mEXPERIMENT 5 - PRESSURE CONTROL

5.1 OBJECTIVE OF THE EXPERIMENT

(i) To demonstrate the characteristic of On/Off Control.

(ii) To demonstrate the characteristic of Proportional Only Control.
(iii) To demonstrate the characteristic of Proportional Band and Integral Action on a
pressure loop control.
(iv) To demonstrate the characteristic of Proportional Band, Integral Action and Derivative
Action on a pressure loop control.
(v) To demonstrate the loop tuning procedure on a pressure loop control.
(vi) To calculate the Cv for the control valve

5.2 INTRODUCTION

The Air Pressure Control has been designed on how a pressure loop be controlled using a
microprocessor-based controller. The control panel is connected to a Distributed Control
System (DCS), which can remotely control the process plant using supervisory control mode
(SCADA) or direct digital control mode (DDC). A selector with located at the control panel is
used to select between SCADA or DDC mode. In SCADA mode the DCS can monitor and
control the process through the process controller and in DDC mode; the DCS can directly
control the plant through the Field Control Station.

The Pressure Control Module is an air process where 6 bar(g) of compressed air is charged
into the air receiver tank, V-301 and regulated to approximately 4 bar(g) by the air regulator
PCV-301. Air from the V-301 is passed through the process line into the control tank, V-302
which is filled to read 2 bar(g). In case of overpressure in the receiver and control tanks, both
tanks have been fitted with pressure relief valves PSV-301 and PSV-302 respectively.

5.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

Various types of instrumentations are installed in the process line. A pressure transmitter PT-
302 monitors the tank V-302 pressure and feeds it to the process controller PIC-302. The
controller regulates the control valve PCV-302 opening for airflow to maintain the pressure
inside the control tank. Once the pressure in the tank has reached steady state, hand valve
HV316 is manipulated to simulate load changes for the purpose of observation of the
effectiveness of the controller in use. For the purpose of Cv calculation, measurement for
flowrate FT-301, pressure PT-301 differential pressure PDT-302 and temperature TT-301 are
also obtained.

Solenoid valves have been installed for the purpose of fault simulation in various sections of
the process line. Fault simulation switches have been installed to simulate these faults,
which will create errors in the process line.

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Table 5.1 Instrument function and capabilities

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No Instrument Tag No Description Range
1 PID controller PIC-302 Microprocessor based PID -
controller, heater, temp
2 Pressure PT-301 Pressure transmitter for process line 0-100 PSIG
Transmitter
3 Recorder PR-302 Continuous 2 pen chart recorder -
4 Pressure PT-302 Pressure transmitter control tank (V- 0-30 PSIG
Transmitter 302)
5 Temperature TT-301 Signal type RTD Pt 100 with 0-1000C
Transmitter transmitter for process line
6 Control valve PCV-302 1-inch globe type valve with Cv=0.8 0-100%
equal and I/P positioner
7 Vortex flowmeter FT-301 Air flowmeter for process line 0-50 SCMH
8 Pressure Indicator PI301 Dial gauge pressure indicator for 0-7 bar
PI302 local pressure indication 0-7 bar
PI303 0-4 bar
PI304 0-4 bar

9 Temperature TI-301 Dial gauge temperature indicator for 0-1000C

Indicator local temperature indication
10 Process Tank V-301 Receiver tank 250 L
V-302 Control tank 100 L

11 Alarm PAL-302 Control tank pressure high alarm

Annunciator PAH-302 Control tank pressure low alarm
12 Pressure Relief PSV-301 Mechanically activated device,
Valve PSC-302 spring loaded normally closed
valve. Opens and purges air to
atmosphere in case of over
pressure in tank. Open prior to
pressure greater than its spring
tension.
13 Solenoid Valves HV-301 Solenoid valves for fault simulation -
HV-302
HV303
14 D/P Transmitter PDT-301 Differential pressure transmitter for 0-60 PSIG
process line
15 Rotameter FI-301 Variable area flowmeter for purpose 0-50 SCMH
FI-302 line
16 Hand valve HV304- Input/Output isolation valves.
HV309 Determine the direction of airflow
and load changes.
17 Fault simulation HS-301 Leakage at pressure control tank -
switches HS-302 Loss of instrument air supply
HS-303 Shut off at the outlet to the pressure
control tank
18 Air regulator PCV-301 Regulates the air supply to the -
process receiver tank (V-301)
19 Instrument Air - Supplies instrument air to I/P -

