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(For IV Sem B.E. Mechanical Engineering Students)
S.Baskar, Dr.S.Ramachandran,
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First Edition: 9th August 2014
Typeset by: aksharaa muthra aalayam, Chennai - 18. Ph.: 044-2436 4303
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Printed at: Abinayaram Printers, Chennai - 4. Ph.: 044-2466 1909, 9444 08 1904
Contents C.1
%%$
Chapter 1
GENERAL CONCEPT
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1.7.9 Wavelength standard .................................... 1.17
C.2 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Dead-zone ............................................................ 1.34
Contents C.3
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(i) Direct calibration .......................................... 1.46
C.4 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Chapter 2
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4. Deterministic Metrology ..................................2.3
Contents C.5
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(iv) Blade Type Micrometer ............................. 2.48
Contents C.7
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Type C ................................................................. 2.72
C.8 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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(i) Focal Length.................................................. 2.98
Contents C.9
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2.6.5.1 Taylor’s Principle................................. 2.124
C.10 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Chapter 3
ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
3.1 Introduction ................................................................... 3.1
3.2 Laser .............................................................................. 3.2
3.2.1 Basic Concept................................................... 3.2
3.2.2 Comparison between Laser light and
light from an incandescent lamp .............. 3.7
3.2.3 Types of Lasers ............................................... 3.7
3.2.4 Advantages of laser ........................................ 3.8
3.2.5 Applications of Laser ...................................... 3.8
3.2.6 Laser Inspection .............................................. 3.9
(i) Scanning Laser Gauge ................................. 3.10
(ii) Laser Telemetric system ............................ 3.11
(iii) Photo Diode Array Imaging...................... 3.12
(iv) Diffraction pattern technique.................... 3.13
3.2.7 Laser Triangular sensors ............................. 3.14
(vi) Two frequency laser interferometer......... 3.15
3.3 Interference.................................................................. 3.15
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3.3.1 Principle of superposition............................. 3.15
Contents C.11
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(b) Probing System ............................................ 3.48
C.12 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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3.13.7 Application of Machine Vision System 3.94
C.14 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Chapter 4
FORM MEASUREMENT
Introduction .......................................................................... 4.1
4.1 Straightness Measurement.......................................... 4.1
4.1.1 Methods of Straightness Measurement........ 4.2
4.2 Flatness Measurement................................................. 4.4
4.2.1 Methods of Fltness Measurement................. 4.5
1. Beam Comparator Used for
Flatness Testing .............................................4.5
2. Faltness Measurement by Interferometry ....4.6
3. Flatness Measurement Using Laser
Measurement System .......................................4.6
4. Flatness Measurement Electro-mechanical
Gauges ..............................................................4.6
4.2.2 Surface Plate.................................................... 4.7
4.3 Parallelism..................................................................... 4.8
4.3.1 Methods of Parallelism Measurement.......... 4.8
1. Using Dial Indicator and Test Mandrel.......4.8
4.3.2 Using Electro-mechanical Gauges ............... 4.10
4.3.3 Using an Auto collimator ........................... 4.10
4.3.3.1 Autocollimator ........................................ 4.11
4.3.3.2 Principle of autocollimator................... 4.12
4.3.3.3 Applications ............................................ 4.16
Measuring the straightness of machine
components .......................................................... 4.16
Measuring flatness ............................................. 4.16
Other applications .............................................. 4.16
4.4 Thread Measurement ................................................. 4.17
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4.4.1 Nomenclature of screw threads................... 4.17
Contents C.15
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(i) One wire method .......................................... 4.28
C.16 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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(iv) Rolling Gear Test ....................................... 4.63
C.18 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Chapter 5
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(iv) Pendulum Scale..............................................5.7
Contents C.21
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5.10.1 Cradled Shaft Bearing Type...................... 5.48
Contents C.23
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Operation ............................................................. 5.77
C.24 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Application........................................................... 5.77
Advantages .......................................................... 5.78
Limitations .......................................................... 5.78
5.12.8 Rotameter (Variable-area Meter) .............. 5.78
Description........................................................... 5.78
Operation ............................................................. 5.79
Applications ......................................................... 5.80
