INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Aeronaves de Ala Rotatoria

IA0160

Philippe White
Lecture 04
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Combining BET and MT

• Power Coefficient in Hover

• Non-Uniform Flow
• A function for twist
• Tip losses
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Reminder of the Elemental Equations from B.E.T.

Elemental Thrust
𝑑𝑇 ≈ 𝑁𝐿𝑑𝑟 D
D
D
d
Elemental Torque
𝑑𝑄 ≈ 𝑁 𝐿𝜙 + 𝐷 𝑟𝑑𝑟

Elemental Power
𝑑𝑃 ≈ 𝑁 𝐿𝜙 + 𝐷 Ω𝑟𝑑𝑟

You can see that 𝑑𝑃 and 𝑑𝑄 are very similar

 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Non-Dimensionalisation of Q and P
Elemental Torque Elemental Power
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑁 𝐿𝜙 + 𝐷 𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑁 𝐿𝜙 + 𝐷 Ω𝑟𝑑𝑟

𝑄 𝑃
𝐶𝑄 = 𝐶𝑃 =
𝜌𝜋𝑅2 (Ω𝑅)2 𝑅 𝜌𝜋𝑅2 (Ω𝑅)2 Ω𝑅

If we substitute “Power” for “Torque” x Angular Velocity 𝑃 = 𝑄Ω

𝐶𝑄 = 𝐶𝑃

Often, Non-dimensional analysis is therefore performed directly with 𝐶𝑃

 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Elemental Torque from all blades in HOVER

1 2 𝑈𝑃
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑁 𝐿𝜙 + 𝐷 𝑟𝑑𝑟 Where 𝑳 = 𝜌𝑎𝑐𝑈𝑇 𝜃 −
2 𝑈𝑇

1
And 𝑫 = 𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝑐𝑈𝑇 2
2

𝑈𝑃
Remember that 𝝓=
𝑈𝑇

1 𝑈𝑃 𝑈𝑃 1
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑁 𝜌𝑎𝑐𝑈𝑇 2 𝜃 − + 𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝑐𝑈𝑇 2 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2 𝑈𝑇 𝑈𝑇 2

𝑅
Total Torque 𝑄= 𝑑𝑄
0
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Power Coefficient in Hover

Substitute Total Torque into Torque/Power Coefficient:

𝑅 1 2 𝑈𝑃 𝑈𝑃 1 2
𝑄 𝑁 𝜌𝑎𝑐𝑈𝑇 𝜃 − + 𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝑐𝑈𝑇 𝑟𝑑𝑟
0 2 𝑈𝑇 𝑈𝑇 2
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑄 = =
𝜌𝜋𝑅2 (Ω𝑅)2 𝑅 𝜌𝜋𝑅2 (Ω𝑅)2 𝑅

𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣 𝜆 𝑁𝑐
Remember that: 𝑈𝑇 = Ω𝑟 𝑈𝑃 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣 𝜆= 𝜙= 𝜎=
𝛺𝑅 𝑟 𝜋𝑅

1
𝜎𝑎 2
𝜎𝐶𝑑 3
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑄 = 𝜆 𝜃𝑟 − 𝜆𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
0 2 2

See next page for solution.

 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA
𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣 𝑁𝑐
Remember that: 𝑈𝑇 = Ω𝑟 𝑈𝑃 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣 𝜆= 𝜎=
𝛺𝑅 𝜋𝑅

𝑅 1 2 𝑈𝑃 𝑈𝑃 1 2
𝑁 𝜌𝑎𝑐𝑈𝑇 𝜃 − + 𝜌𝐶𝑑 𝑐𝑈𝑇 𝑟𝑑𝑟
0 2 𝑈𝑇 𝑈𝑇 2
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑄 =
𝜌𝜋𝑅2 (Ω𝑅)2 𝑅

𝑅 1 2 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣 1 2
𝑁𝑐𝑎𝜌(Ω𝑟) 𝜃 − + 𝑁𝑐𝜌𝐶𝑑 (Ω𝑟) 𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑄 =
0 2 Ω𝑟 Ω𝑟 2
𝜌𝜋𝑅2 (Ω𝑅)2 𝑅

𝑅 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝐶𝑑 2 𝑟𝑑𝑟
(𝑉𝑐 +𝑣) Ω𝑟𝜃 − (𝑉𝑐 +𝑣) + (Ω𝑟)
0 2 2
=
𝑅2 (Ω𝑅)2

𝑅 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝐶𝑑 2 𝑅 𝜎𝑎 2 𝜃 − 𝜆𝑟 + 𝜎𝐶𝑑 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
𝜆 𝑟 𝜃 − 𝜆 + 2 𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝜆 𝑟
0 2 0 2 2
= =
𝑅2 𝑅

1
𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝐶𝑑 3
𝐶𝑃 = 𝜆 𝜃𝑟 2 − 𝜆𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
0 2 2
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Components of the Power Coefficient

Splitting the Power Coefficient into Power for Lift and Power for Drag:

1 1 1
𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝐶𝑑 3 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝐶𝑑 3
𝐶𝑃 = 𝜆 𝜃𝑟 2 − 𝜆𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 𝜆 𝜃𝑟 2 − 𝜆𝑟 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
0 2 2 0 2 0 2

1
𝜎𝑎
Remember from B.E.T. : 𝐶𝑇 = 𝑟 2 𝜃 − 𝜆𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟
2
0

1
𝜎𝐶𝑑 3
So 𝐶𝑃 = 𝜆 𝑑𝐶𝑇 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
0 2

Now think back to: 𝑑𝑄 ≈ 𝑁 𝐿𝜙 + 𝐷 𝑟𝑑𝑟 and you can see how the power required is split
into the lift induced drag and then profile drag
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Components of the Power Coefficient

The Thrust Lift section can be further divided : 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣

𝜆= = 𝝀𝒄 + 𝝀𝒊
𝛺𝑅

1
𝜎𝐶𝑑 3
So 𝐶𝑃 = 𝜆𝑐 𝑑𝐶𝑇 + 𝜆𝑖 𝑑𝐶𝑇 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
0 2

𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑃𝑐 + 𝐶𝑃𝐼 + 𝐶𝑃𝑑

Power Power Power Note:

Total These inflow ratios
= from + from + from
Power are calculated for
Climb Inflow Blade Profile
climb
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Components of the Power Coefficient

So in HOVER : 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑃𝐼 + 𝐶𝑃𝑑

1 1
𝜎𝐶𝑑 3
𝐶𝑃 = 𝜆𝑖 𝑑𝐶𝑇 + 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
0 0 2

In reality 𝐶𝑑
changes along the
𝜎𝐶𝑑0
With uniform inflow : 𝐶𝑃 = 𝜆𝑖 𝐶𝑇 + blade length but
8 for this class we
assume that it is a
constant.
Then we can use Momentum 𝐶𝑇
theory in hover inflow case: 𝜆𝑖 =
2 To account for the
non-uniform
inflow losses, a
3
factor “k” is added
So : 𝐶𝑇 2 𝜎𝐶𝑑0
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑘 + 𝑘 = 1.15
2 8
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Equation Analysis with regards to Figure of Merit

3
𝐶𝑇 2
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑣 2
𝑀= = 𝑀= 3
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝜎𝐶𝑑0
𝐶𝑇 2
𝑘 + 8
2
Think what happens to M and 𝜃 when we change 𝜎:

• If I want a high M, I should decrease 𝜎

• However, as I decrease 𝜎, 𝜃 also increases. 6𝐶𝑇 3 𝐶𝑇
𝜃 = +
• If 𝜃 gets too large, I will stall the blade. 𝜎𝑎 2 2

𝜎𝐶𝑑0 3
• If I increase 𝐶𝑇 , M should approach 1 as 8 𝐶𝑇 2 𝜎𝐶𝑑0
becomes very small 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑘 +
• However, as I increase 𝐶𝑇 , 𝐶𝑃 also rises. 2 8

Therefore be wary of using figure of Merit as an

absolute evaluation. Think of it more as a comparative
evaluation.
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Historical Recommendations from Expert Designers

• Try to design for a 𝜃 of 5~6° (deg)

• Try to design for a 𝜎 of 0,09 ~ 0,10

• Try to design for a 𝐶𝑇 of 0,004 ~ 0,006

Note that these values are recommended for use with the M.T. and
B.E.T. calcualtions used in this and previous classes. Real helicopters
can be very different once the detailed design has been performed.
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

NON-Uniform Inflow

Differential Momentum Theory (Combining M.T. and B.E.T.)

1 2
𝑈𝑃
𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 𝑁 𝜌 Ω𝑟 𝑐𝑎 𝜃 −
2 𝑈𝑇
B.E.T.
𝜎𝑎 Where 𝜃 = Pitch
𝑑𝐶𝑇 = 𝜃𝑟 2 − 𝜆𝑟 𝑑𝑟 ① (𝜆 = 𝜆𝑐 +𝜆𝑖 )
2 angle at station “r” :

𝑇 = 2𝜌𝐴𝑣 2 (Hover)

𝑇 = 2𝜌𝐴 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣 𝑣 (Climb derivations will be seen in the next class)

M.T.
𝑑𝑇 = 2𝜌 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣 𝑣(2𝜋𝑟)𝑑𝑟 𝑇
𝐶𝑇 =
𝜌𝜋𝑅2 (𝛺𝑅)2
𝑑𝐶𝑇 = 4𝜆𝜆𝑖 𝑟𝑑𝑟 ②
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Combining M.T. and B.E.T

𝜎𝑎
From ① & ② 4 𝜆𝑐 + 𝜆𝑖 𝜆𝑖 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 𝜃𝑟 − (𝜆𝑐 + 𝜆𝑖 ) 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2
𝜎𝑎
4 𝜆𝑐 + 𝜆𝑖 𝜆𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟 − (𝜆𝑐 + 𝜆𝑖 )
2

𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑎
4𝜆𝑖 2 + 4𝜆𝑐 𝜆𝑖 − 𝜃𝑟 + ( 𝜆𝑐 + 𝜆)=0
2 2 2 𝑖