3
 converter
20 Control Panel - Mounting/installation of controller, -
alarm annunciator, recorder,
push button power supply
switch and changeover switch
and changeover switch
between the DCS and local
control

5.4 THEORY

A fundamental component of any industrial process control system is the feedback control
loop. It consists of the process, the measurement, the controller and the final control element
as shown in Fig 5.1. If all these elements are interconnected that is if information can be
passed continuously around the loop, this is closed loop control and automatic feedback
exists.

Figure 5.1 A closed loop control loop

This information flow provides the means for control, which allows efficient utilization of raw
materials and energy, if a loop is interrupted for any reason, such as when the controller is
placed on manual control, in Figure 5.2, it is considered to be open loop control and
automatic control no longer exists.

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 Figure 5.2 An open loop control loop

The concept of automatic feedback control is not new. Automatic feedback control is not
used universally. Open loop control does not feed information from the process back to the
controller. Automatic control requires some sort of signal system to close the loop and
provide the means for information flow. The controller must be able to move the valve, the
valve must be able to affect the measurement and the measurement signal must be reported
to the controller.

5.4.1 On/Off

On/Off control generally both the simplest and the least expensive type of process control
and has wide application in industry. A process controlled by an on/off controller almost
always has some error in it, in fact the controller turns on or off only at those times there is
no error in the measurement, when the measurement crosses the set point on its way from
one extreme error to another. The valve goes either fully open or closed depending on the
direction of the error.

No attempt is made to balanced the inflow with the outflow. The energy or material supplied
to the process is always either too much or not enough. The measured variable cycles
continuously. When on/off control is applied to the right type of process, the effect of the
cycling is small and acceptable. On/off controller best applied to a large capacity process
that has relatively little dead time and small mass or energy inflow with respect to the
capacity of the system.

The cycling is illustrated in Figure 5.3 which shows the relationship between the temperature
and the action of the manipulated variable. A typical application for on/off control is the
temperature of a large tank or bath.

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 Figure 5.3 System response to a process upset with on/off control

5.4.2 Proportional Control

When a process has small capacity, it usually responds quickly to upsets. Therefore, precise
continuous regulation of the manipulated variable is needed. Proportional control attempts to
stabilize the system and avoid fluctuations by responding to the magnitude as well as the
direction of the error. The relationship between the output and the width of the measurement
span is called the proportional band. In operation, the proportional controller calculates the
amount of error between the measurement and the set point, amplifies it and positions the
final control element to reduce the error. The magnitude of the corrective action is
proportional to the error. The measurement of proportional only controller can completely
eliminate offset at only one load condition.

When there is a process upset, such as when flow is suddenly reduced, the valve must
change position to keep the controlled variable at constant level (maintain the set point). The
output from the controller (which controls the valve position) must assume a new value,
different from the original (the set point) before equilibrium can again be reached.

This new value of the controlled variable is offset from the set point. Figure 5.4, Curve C
shows system response when the proportional band in which the oscillation settle out
quickly. If the proportional band is too wide, the offset will be much larger, reducing the
amount of control over the process. Narrowing the proportional band (increasing the gain)
can reduce the amount of offset but too narrow a band creates cycling. The most important
limitations of proportional only control is that it can accommodate only one fixed relationship
between input and output, one control load where input error is zero and one output signal
which positions the control valve in the position required to make the error zero.

Pure proportional action generally adequate for a process that is stable using a narrow
proportional band and where a small offset is not detrimental to the operation of the system.
Non-critical temperature level control lops with long time constants are good applications for
proportional only control.

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 Figure 5.4 Proportional only system response to a process upset with different proportional
band (PB) widths

5.4.3 Integral Control

Integral action avoids the offset created in proportional only control by bringing the output
back to the set point. It is an automatic rebalancing of the system, which operates as long an
error exists. Therefore, integral control responds to the duration of the error as well as its
magnitude and direction. Integral control is almost never used alone, rather it is combined
with proportional control.