Advantages .......................................................... 5.80
5.12.9 Pitot Tube .................................................... 5.81
5.12.9.1 Advantage of pitot tube .......................... 5.86
Disadvantage of pitot tube ............................... 5.86
5.13 Power Measurement................................................. 5.86
Types of Dynamometers.................................... 5.86
(a) Absorption dynamometers............................5.87
(b) Driving dynamometers ................................ 5.87
(c) Transmission dynamometers ...................... 5.87
Different Arrangements used to find Brake
Power.....................................................................5.87
5.13.1 Rope Brake Arrangement .......................... 5.87
5.13.2 Prony Brake Arrangement......................... 5.89
5.13.3 Band Brake Arrangements ........................ 5.90
D.C. Dynamometer............................................. 5.91
5.14 Comparators .............................................................. 5.92
5.14.1 Mechanical Comparators ............................ 5.92
(i) Dial Gauge (or) Dial Indicator ................... 5.93
Mechanism of dial Indicator ............................ 5.94
(ii) Reed type Mechanical Comparator........... 5.95
Merits of mechanical comparator .................... 5.97
Disadvantages ..................................................... 5.97
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5.14.2 Pneumatic Comparator ............................... 5.97
Contents C.25
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5.16.4.1 Platinum Sensing Resistors .................. 5.115
C.26 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Disadvantages ................................................... 5.130
Contents C.27
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General Concept 1.1
Chapter 1
GENERAL CONCEPT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
For anything to be understood, it has to be
expressed in numbers. The process of expressing anything
(object, property, etc) in terms of numbers or obtaining
quantitative information about anything is called as
measurement. For this an internationally accepted
predefined standard i.e unit is necessary for every kind
of quantity measured. Further, an instrument or
apparatus is required to measure that quantity in terms
of that corresponding unit. The science of measurement
is called as metrology and when related to the practice
of engineering, it is called engineering metrology.
The basic or fundamental measuring process can be
explained as follows. It consists of
(i) A measurand, which is the unknown quantity or
parameter being observed and quantified. This is
the input to the measuring process.
(ii) Comparator or measurement where the
measurand is quantitatively compared with a
reference or predefined standard. Both the
measurand and the standard are of the same
character. The standard is usually defined by a
recognised agency or organization like,
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1.2 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
S ta ndard
TYPES OF METROLOGY
LEGAL METROLOGY
The units of measurement methods and measuring
instruments used for the various measuring processes are
in relations to statutory, technical and legal requirements.
DETERMINISTIC METROLOGY
This is used for high precision manufacturing where
process measurement replaces the measurement of parts.
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General Concept 1.7
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Example: projection comparator.
1.8 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
A nalo gous
Input P rim ary output Conve rsion M anip ulation
sta ge sta ge sta ge
A m plified
signa l
Read ou t
Recording
sta ge
D e tecto r
Transd ucer stage Scale
(Termin ating stage or
Final stag e)
Po in ter
G ears
(M an ip ulatio n
Bo urd on Tub e sta ge )
dete ctor
(Se con da ry ( Intermediate (or)
stage ) m odifying stage)
Th ermo m eter
Se nsin g
bulb
(Primary
stag e)
Liquid
Fig. 1.2 Different stages of m easurin g system
(H o t)
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General Concept 1.11
1.7.1 SI System
The Eleventh General Conference on Weight and
Measures established formally the SI (International
System of Units (or) System International units) system.
It consists of six dimensional standards for length, mass
time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature and
luminous intensity. Later the standard for amount of
substance (mole) was added. The SI system of units is
more convenient to use than other systems and
comprehensive as the seven base units cover all
discipline.
S. Unit Unit
Physical Quantity
No. Name Symbol
1. Length Meter m
2. Mass Kilogram kg
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1.12 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
S. Unit Unit
Physical Quantity
No. Name Symbol
3. Time Second s
5. Temperature Kelvin K
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General Concept 1.13
Force F N
(i.e., 1N 1 kg m/s2)
Pressure P N/m 2 or Pascal
Density kg/m 3
Sp.wt w N/m 3
Energy E Nm or Joule
Area A m2
Velocity v, u m/s
Moment or couple M N-m
Angle rad
Angular velocity rad/s
Acceleration a m/s 2
Angular acceleration rad/s2
Torque T N-m
Power P Watts or J/S
Frequency f Hz
Volume V m3
Work W1 2 N-m
Impulse – kg - m/s
Moment of force – N-m
Stress – N/m 2
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1.14 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
1.7.3 Definitions
Meter, m
The unit of length is meter m. It is defined as the
length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in a time
interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.
Second, s
The unit of time is second (s). The duration of
9,192,631,770 of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the cesium 133 atom is called a second.
Kilogram, kg
The unit of mass is kilogram, kg. It is defined as
the mass of the International prototype kilogram, made
of platinum iridium kept at the International Bureau of
weights and Measures at Sevres, near paris.
Kelvin, K
The unit of temperature is called kelvin K. It is
the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature
of the triple point of water, i.e. The temperature of which
the solid, liquid, and vapour phases of water coexist in
equilibrium.
