Biology Investigation

Task: Science as a Human Endeavour

By:
Year: 11

Part C: Report
Introduction Commented [MH1]: Great introduction! Really intriguing!

Infectious diseases are caused by micro-organisms called pathogens. Pathogens can be classified into
viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, parasites and prions. The immune system of the human body plays
a crucial role in killing pathogens and preventing diseases. However, the antibodies in the immune
system take a lot of time to counter a new antigen. Hence, vaccines are one way of providing the
body with active acquired immunity against a particular disease. It is interesting to investigate how
vaccines are developed and are used to fight pathogens to prevent diseases. It is crucial to
understand the development of vaccines to improve its efficiency and protect people from mutating
viruses and bacteria. The various developmental techniques and strategies used to make vaccines
also have their own slightly different applications and limitations.

Biological Background

Vaccines were first discovered in 1796 by Edward Jenner who observed how introducing the body to
cow pox prevented small pox (Seeker Corporation, 2017). Vaccines are a biological preparation that
contain a disease-causing micro-organism, often weakened or killed. A number of pathogens are
sufficient for the body to treat them as a foreign substance and activate a full immune response.

The human body comprises of physical barriers, innate and adaptive immune system (Science ABC,
2018). The physical barriers consist of skin, chemicals like tears, hydrochloric acid in stomach and
mucus linings being the body’s first line of defence (Science ABC, 2018). The second line of defence,
or the innate immune system, consists of white blood cells or leukocytes which are further classified
into basophils, mast or fat cells, eosinophils, natural killer cells, macrophages, neutrophils and
dendritic cells (Science ABC, 2018).

The third line of defence of the body is the adaptive or acquired immune system which consists of T
and B cells (Science ABC, 2018). When a helper T or B cell receives a new antigen present on the
surface of pathogens from macrophages or dendritic cells, they form effector and memory cells. The
effector cells work on a specific pathogen (Immunize For Good Corporation, 2019). Whereas,
memory cells keep a record of the antigen and produce antibodies when needed (Immunize For
Good Corporation, 2019). Vaccines contain weakened or dead viruses and bacteria that trigger the
immune system to make antibodies for the pathogens.

Development and Applications and Limitations

Vaccine development takes a long time as scientists have to look at a pathogen in great detail to
create a weakened form. After a weakened form or killed pathogen is ready, it is injected in a person
(American Academy of Pediatrics, 2019). After some time, the dendritic cells or macrophages bring
the antigen to helper T and B cells, which in turn make antibodies for the specific pathogen
(American Academy of Pediatrics, 2019). Hence, when a real pathogen infects the body, the immune
system will kill the pathogen without any delay.

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There are several ways to create a vaccine. However, this requires careful study and analysis of
bacteria and viruses and which part of the pathogen triggers the immune response most. Research is
going on the diseases that sprung up in the past few years like measles and Ebola. Meanwhile, a lot
of people are falling prey to these diseases and therefore, researchers need to introduce effective
vaccines to make people immune to these diseases.

Scientists study the antigen on the surface of viruses and try to weaken the virus so that they
reproduce very slowly once inside the body (Offit, 2016). Weakened viruses only reproduce less than
20 times, once inside the human body. This induces memory B cells and does not cause the disease
itself. This is done with vaccines such as chickenpox, polio, measles, mumps, German measles
(rubella) and rotavirus. The advantage of live, weakened vaccines is that one or two doses provide
life-long immunity to the disease. However, the limitation of that this vaccine cannot be given to
people who have weakened immune systems due to diseases like cancer, HIV or AIDS.

Another method of introducing immunity to diseases is to kill the virus or bacteria and then
introduce the pathogen to the body (Offit, 2016). The immune system still sees the dead bacteria as
a foreign substance and makes antibodies for the pathogen. This is usually done with polio, rabies,
influenza type A and hepatitis A. The benefits of this are that the vaccine cannot even cause a mild
form of disease and can be given to people with weakened immunity. However, the limitation of this
approach is that it requires several doses before the body can attain life-long immunity.

Scientists can use only a part of the virus containing a protein residing on the surface of the virus for
vaccines (Offit, 2016). This strategy is effective if only one part of the virus is responsible for causing
disease. This is done with hepatitis B and human papillomavirus (HPV). The vaccine can be given to
people with weakened immunity to induce life-long immunity after only three doses.

Some bacteria cause disease by producing a harmful protein called toxin (Offit, 2016). This toxin can
be deactivated like tetanus, diphtheria and pertussis to make vaccines (Offit, 2016). Sometimes,
immunity to bacteria also only depends on the sugar coating of the bacteria (Offit, 2016). Hence, it
can be used to make good vaccines such as in the case of influenza type B, meningococcal and
pneumococcal. Due to this technique, vaccines can be given to weak immunity patients but requires
several doses for the body to achieve proper immunity against the disease.

Scientists and researchers all over the globe are facing trouble to create vaccines for newly
discovered viruses as they are small molecules that produce only a handful of proteins, so there are
fewer targets for treatment (Rettner, 2014). Viruses are complex structured pathogens which are
harder to study compared to bacteria. These viruses also evolve quickly, for instance, there are five
different known species of Ebola virus (Rettner, 2014). Hence, these dangerous viruses need high-
level safety precautions which limit the number of experiments that can be done.