2 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑎
4𝜆𝑖 + 4𝜆𝑐 𝜆𝑖 + 𝜆 − 𝜃𝑟 + 𝜆 =0
2 𝑖 2 2 𝑐

2 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑎
4𝜆𝑖 + 𝜆𝑖 4𝜆𝑐 + − 𝜃𝑟 − 𝜆𝑐 = 0
2 2

−𝑏 ± 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝜆𝑖 =
2𝑎
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Combining M.T. and B.E.T

1
2 2
𝜆𝑐 𝜎𝑎 𝜆𝑐 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑎
𝜆𝑖 = − + ± + + 𝜃𝑟 − 𝜆𝑐
2 16 2 16 8

If we use the “negative” discriminant we have negative inflow (physically impossible)

Because we used the annular area to perform the calculation our inflow is a function of
our span position, 𝑟 .

If we are in HOVER, then 𝜆𝑐 = 0.

1
𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑎 2 𝜎𝑎 2
𝜆𝑖 = − + + 𝜃𝑟
16 16 8

1
𝜎𝑎 32 2
𝜆𝑖 = 1+ 𝜃𝑟 −1
16 𝜎𝑎
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

A function for calculating twist

1
𝜎𝑎 32 2
𝜆𝑖 = 1+ 𝜃𝑟 −1
16 𝜎𝑎

When 𝜃𝑟 = constant, we have uniform inflow

To make " 𝜃𝑟 " a constant, we define everything with regards to “𝑟” = 1

When “𝑟” = 1, we are at the blade tip

𝜃𝑇𝑖𝑝
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 𝜃 =
𝑟
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

A function for calculating twist

𝜃𝑇𝑖𝑝
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 𝜃 = By substituting in “ideal twist” into our equation
𝑟

𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑎
𝑑𝐶𝑇 = 𝜃𝑟 2 − 𝜆𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝐶𝑇 = 𝜃 − 𝜆 𝑟𝑑𝑟
2 2 𝑇𝑖𝑝

Our annular area of disk = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟

And so our 𝐶𝑇 per unit area = a constant

This makes for good design (same load for same area)
1
𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑎
𝐶𝑇 = 𝜃𝑇𝑖𝑝 − 𝜆 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 𝜃 −𝜆
0 2 4 𝑇𝑖𝑝

4𝐶𝑇 4𝐶𝑇 𝐶𝑇
𝜃𝑇𝑖𝑝 = +𝜆 = +
𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑎 2
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Quick note on Tip Loss Factors

For Lift component only, to account for

tip and root losses we do not integrate
the lift factor from 0 to 1.

Through experimental data, the lift

calculation integral limits are between:

𝐵.𝑅
𝐿𝑑𝑟
𝑒

Where B = 0.97 and accounts for tip losses

e = the root offset

!!! For drag we still must account for the whole blade length !!!
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Mean Lift Coefficient

𝑅
1
𝑇=𝑁 𝜌𝑈𝑇 2 𝑐𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑟 Very simplified form.
0 2
Not using 𝐶𝑙 = 𝑎(𝜃 − 𝜙)

𝑅1
𝑇 𝑁 0 2 𝜌𝑈𝑇 2 𝑐𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑟
= Non-dimensionalising our equation
𝜌𝜋𝑅(Ω𝑅)2 𝜌𝜋𝑅(Ω𝑅)2

1
𝜎 We can use the resulting expression
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝑙 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
0 2 to remove the 𝐶𝑇 factor from our
“Figure of Merit”

𝜎𝐶𝑙 6𝐶𝑇 𝐶𝑙 is just a way of writing the

𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝑙 = average Lift Coefficient
6 𝜎
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Figure of Merit (revisited)

𝜆𝑖 𝐶𝑇 𝜆𝑖 𝐶𝑇
𝑀= Divide by
𝜎𝐶
𝑘𝜆𝑖 𝐶𝑇 + 𝑑0 𝜆𝑖 𝐶𝑇
8

(Remember that k is an empirical losses constant of 1.15)

1
𝑀= 𝜎𝐶𝑙
𝜎𝐶𝑑0 Then substitute in 𝐶𝑇 =
𝑘+ 6
8𝜆𝑖 𝐶𝑇

1 Note that in this format we have removed 𝜎

𝑀=
3 𝐶 1 from the “M” expression
𝑘 + 4 . 𝑑0 .
𝐶𝑙 𝜆𝑖
𝐶𝑑0
Now to have a high “M” value, we require 𝐶𝑙
to be small.
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Ideal and Optimum Rotors

In HOVER!
Ideal Rotor Optimum Rotor

 Minimum induced power  Minimum Induced and Profile power

 Uniform Inflow 𝐶
 𝑑0 must be small
𝐶𝑙
 Ideal Twist
 Taper and Twist
1
𝑀=
3 𝐶 1
𝑘 + 4 . 𝑑0 .
𝐶𝑙 𝜆𝑖
 INGENIERIA AERONAUTICA

Thank you and see you next week!