Ampere, A
The unit of electric current is ampere, A. It is
defined as the constant current required (or to be
maintained) to produce a force equal to 2 10 7 Newton
per meter length between two parallel rectilinear
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conductors of infinite length of negligible circular
General Concept 1.15
Candela, Cd
Mole, mol
1.7.4 STANDARDS
Line standard
End standard
Wavelength standard
1.7.16 TRACEABILITY
Traceability is a system of transferring the
standardized units from the point of definition to the
uses. It refers to an unbroken chain of comparisons
relating to an instrument’s measurements to a known
standard.
1.9 SENSITIVITY
Range
No. of divisions
Fo rce ,F
F
V V
S lope =
Loa d O u tpu t, V F
cell (Vo lta ge)
O u tpu t,y
X 2
y 2
X 1
y 1
O u tpu t, x
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Fig. 1.4 Calibration Curve
General Concept 1.23
Overall sensitivity S S1 S2 S 3
Solution
Given
Amplifier, S 3 80 V/V
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Pen recorder S 4 1.2 mm/V
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1.24 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Overall sensitivity
S1 S2 S3 S4
ohm V V mm
0.3 0.01 80 1.2
C ohm V V
0.288 mm/C
30
0.288
Change in tempera ture
30 m
Change in temperature
0.288 mm/C
104.167 C
1.10 STABILITY
Stability is the property of a measuring instrument,
whereby its metrological properties remain constant with
time. It helps us to evaluate the performance of an
measurement device over time.
1.11 READABILITY
It is measure of an instrument’s ability to display
incremental changes in its output value.
1.12 RANGE
Range of an instrument describes the lowest to
highest values that can be measured using that particular
instrument. And, the difference between the highest and
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lowest calibration point is called as span. For example a
1.26 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
1.13 ACCURACY
(Or)
d
Frequen cy of D istribution
occurance
(or)
True value curve
R eference
value
M ean value
D im ension
Fig. 1.5 Accuracy.
1.14 PRECISION
Usually, to determine the value of the dimension of
a component, a set of readings are taken to arrive at an
average or mean value. In some cases, the values of the
measured quantity repeat themselves or are close to each
other and in some cases they do not. So, the degree by
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which the repeated measurements of the some dimension
1.28 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
True value
D istribution
curve
Fre quency
(No of
occurance)
e e
M ean value
D im ension
Fig. 1.6 Precision
Average valu e
x x
D im en sion x x True value
Fre quency
a) A ccurate and P re cis e
x x Average
D im ension
x x
E rror
True value
Fre quency
b) P recise but not Accurate (Results of
M easu rem ent c lose to Average Value)
x x x
x
D im ensio n
x Average
x E rror
x True value
x
x
Fre quency
c) A ccurate but not P recise
Fig. 1.8 D ifference betw een P recision a nd A ccu racy.
2. Dynamic characteristics
2. Non-repetitive or transient
1.16.2 DEFINITIONS
Static Error
Dynamic Error
The difference between the true value of a quantity
changing with time and the indicated value by the
instrument with respect to time, is called dynamic error.
If no static error ie the error resulting from inadequate
dynamic response of a transducer in a time varying
signal.
Percentage Error
The error of measuring system is expressed as a
percentage of the measuring range of the instrument.
Correction
The negative of error is known as correction
Dead-zone
The range of different input values over which there
is no change in the output value is known as dead-zone.
Threshold
The minimum value of input below which no output
value is achieved is known as Threshold.
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the difference between the indications
of a measuring instrument when the same value of the
measured quantity is reached by increasing or decreasing
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that quantity.
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General Concept 1.35
O u tpu t
reading
D ead M easured
variab le
zone
Drift
The actual change in the measurement value when
the same characteristic is measured under similar
conditions and same operator at different points in time,
is called drift. It indicates how often a measuring
instrument needs recalibration or it is the slow change
of a metrological characteristic of a measuring
instrument.
Resolution
The smallest change in the measured value which
can be indicated in the instrument’s readout scale is
called as resolution.
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1.36 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Speed of response
The speed with which an instrument responds to
changes in the measured quantity is called as speed of
response.
Lag
The delay in the response of an instrument to
changes in the measured quantity is called as measuring
lag.
Fidelity
The degree to which an instrument indicates the
changes in a measured value without dynamic error is
called fidelity.
Trueness
It is the closeness of agreement between the true
value and the average value obtained from a large series
of measurements. Accuracy relates to single measurement
whereas trueness applies to average value of a large
number of measurements.