Proportional plus integral (PI) control is generally used on processes where no amount of
offset can be tolerated. Other applications include those where such a wide proportional
band would be required for stability that the amount of offset created would be unacceptable.

PI control is applied to almost all processes. When a process upset occurs, the proportional
controller registers an error and responds to it as shown in Figure 1.5. The integral control
mode detects the offset error in the proportional mode and tries to eliminate the error.

In a PI controller, integral action can be expressed in terms of minutes per repeat-the

amount of time necessary for the integral controller to repeat the open loop response caused
by the proportional mode for a step change in error. The smaller the time value, the faster
the integral action.

The minutes per repeat chosen for the integral mode of the controller should bring the
control point back to the set point quickly. If the integral time is too long, the system will not
perform at maximum efficiency. If the time is too short, it will overshoot the set point, in fact if
the integral time is too short for the process being controlled a continuous cycle may result.
These relationships are shown in Figure 3.5.

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Figure 5.5 Proportional Integral System Response to a Process Upset with Different Integral
Times

One problem with integral control occur when a deviation cannot be eliminated over a period
of times. The controller continues to see an error and tries to correct for it, saturating it and
driving the output to its maximum value. This is called integral windup. When the situation
causing the error is corrected, the controller does not immediately return to normal operation
it holds the output and the valve at the extreme for a period of times after the deviation has
reversed sign.

5.4.4 PID

Each of the three basic control modes and the combinations discussed so far, proportional
(P), proportional plus integral (PI) have limitations which may not be significant if the process
and controller are carefully matched. However, some processes are so difficult to control or
so critical to maintain at set point that the use of all three modes will be helpful in maintaining
desired control. PID control responds to all aspect of process error-direction, magnitude,
duration and rate of change. The output of a PID controller is a linear combination of PI and
D modes of control.

PID control can be advantages on many processes. However, its application should be
considered carefully because it has limitations with some processes. Processes that benefit
most from PID control have rapid and large disturbances and in which derivative action can
be respond to the rapidity of the changes and the integral action can be respond to the
duration of them. Derivative and integral action are complementary. Derivative action permits
an increase in proportional gain, offsetting the decrease necessitated by integral action
where integral action tends to increase the period of cycling of a loop, derivative action tends
to reduce it thereby producing the same speed of response as with proportional action but
without offset.

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Temperature processes, such as the heat exchanger, typical of those applications which can
benefit from PID control. Figure 3.6 shows the effect of the addition of derivative action to a
properly adjusted PI controller. The period (time to complete a cycle) is shorter than with
proportional plus integral control.

Figure 5.6 Comparison of system response to a process upset with PI control and with PID
control

Figure 5.7 shows the response of a system to a process upset in the primary analogue
control mode, proportional, integral and PID. The uncontrolled response is shown for the
sake of comparison.

Figure 5.7 System response to a process upset with different modes of analogue control

Figure 5.8 shows the response of a system to a change in set point using the same
analogue control modes.

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 Figure 5.8 System response to a change in set point with different modes of analogue
control

5.4.5 Loop Tuning

The closed loop control system attempts to achieve a balance between supply and demand
by comparing the controlled variable to the set point and regulating the supply to an amount
which will maintain the desired balance. Tuning the controller adjusts it so it can achieve that
balance as quickly as possible. This is done when instrument is first put in service and later
on a periodic basis as part of preventive maintenance. When tuning remember that each
controller is part of a closed loop. All the parts of the loop are interactive, behaviour of other
devices in that loop. The controller response must be matched to that of the process. There
are several procedures for doing this, some mathematical most using trial and error.

A simple three step method for tuning most three mode controllers follows. Batch controllers
and one through processes are special cases discussed after the three mode and two mode
controllers). This three steps procedure is based on a simple test to determine the nature
period of oscillation of the process.

Step 1: Set the integral time of the controller at its maximum and the derivative time at its
minimum, thereby providing proportional only control. Then reduce the proportional band
until oscillation begins. Measure the period of this oscillation (also called the natural period)
as the time between two successive crests or valleys (Figure 5.9).

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 Figure 5.9 Period of oscillation with proportional only controller after first tuning step

Step 2: Set the derivative time at 0.15 times the natural period and the integral time at 0.4
times the natural period. Observe the new period of oscillation there should be a 25 percent
decrease (Figure 5.10). If the new period of oscillation is shorter than this reduce the
derivative time, if period is longer, increase the integral time.