Conclusion

The research of various types of vaccines takes a lot of precautions and steps which makes it
complicated to develop them. The different number of applications and limitations of various
vaccines also help researchers to understand better about each bacterium or virus. The
development of various vaccines depends upon the rate at which a virus mutates. If it mutates too
often, it is harder to predict the likely nature the virus is headed for in the future. Hence, it is
important that scientists collaborate in various ways to make sure that vaccines are kept up to date
with the viruses.

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References
American Academy of Pediatrics, 2019. How Do Vaccines Work?. [Online]
Available at: https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-
prevention/immunizations/Pages/How-do-Vaccines-Work.aspx
[Accessed 30 05 2019].

Immunize For Good Corporation, 2019. How Vaccines are Made. [Online]
Available at: http://www.immunizeforgood.com/vaccines/how-vaccines-are-made
[Accessed 30 05 2019].

Offit, P. A., 2016. Making Vaccines: How Are Vaccines Made?. [Online]
Available at: https://www.chop.edu/centers-programs/vaccine-education-center/making-
vaccines/how-are-vaccines-made
[Accessed 30 05 2019].

Rettner, R., 2014. Ebola Virus: Why Isn't There a Cure?. [Online]
Available at: https://www.livescience.com/46479-ebola-treatment-cure.html
[Accessed 30 05 2019].

Science ABC, 2018. Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Immunity Explained. [Online]
Available at: Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Immunity Explained
[Accessed 30 05 2019].

Seeker Corporation, 2017. The Bizarre Story Of The Very First Vaccine. [Online]
Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fF5-aJ-o0Os
[Accessed 29 05 2019].

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 Performance Standards
Investigation, Analysis and Evaluation
A Critically deconstructs a problem and designs a
logical, coherent, and detailed biological
investigation.
Obtains, records, and represents data, using
appropriate conventions and formats accurately
and highly effectively.
Systematically analyses and interprets data and
evidence to formulate logical conclusions with
detailed justification.
Critically and logically evaluates procedures and
their effect on data.
B+ Logically deconstructs a problem and designs a
well-considered and clear biological
investigation.
Obtains, records, and represents data, using
appropriate conventions and formats mostly
accurately and effectively.
Logically analyses and interprets data and
evidence to formulate suitable conclusions with
reasonable justification.
Logically evaluates procedures and their effect
on data.
C with informal language.
Deconstructs a problem and designs a
considered and generally clear biological
investigation.
Obtains, records, and represents data, using
generally appropriate conventions and formats
with some errors but generally accurately and
effectively.
Undertakes some analysis and interpretation of
data and evidence to formulate generally
appropriate conclusions with some justification.
Evaluates procedures and some of their effect on
data.
D Prepares a basic deconstruction of a problem
and an outline of a deconstruction and biological
investigation.
Obtains, records, and represents data, using
conventions and formats inconsistently, with
occasional accuracy and effectiveness.
Describes data and undertakes some basic
interpretation to formulate a basic conclusion.
Attempts to evaluate procedures or suggest an
effect on data.
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B+
Knowledge and Application
Demonstrates deep and broad knowledge and
understanding of a range of biological concepts. Commented [MH2]: Great knowledge of the immune
Applies biological concepts highly effectively in system (including all of it’s levels) and how it reacts to
new and familiar contexts. pathogens
Critically explores and understands in depth the
interaction between science and society.
Communicates knowledge and understanding of
biology coherently, with highly effective use of
appropriate terms, conventions, and
representations.
Demonstrates some depth and breadth of
knowledge and understanding of a range of
biological concepts.
Applies biological concepts mostly effectively in
new and familiar contexts.
Logically explores and understands in some
depth the interaction between science and
society. Commented [MH3]: Needed to use the language of the
Communicates knowledge and understanding of SHE key concepts throughout – not just in the introduction
biology mostly coherently, with effective use of and conclusion.
appropriate terms, conventions, and
representations. Commented [MH4]: Some grammatical errors and section
Demonstrates knowledge and understanding of a
general range of biological concepts.
Applies biological concepts generally effectively
in new or familiar contexts.
Explores and understands aspects of the
interaction between science and society.
Communicates knowledge and understanding of
biology generally effectively, using some
appropriate terms, conventions, and
representations.
Demonstrates some basic knowledge and partial
understanding of biological concepts.
Applies some biological concepts in familiar
contexts.
Partially explores and recognises aspects of the
interaction between science and society.
Communicates basic biological information,
using some appropriate terms, conventions,
and/or representations.
E Attempts a simple deconstruction of a problem
and a procedure for a biological investigation.
Attempts to record and represent some data,
with limited accuracy or effectiveness.
Attempts to describe results and/or interpret
data to formulate a basic conclusion.
Acknowledges that procedures affect data.
Demonstrates limited recognition and awareness of
biological concepts.
Attempts to apply biological concepts in familiar
contexts.
Attempts to explore and identify an aspect of the
interaction between science and society.
Attempts to communicate information about
biology.