypothesis Ha: µ ≠ 80

3) Deciding the Distribution to Use:

4) Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value:

5) Calculation of the Probability:

6) Comparing the Probability:

3rd Sem, MBA 7

Flow Diagram for Testing Hypothesis

3rd Sem, MBA 8

The need for the methodologically designed research:

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:

3rd Sem, MBA 9

2. The principle of randomization:

3. Principle of local control:

3rd Sem, MBA 10

5. Distinguish between primary and secondary of data collection. Explain the

3rd Sem, MBA 11

 Use of Secondary Data

 Advantages of Secondary Data

3rd Sem, MBA 12

 Disadvantages of Secondary Data

1) Structured Directive Interview:

3rd Sem, MBA 13

3rd Sem, MBA 14

1. Start the interview. Carry it on in an informal and natural conversational style.

3rd Sem, MBA 15

5. If a question is not understood, repeat it slowly with proper emphasis and

3rd Sem, MBA 16

MBOO34 – Research Methodology

1. Write a short notes on the following:

A null hypothesis is a hypothesis which a researcher tries to disprove. Normally,

• It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar

3rd Sem, MBA 17

Random Sampling is based on the theory of probability. It is also

d)Rank Order Correlation:

Charles Edward Spearman, a British psychologist devised a

3rd Sem, MBA 18

2. Elaborate the format of a research report touching briefly on the mechanics of

Communicate to a Specific Audience:

Structure the Presentation:

3rd Sem, MBA 19

Create Audience Interest:

The audience should be motivated to read or listen to the presentation’s major