Figure 5.10 Period of oscillation for correctly tuned PID controller after second tuning step

Step 3: Finally, the proportional band to achieve the desired degree of damping (the amount
of correction to a process upset which when too much or too little shows up as either
overshoot or sluggishness respectively)

When adjusting a two mode PI controller a slightly different method should be used since
integral mode introduces phase lag that is not counteracted by derivative. The procedure
follows:

Step 1: Set the integral time of the two mode controller at its maximum and the derivative
time at its minimum, providing proportional only control just as with the three mode controller.
Then reduce the proportional band until oscillation begins and measure this period.

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Step 2: Set the integral time to the natural period. The period of oscillation should increase
about 40 percent (ideally 43%). If the period is longer than this, increase the integral time
(Figure 5.11).

Figure 5.11 Period of oscillation for correctly tuned PI controller after second tuning step

Step 3: Finally adjust the desired degree of damping is achieved. Adding integral will always
increase the proportional band required for stable control.
Some consideration must be given to processes with variable dynamic characteristics. Once
through processes such as tubular heat exchangers exhibit a natural period that varies
inversely with flow. In such situations. One combination of controller settings cannot be ideal
for all flow rates. Integral time should be set according to the lowest anticipated flow rate and
the derivative of time accordingly to the highest.

Some batch controllers because of their mechanical arrangement will become unstable if
equal values of integral and derivative time are used. Always keep their integral time at least
twice the derivative time.

5.5 PROCEDURE

Table 5.2 Start-up procedure

Step Action Remarks

Start compressor and wait for sufficient air pressure to build

up in receiver tank, V-102, recommended air supply
1
pressure at 4 bar

2 Switch on the instrument power supply

3 Check recorder is working and pens have ink

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4 Set controller Manual Mode with 0% output

Check and make sure hand valves positions are as

follows:-
Close HV 315
Close HV318
Open HV 311 Hand valves to be
5
Open HV 312 Open/Closed Fully.
Open HV 313
Open HV 314
Open HV 317
Leave alone HV 316

Table 5.3 On/Off Control

Step Action Remarks

Allow pressure to build in V-102 to 4 bar(g) then set FI-302

1 to 10 m3/nr by regulating hand valve HV 316

Set control loop to Manual Mode and adjust the output to

2
about 50%.

Enter the following values:

PB = 2
3
I = 1000
D=0

Gradually adjust the output so that the pressure in the tank

4
V-302 matches the setpoint.

5 Put the control loop into Auto Mode

Simulate a load changes by opening HV 316 so that FI 301

6
reads for 50m3/hr for approximately 10 seconds

Restore HV 316 to its original position and observe the

7
measurement for about 2 minutes

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8 Change the setpoint to 75% and observe the response of
the system for another 2 minutes.

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 Table 5.4 Closed Loop Proportional Control

Step Action Remarks

Allow pressure to build in V-301 to 4 bar(g) then set FI-302

1 to 10 m3/nr by regulating hand valve HV 316

2 Set control loop to Manual Mode with setpoint 50%

Enter the following values: The values will set the

PB = 250 controller to
3
I = 1000 Proportional Only
D=0 Control mode

Gradually adjust the output so that the pressure on the

4
tank matches the setpoint.

5 Put the control loop into Auto Mode

Simulate a load changes by opening HV 316 so that FI 301

6
reads for 50m3/hr for approximately 10 seconds

Restore HV 316 to its original position and wait until the

7
measurement PT 302 exhibits a uniform pattern.

8 Change the setpoint to 75% and observe the response of

the system.
Repeat steps 2 through 8 for the following PB values.
Retain the previous I and D values.
9
PB = 25 and PB = 10

Take note the offset values for each of the PB values.

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 Table 5.5 Closed Loop Proportional and Integral Control

Step Action Remarks

Allow pressure to build in V-302 then set FI-302 to 10 m 3/nr

1 by regulating hand valve HV 316

2 Set PIC-302 to Manual Mode with setpoint 50%

Enter the following values: The values will set the

PB = 100 controller to
3
I = 50 Proportional & Integral
D=0 Control mode

Gradually adjust the output so that the pressure on the tank

4
matches the setpoint.