Uncertainty
Uncertainty in measurement is defined as the range
about the measured value within which the true value of
the measured quantity is estimated to lie with some level
of confidence.
Linearity
It is defined as the maximum deviation of the
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output of a measuring system from a specified straight
General Concept 1.37
1.17 REPEATABILITY
maximum minimum
Repeatability 100%
full scale
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(a) Calibration Errors
General Concept 1.39
3. Illegitimate errors
mistakes committed by personnel during an
experiment.
computational errors after an experiment.
1.18.1 Systematic Errors
These errors tend to shift all measurements in a
systematic way, so when a number of measurements are
taken, the mean value is constantly displaced or varies
in a predictable way. These errors can be determined and
reduced, hence controllable both in their magnitude and
sense. These errors arise due to following reasons.
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General Concept 1.41
R elative
Frequency
x-3 x x+3
M easured Valu es
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General Concept 1.43
x x 2
Standard deviation,
n
And the,
Standard error of the mean value
n
1.19 CORRECTION
Correction is the value algebraically added to the
indicated value of measurand to obtain its actual value.
It is numerically equal to the error but opposite in sign.
1.20 CALIBRATION
The ability of all measuring instruments to measure
accurately and reliably is to be proved, to get meaningful
results. For this, the results of measurement are to be
compared with higher standards. The process of
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comparison of a device with unknown accuracy to a device
General Concept 1.45
Calibration procedure
The procedure for calibrating instruments is of two
types namely
(a) Primary calibration
1.21.1 Introduction
It is common knowledge that it is impossible to
manufacture a part to a perfect size and even if it is
possible there is no means to measure it accurately.
Further it is quite uneconomical in most of the cases.
This is due to the variations or limitations in tooling,
machining, raw materials and operators. Hence, some
allowance for a given size should be allowed, according
to the requirement of the assembly. This is known as
tolerance. It is defined as the allowance for a specific
variation in the size and geometry of a part or on the
magnitude of permissible variation of a dimension or
other measured or control criterion from the specified
value.
Limits
The two extreme permissible sizes for any
dimension (maximum and minimum) are called the limits.
While deciding the limits for a particular dimension, the
following should be considered.
Tolera nce
M axim u m
C le a ran ce Tolera nce
Ze ro line
B a sic size
S che m atic
R e pre sen tatio n
of
Tolera nce s
S h aft
H o le
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1.50 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
ES
EI
H ole
ei
es
D m ax
D m in d
d m ax
d m in
S haft
Fig. 1.11 Tolerance Zones.
Where:
dD basic size
D max, D min limits of size for the hole
dmax, dmin limits of size for the shaft
ES hole upper deviation
EI hole lower deviation
es shaft upper deviation
ei shaft lower deviation
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1.52 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
d
Tolera nce
zone
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General Concept 1.53
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1.54 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Datum
Tolerances Characteristics Symbols
Needed
Form Straightness No
Form Flatness No
Form Circularity No
Form Cylindricity No
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General Concept 1.55
Datum
Tolerances Characteristics Symbols
Needed
Description Symbols
Radius R
Diameter
Envelope Requirement E
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1.56 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Minor Diameter LD
Major Diameter
Pitch Diameter
Common Zone
Exact Dimension 60
Dimension Origin
A A A
Datum Feature Indication
6
Datum Target Indication 6
or
A1 A1
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General Concept 1.57
0.03 M A B C
G eo m e tric Toleran ce
characteristic D ia. A t m ax. P rim ary S econ dary Tertiary
sym bo l m aterial datum datum datum
condition referen ce referen ce referen ce
Form Tolerances
Form tolerances can be stated by four tolerance
zones. These form tolerances are Straightness, Flatness,
Circularity, and Cylindricity. These form tolerances are
applied to individual features therefore the Form
Tolerances are not related to datums.
Profile Tolerances
Profile tolerances can be stated by two tolerance
zones. These are Line Profile and Surface Profile. Profile
Tolerance can be defined as a profile of a line or profile
of surface generated by off setting each point on the
nominal surface in direction normal to the nominal
surface at that point. A Profile is the outline of an object
in a given plane. Profile tolerance also defines a uniform
boundary around a surface within where the elements of
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the surface must lie.
1.58 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Orientation Tolerances
Orientation Tolerances can be stated by three
tolerance zones. These are Perpendicularity, Angularity,
and Parallelism. Perpendicularity is 90 to a datum and
parallelism is 0 to a datum. Angularity controls a surface
(non feature of size), a center plane or an axis of a feature
of size to a specified angle. These tolerances control the
orientation of features to a datum plane or axis.
