Chemistry is the study of the structure and

chemical properties of any substance, while

Biochemistry is the science concerned with the

various biomolecules that occur in living cells
and organisms and their chemical reactions.
The main components of living organism are :
1- Water. 60%

2- Organic compounds:
o Carbohydrates and their derivatives. 2%
o Protein and amino acids. 15%
o Lipids and their derivatives. 15%
3- Inorganic compounds: 8%
o Bulk or main elements: that includes seven principal
mineral elements: calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium,
chlorine, iron and sulphur.
o Trace elements: that includes iodine, copper, zinc, cobalt,
selenium and manganese, which are needed in micro
amounts.
 Functional groups
are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those
molecules.ie the reactions between organic compounds occur between
their functional groups.
DEFINITION OF CARBOHYDRATE
Carbohydrates are organic compounds
which contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen ,
the latter two elements are present in the
same ratio as water i.e. 2:1 respectively.
Cn(H2O)n
But there are many exceptions, which have got the
same empirical formula but are not carbohydrates
: e.g:
1- Formaldehyde (HCHO)
2- Acetic acid (CH3COOH),
3- Lactic acid (CH3-CHOH-COOH).

n.b: Rhaminose (C6H12O5) is a carbohydrate in which

H and O are present in different proportion

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THUS, CHEMICALLY CARBOHYDRATES
CAN BE DEFINED AS: THE ALDEHYDE
AND KETONE DERIVATIVE OF HIGHER
POLYHYDRIC ALCOHOL OR POLYHYDROXY
ALDEHYDES OR KETONES

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 Importance of Carbohydrates to us….
 Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules in nature &
Carbohydrates are widely distributed in living tissue.

Carbohydrates are important for

- Carbohydrates are the first and most efficient source of
energy for vital processes.

- Brain cells and RBCs are almost wholly dependent on

carbohydrates as the energy source.

- Energy production from carbohydrates will be 4 kcal/g.

- Storage form of energy (starch and glycogen).

- Excess carbohydrate is converted to fat.

- - Glycoproteins and glycolipids are components
of cell membranes and receptors.

- - Structural basis of many organisms: Cellulose

of plants; exoskeleton of insects, cell wall of
microorganisms, mucopolysaccharides as
ground substance in higher organisms

- - deoxyRibose & ribose is a constituent of nucleic

acid (DNA, RNA).

- - Ribose, i.e. pentose sugar also constituents certain

coenzyme, e.g. FAD, NAD, coenzyme A, etc.
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 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Classified into: (Acc. to number of sugar units per
molecule).
1-Monosaccharides: one simple sugar unit, can not
be hydrolysed.

2-oligosaccharides: 2-10 sugar units .

3- Polysaccharides: more than10 sugar units

(Branched or straight).
 1- MONOSACCHARIDES
This group include sugars of one unit , and all members
cannot be hydrolysed to simpler form.
(CH2O)n
Monosaccharides
 MONOSACCHARIDES

Monosaccharides are classified according to:

a-the type of the functional group

b-the number of carbon atoms
 CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
a-the type of the functional group:
Functional group (CARBONYL GROUP):
 If an aldehyde is present, it is classified as an
aldose (note: ald-prefix indicates aldehyde, -ose
suffix indicates sugar).
 If a keto group, it is called a ketose.
1) Aldosugar Contain aldehyde group

2) Ketosugar Contain ketonic group

 B-THE NUMBER OF CARBON ATOMS IN TO:
1) Trioses (Tri means 3) Contain three carbon
atoms . There are two types of trioses:
Aldotriose e.g. Glyceraldehyde.

Ketotriose e.g. dihydroxy acetone.

CHO CH2O H

H C OH C O

CH2OH CH2O H

Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxy
acetone
2)Tetroses which contain four carbon
atoms (Tetra means 4)

3)Pentoses which contain five carbon

atoms (Penta means 5)

4) Hexoses which contain six carbon

atoms (Hexa means 6)
 O H Tetroses 1 CH OH
CH2 OH
1

C 2
1
C O 2
2
H C OH 2
C
HO C H O 3

4
H C OH 3 H C OH 3

CH2OH H 5 C OH
4 H C OH 4

D-erythrose 6 CH 2OH
CH OH
an aldotetrose 2
D-fructose
D-erythrulose
An ketotetrose
a ketohexose 17-15
FIVE CARBON MONOSACCHARIDES (PENTOSES)

2-
 Hexoses
 Glucose: is the sugar of blood. is the primary fuel in living cells
especially in brain cells and RBCs. Glucose is the sugar of grape. It
is the principle sugar that is utilized by the tissues giving
CO2, H2O and energy.
Dietary sources include plant starch, and the disaccharides
lactose, maltose, and sucrose.

Fructose: is present in fruits, honey . It is the principle sugar of

semen. Fructose is the sugar of fetal blood.

Galactose: is present in combination with glucose in milk sugar

(Lactose). & enters in the composition of
mucopolysaccharides

Mannose:enters in the composition of mucopolysaccharides

Six carbon monosaccharides (Hexoses)

DDLD DDLL DLLD DDL

 STEREO-ISOMERISM
They are compounds that have the same structural
formula but differ in spatial configuration ( differ in the
distribution of atoms or groups in the space ).

While writing the molecular formula of

monosaccharides, the spatial arrangements of H
and OH groups are important, since they contain
asymmetric carbon atoms.
 ISOMERISM
- A substance containing one or more assymetric
carbon atom (optically active substance) can exist
in anumber of isomers = 2n.
- Asymmetric carbon means that four different
groups are attached to the same carbon. The
reference molecule is glyceraldehyde
(glycerose) which has a single asymmetric carbon
atom

ex: glucose has 4 assymtric carbon atoms so

the number of its isomers =16.
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Six carbon monosaccharides (Hexoses)

DDLD DDLL DLLD DDL

(D & L FORM) = CONFIGURATION=
ENANTIOMERS = MIRROR IMAGE
 EPIMERS
*epimeric carbon : is the assymetric carbon atom other than
carbon of aldehyde or keton group , e.g. C 2 ,3 and 4 of
glucose
Cyclization of Monosaccharides
-Monosaccharide molecules of 4, 5 or 6 carbon atoms are
quite flexible, and this flexibility brings aldehyde or keto
group in close proximity to other hydroxyl groups on the
same molecule.
O OH
H
1
H C 1C

2 2
H OH H OH

3 3 :O:
HO H HO H

4 4
H OH H OH
5
.. 5
H O.. H
6 H 6
CH2 OH CH2 OH

glucose
 ANOMERS (α &Β FORM)

The Carbonyl group(C-1 of aldose or C2 of ketoses) in

cyclic sytucture becomes a new assymetric carbon,
commonly referred to as the anomeric carbon ,and the
α and β-isomers are called anomers .
Optical activity :
*all monosaccharides are optically active, they
can deviate the plane polarized light either to
the right “ dextrorotatory, d , + ” or to the left
“levorotatory , l, - ”.
* this is due to presence of assymetric
carbon.
* all monosaccharides are optically active
except dihydroxy acetone phosphate

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Mutarotation: It is the spontaneous gradual change in
the specific rotation of optically active substance because
of the interconversion of α and β anomer. - Example:
a) α -Glucose When freshly dissolved in water, has specific rotation of
+112.
b) β - Glucose when freshly dissolved in water, has specific rotation of
+19.
c) When both anomers are left for sometimes, α and β sugars are
interconverted and slowly change into an equilibrium mixture of α and
β and open chain glucose which has specific rotation of + 52.5.

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THANK YOU
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