5 Put the control loop into Auto Mode

Simulate a load changes by opening HV 316 so that FI 301

6
reads for 50m3/hr for approximately 10 seconds

Restore HV 316 to its original position and wait until the

7
measurement exhibits a uniform pattern.

8 Change the setpoint to 75% and observe the response of

the system.
Repeat steps 2 through 8 for the following I values. Retain
the previous PB and D values.
9
I = 30 s, I = 10 s and I =1 s

Table 5.6 Proportional plus Integral and Derivative (PID) Control

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Step Action Remarks

Allow pressure to build in V-301 to 4 bar(g) then set FI-302

1 to 10 m3/nr by regulating hand valve HV 316

2 Set PIV-302 to Manual Mode with setpoint 50%

Enter the following values: The values will set the

PB = 1000 controller to
3
I = 30 Proportional Only
D=0 Control mode

Gradually adjust the output so that the pressure on the

4
tank matches the setpoint of 50%.

5 Put the control loop into Auto Mode

Simulate a load changes by opening HV 316 so that FI 301

6
reads for 50m3/hr for approximately 10 seconds

Restore HV 316 to its original position and wait until the

7
measurement exhibits a uniform pattern.

8 Change the setpoint to 75% and observe the response of

the system.
Repeat steps 2 through 8 for the following D values. Retain
the previous PB and I values.
9
D = 30, D = 10 and D = 1

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 Table 5.7 PID Loop Tuning

Step Action Remarks

Allow pressure to build in V-301 to 4 bar(g) then set FI-302

1 to 10 m3/nr by regulating hand valve HV 316

2 Set PIC-302-1 to Manual Mode with setpoint at 50%

Enter the following values: The values will set the

PB = 250 controller to
3
I = 1000 Proportional Only
D=0 Control mode

Gradually adjust the output so that the pressure of the tank

4
reaches the setpoint.

5 Put the control loop into Auto Mode

Retain the I and D values. Slowly decrease PB until the

6
measurement oscillate about the setpoint.

Repeat steps 3 through 4 for the following PB values.

7
PB = 25, PB = 10 and PB = 2

Determine the natural period using the following method

D
Natural period , T   60 min
8 Trend Speed
where
D = distance in mm between successive crests or valleys
Set the integral time to natural period, T that was calculated
and repeat step 3 to 6. The period of oscillation should
9
decrease by 40 %. If the period is longer than this increase
the integral time.
Finally adjust the PB until the desired degree of damping is
10
achieved.

5.6 CALCULATION OF CONTROL VALVE (CV)

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The term Cv is generally used by industry for comparing and calculating relative flow
capacity in valves. Consideration should be given that calculated results are comparative
only.

Definition: Cv equates to the number of cubic feet per minute of air, having a specific gravity
of 1.0 that will pass through the valve with a pressure drop at the valve of 1 Psi.

Cv = valve flow coefficient

P1 = upstream pressure, Psia
P2 = downstream pressure, Psia
P = pressure drop or differential, Psi
S.G. = specific gravity relative to air or water
SCFH = standard cubic feet per hour

When calculating gas or vapour flow, if the calculated P exceeds one half the upstream
pressure, use one half the upstream Psia for sizing P.

For gases:

Cv 
SCFH  460  0

F S .G.
1360 P1 (P )
Q TfG
Cv 
1360 P ( P1 )

Example

Qmax = 45.5 SCMH = 1606.8 SCFH

Tf = flowing temp in Rankine (460+0F) = 250C
G = S.G. = 1.0 for air
P1 = 4 barg = 72.7 Psia
P2 = 43.7 Psia
P = 29 psi

Then

Cv = 0.77

During the experiment, various faults can be simulated by the unit, to create errors similar to
those that can be experienced in the industry. This can be done with switches that have
been installed for this purpose. It is required to detect the errors, its location and solve the
error.

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Switch HS-301 : Leakage at the pressure control tank (V-302)
Switch HS-302 : Loss of instrument air supply
Switch HS-303 : Shut off the outlet pressure control tank (V-302)

5.7 REFERENCES

Seborg D.E., T.F. Edgar and D.A. Melliechamp, ‘Process Dynamics and Control’, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 1989, pp 116-118.

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