Orientation Tolerances are related to datums. LMC or
MMC can apply to feature of size of the orientation
tolerances.
Location Tolerances
Location Tolerances can be stated by three tolerance
zones. These are position, concentricity, and symmetry
tolerances. Concentricity and symmetry are used to
control the center distance of feature elements. Position
is used to control coaxiality of features, the center
distance between features, and the location of features as
a group, position, concentricity, and symmetry tolerances
are associated with datums. LMC or MMC can apply to
feature of size.
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General Concept 1.59
Runout Tolerances
Runout tolerances can be stated by two tolerance
zones. These are circular or total runout. Runout
tolerances are three dimensional and apply only to
cylindrical parts, especially parts that rotate. A part must
be rotated to inspect runout. A calibrated instrument is
placed against the surface of the rotating part to detect
the highest and lowest points. Both circular and total
runout reference a cylindrical feature to a center
datum-axis. The material condition applied to the feature
being controlled and the datum feature or features is
always RFS because 360 rotation is required to conduct
the inspection. Circular run out controls the cumulative
variation of circularity (roundness) and coaxiality for
features constructed around a datum axis and circular
elements of a surface constructed at an angle not parallel
to the datum axis. Total run out controls the entire
surface simultaneously hence it controls cumulative
variations in circularity, coaxiality, straightness, taper,
angularity and profile of a surface.
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.1
Chapter 2
Industrial metrology
Legal metrology
1. Scientific Metrology
3. Legal Metrology
Unit of measurement
Methods of measurement
Measuring instruments.
It implements those requirements that would
guarantee correct measurements in the areas of
public interest such as trade, health, the
environment and safety.
4. Deterministic Metrology
They are
Steel rule
Calipers, Dividers, etc used in combination with
steel rule.
Dial indicators and vernier calipers.
Micrometers
Slip gauges
Comparators
generally gets
worn at the
Fig: 2.2 C orrect M eth od of
ends.
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U sing a Steel R ule
2.6 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
2.3.2 Calipers
Calipers are measuring instruments consisting of a
pair of movable, curved legs hinged together at one end,
used to measure thickness, diameter, or distances. When
measurements cannot be taken directly by a ruler,
calipers can be used. The ends of legs of a caliper span
the part to be inspected and then is transferred to the
rule to read the measurement. This method reduces
sighting errors and increases the reading accuracy.
According to construction, calipers can be of (1) firm
joint type and (2) Spring type.
According to application, calipers can be of
(a) Outside caliper and (b) Inside caliper.
We also have transfer and hermaphrodite calipers
which are of firm joint type.
Outside calipers are used to measure outside
dimensions like diameter
of shafts, etc whereas
inside caliper is used to
measure width of recesses,
diameter of holes, etc.
In spring type
calipers, the spring
provides sufficient tension
to hold the legs rigid at all
(a) (b)
points of adjustment.
(a) O utside caliper (b) Insid e caliper
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Fig. 2.3 Firm Jo int
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.7
auxiliary
arm
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2.8 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
F ixe d
P o int
L o ck
Nut
S c rib e r
N o tch
(b) Uses of Herm op hrodite caliper
Fig. 2.6 (a) Herm ophrodite Caliper
2.3.3 Dividers
Dividers consist of two legs (pivoted), whose end
points are suitably heat treated to inpart hardness and
sharpened so that they act as scribers. They are used for
scribing arcs and circles. One leg is placed in the dimple
on workpiece created by a center punch and the other leg
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.9
S crew
L ock nut
Construction
M easuring Ve rn ier
Tips 0 10 20 25
Scale
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Fig. 2.8 Vern ier calip er.
2.10 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Working
For measurement by a vernier caliper, the part to
be measured is placed in between the two jaws. The
movable jaw is then adjusted, so that the two measuring
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tips touch the part to be measured. Depending upon the
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.11
Principle of Vernier
N divisions on the vernier scale is equal to (N-1)
divisions on the main scale.
N 1
1VSD MSD
N
N 1
LC 1 MSD MSD
N
N 1
LC 1 MSD 1
N
MSD 1
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LC
N
2.12 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
1
1 VSD 24 0.5 0.48 u nit
25
LC 1 MSD 1 VSD
20 30 M ain scale
21
0 5 10 15 20 25
Ve rn ie r sca le
C o in ciding
d ivisio n
2 H (12 x0.0 2)
=2 1 .24 m m
Fig. 2.9
M a in sca le d ivid e d into 1 /2 m m d iv isio n s
Type A
This type of vernier caliper has jaws on both sides
of the beam for external and internal measurements.
Also, a blade is provided, which is connected to the
movable jaw, for depth measurements. It is illustrated in
the Fig. 2.10.
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2.14 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Ed ge M e asuring
Kn ife F ace Fo r Intern al
M easurem ent
Be am M ain Scale
D e pth
M easuring
Ve rn ier Blade
Scale
Fixed G uiding
Jaw Su rfa ce
C lam ping
Scre w
External
Sliding Ja w
M easuring
Fa ces
Fig.2.10 Type A Vernier Calip er.
C la m pin g Screw
B ea m M a in Scale
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14
Type B
This is provided
with jaws only on one
side. The jaws are so
designed to enable both Add ed total jaw
internal and external thickness to the
read ing w hen
measurements. The m akin g in tern al
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Books Fig. 2.12 m easurem ent
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.15
Type C
0
E xternal
M ea suring
Faces
G u idin g Surfac e
S liding Jaw F in e A djustm ent C lam p
Fine Ad justm ent
Intern al S cre w
M easuring
Fa ces
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2.16 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Fig. 2.14 Jaw cond itio ns resulting in m easu rem en t errors in vernier calipers
Books
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.17
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2.18 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
R ig ht W ro ng
M easuring Jaw
b lade
Fig: 2.15 (g)
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Fig 2.15
Books
(g) M easuring g roo ve
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.19
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2.20 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Construction
Ve rnie r sca le
Th um b screw C la m ping
S crew s
cla mp
Scribe r
Slid er
M easuring jaw
M ain Sca le
Ba se Be am
Working
The work to be marked out with a vernier
height gauge must be set vertically on a surface
plate, using a angle plate.
The height of the scribe is set with the moving
slide’s fine adjusting screw.
The marking outlines are then scribed on to the
work’s surface by steadily moving the height
gauge along the surface plate.
The height of the main scale can also be finely
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adjusted on some vernier height gauges which
2.22 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Fig: 2.17
S urfa ce p la te
Fig:2.18(a)
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.25
Ve rn ie r he ig h t
g au ge
D ia l te st
in d ic ato r
P a ralle l pa ckin g
Fig. 2.18(b)
Construction
Working
These also operate on the vernier principle but
differ in the design application of the basic concept,
resulting in the reversal of the usual process.
The slide is connected with the cross beam of
the instrument, which by contacting a reference
plane on the object surface, establishes the
datum of measurement.
The end face of the beam (main scale), functions
as the movable jaw, in contacting the object
element whose distance from the datum is to be
measured.
The use of a vernier depth gauge is illustrated in
Fig. 2.19.
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.27
Fine M ain S ca le
a dju stm en t
scre w
L ocking S cre w s
Vernie r S cale
M ea suring fa ce
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2.28 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
(a ) (b ) (c )
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.29
Principle
Construction
R atchet
Ba rrel Th im ble
Screw
Ba rrel scale
Fra m e Fig:2.21
R a tche t stop
K nurling
Thim b le
B arrel
clam p ring
(knu rle d lo cknut)
Sp indle
Anvil
F ram e
Fig. 2.21 (a)
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.31
0 1 2
15
10
Barrel divisions 5
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Books
2.32 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
R atchet
H ole For
Ad justing S panner
Sp indle
An vil
Th im ble
Ba rrel
Ad justing S panner
Fra m e
Fig.2.23 The external m icrom eter
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.33
Working
The object to be measured is placed between the
spindle face and anvil face as shown in Fig. 2.24. The
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rachet is turned clockwise until the object is lightly held
2.34 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
w ork P iece
0 5 10 5
0
45
Fig.2.24
2.3.7.1 Terminology
Backlash: It is the lack of motion of the spindle when
the rotating direction of the thimble is changed.
Th im ble
bevel angle
D distance of graduated thimble end from barrel
surface
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.37
2.3.7.4 Precautions
0
20
15
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2.40 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Lock S crew
M icrom eter
An vil Extension R od
5
0
45
H andle Scre w
H andle
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.41
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2.42 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
An vil
0 5
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.43
Cap
Th im b le
Ba rre l
L ock N ut
C ro ss beam
R e feren ce Su rfa ce
Rod
0 5 10 5
0
45
Th read to be m e asured
Sp indle
tip w ith In ternal
con ical shape Ve e A nvil
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.47
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2.48 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
R ake r
Fig 2.35: Blade Micro meter
0
no.250m
star nett
45
40
co in cid in g
ve rn ie r 35
3 rd d ivisio n
30
25
5
0
20
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2.50 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
M icrom eter
12 50 92
Th im ble readin g
Fidu cial
In dica tor Ad justable
W ork Table
31
Ba se
98x60
Fig.2.38 Fiducial Ben ch M icrom eter
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.51
5
0
15
D ig ita l
R e a d o u t (L C D d is p la y )
m m /in ch B u tto n
O N /O F F B u tto n
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.53
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Fig 2.40:Rectan gular S lip G auge
Books
2.54 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.55
R o tate
S lid e W ith
P re ssu re
Tw o slip ga ug es
b ec om e on e after
Fig.2 .41:W rin gin g o f Slip G aug es
w ring in g
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2.56 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.57
1.001-1.009 0.001 9
1.01-1.09 0.01 9
1.0-1.9 0.1 9
1-25 1.0 25
25-75 25 3
100 – 1
Total 56 pieces
1.001-1.009 0.001 9
1.01-1.09 0.01 9
1.1-1.9 0.1 9
1.0-9.0 1 9
10-90 10 9
Total 45 pieces
Remaining length
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.59
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2.60 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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2.62 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.63
Construction
Ve rtical
C o lum n
Eye P iece
O ptical H ead
Tab le
C ro ss S lide
M icro me ter
Fro nt Slide
M icro me ter
Ba se
Working
2.3.9.1 Applications
The application of toolmaker’s microscopes are as
follows:
2. Measurement of Angles
3. Comparison Measurement
Pro je ction
Screen
Prism
O cular C olum n
O bjective
sw ingable
Lens
Test p ie ce
R otatable
Tab le
M icrom eters
Ba se
Fo ot
scre w s
Fig: 2.48: Side view of Tool M aker's M icro Scop e
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2.68 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
2.5.1 Types
Angular measuring instruments can be divided into
two groups. They are:
50
40
60
30
30
0
20
30
10
60
B lad e
0
Lo ckin g S tock
10
N ut
30 20
40
Fig. 2.49 B evel Protractor W ith Vernier Sc ale A nd Ac ute Angle A ttac hm ent
Types
There are two types of Bevel protractors. They are:
(i) Mechanical bevel protractor.
(ii) Optical bevel protractor.
(i) Mechanical bevel protractors
These are further divided into four types:
A, B, C and D
Type A
Here the vernier has a least count of 5. It is
provided with fine adjustment device or acute angle
attachment.
Type B
Here also the vernier is graduated to read 5
minutes of arc whereas the fine adjustment device or
acute angle attachment is not provided.
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2.72 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Blad e
Blad e Lo ckin g
Nut W orking Ed ge
Ac ute A ng le
Attach m e nt
Tu rret
L ocking
n ut
M otio n
D e vice
Stock
Sc ale
Ve rn ie r
Sc ale
Bo dy
W orking Ed ge
Fig. 2.5 0. Type A- M echanical Be vel P rotractor w ith Vernier
and ac ute a ngle Attachm en t
Type C
This protractor does not have a vernier or fine
adjustment device or acute angle attachment and the
scale is graduated only to read in degrees.
Tu rret
B lad e Lo ckin g
S cale
Nut
B lad e
S toc k
W orking E d ge
Fig. 2.51. Typ e C - M echanical B evel Protractor w ithou t Vernier
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and acute angle A ttachm ent.
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.73
Blade
Acute A ng le
Attachm ent
Tu rret
Ba se Eyep iece
M ain clam p
Fig. 2.52. Optical Bevel Protractor
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2.74 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
C lam p Blad e o
45
Blad e clam p
Acute
ang le
o
a tta chm en t
60
o
90
o
30
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.75
M ain Sca le
o
S m a lle s t D iv ision =1
0 10 20
10 30
20 40
30 50
6 0 30 0 30 60
Th e Ve rnier Ve rn ie r S c ale
S cale Ze ro
S m a lle s t D ivision =5 ’
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2.76 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Fig. 2.55.
Fig. 2.56
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Fig.2.57
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.77
1
Screw
Top plate adjustm ent
G raduated
le vel vial Bu bb le
C ro ss test
le vel R adius of
curvature ,R
G ravitational
re ference
R eference
plane
Fig.2.58 (b) Relationsh ip
b etw een radius of
curvature and
Fig. 2.58 (a) Spirit level b ubb le scale readin g
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2.78 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
2.5.1.5 CLINOMETERS
A special case of application of the spirit level is a
Clinometer used for measuring in the vertical plane, the
incline or decline of a surface in relation to the basic
horizontal plane over an extended range. A Clinometer is
also known as a tilt meter or tilt indicator, slope gauge
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gradiometer, etc.
Books
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.79
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Books
2.80 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
flatness.
These are supplied
in sets and can be
wrung together to form
the required angle. M
ea
s
fa u r i n
The sets are ce g
o
<
9
o
50 32
o
< <
9
o >
o
o
41 41
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.83
Secondly
minutes are ,
1
built up i.e 26
by subtracting
')
.5
1 with
(0
''
27 27 1.
30
o
2 7>
'
3
Finally 30 is
o
o
9
5 6 2 6 '3 0 '' 4 1o
constructed
with the 0.5 F ig : 2.63
angle gauge.
The Fig. 2.63 v A n gle ga ug e(s)
measurement of
angles between
Fig. 2.64 U se of an gle g aug es
two surfaces. The for ch ec king of ang le
off angle tolerance toleranc e
of a component is V - ga ug e
checked as shown. S lip
g au ge s
(ii) Angle gauges in
conjunction with a O
1
9O
square plate are D C
used to measure P re cisio n
squ are
angles exceeding 90.
Slip gauges are
A B
also used to
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facilitate
Books
this Fig. 2.65 The C h ec king of included
angle o f a V- gau ge.
2.84 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
D a tum
surfac e
E n d F a ce
con ta ct
ro lle r
R e lie f ho le s
to re du c e w e ig ht
C o nta ct
ro lle r
Fig. 2.67 (a)
h h
d d
Fig: 2.69
Fig 2.7 0
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2.88 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
S lip g au ge s
S in e B ar
S u rface P la te
Fig : 2 .72
D ia l Ang le Plat e
Indicato r
W ork P iece
clam p
Bar
S in e
clam p
S lip G auge s
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.89
R eading
R1
D ia l test
in dicato r as
R eading R 1 fidu cial
in dicato r
L
Sine bar
C om p onent Ve rnier
height gauge
D atum S urface
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2.90 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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at complement angle
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.91
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2.92 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Se tting H ing e
R o lle r R o lle r
Se tting Slip
G aug e N o t Le ss In te rm ed ia te
Th an 5 m m ta ble
Ba se
l
D ial
in dicate r
C o nica l W o rk
Slip
R o lle r
G aug es
Pivo t
Principle of Autocollimator
An optical setup where a collimated beam leaves an
optical system and is reflected back into the same system
by a plane mirror is called as autocolimation.
90 o
So urce
O
Fo cal
Im a ge Plan e
2
’
O'
d
2
O
2
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Fig.2.78 (b)
Books
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.95
Construction
Filter
C o nd en sor
C o llim ator
R e ticle
Eyepiece.
Illumination device.
The reticle (or graticule) placed in the focus of the
eyepiece is the eyepiece reticle. It is usually a double
cross line or an angular graduated scale which can be
observed through the eyepiece even with the illumination
switched off. The other is the illuminated reticle projected
over the beam splitter towards the lens known as the
collimator reticle single cross line. The eyepiece, beam
splitter mount and the illumination device together form
the main unit called the Autocollimator Head. The
autocollimator head is mounted on a draw out tube for
focussing adjustment.
Working
Applications
Autocollimators have a wide range of applications.
The applications with respect to mechanical engineering
are as follows:
M icro scop e
e yep iece
Prism
Lam p
G la ss scale
Illu mina te d
sca le
D a tum scale
C o nvertin g rays
from re flecte d
im a ge o f scale
on scree n
W orkpiece
C o llim ating
len s
50
Erro r
40
30
0 10 20 30
20 20
10 10
Zero-reading with
angle gauge build-up
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2.102 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Eye-piece
Lam p
housing
An gle dekko r
Ad justable Po lish ed
link R efle ctor
(slip g auge)
An gle
gauges C om p onent
to be tested
Su rface
pla te
2
calculated by comparing Fig,2.84 C h ec king V -blo ck a ngle.
the readings obtained. The
arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.84
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2.104 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
A n gle ga ug es
Tab le
S lip ga u ge
C R1
R2 O
R3 O R1
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Fig: 2.86. Alignm ent Telescope
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Telescope
2.106 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.107
2.6 GAUGES
Gauges are one of the most commonly used
inspection tools in production shops for quick checking
and validation of the dimensions of manufactured parts.
Gauging has become an integral part of any machining
process as they help in ensuring the required degree of
interchangeability among the millions of parts
manufactured all over the world. The type and design of
the gauges depend on the application, production volume
and level of precision required. The prime consideration
of gauge design include part tolerances, gauge material,
simplicity of use, manufacturability, etc. Gauges are
manufactured and checked with reference to standard of
length, which in turn is related to a fundamental length
standard. The standard of length is then transferred
through the gauge to the component.
1. Plain gauges
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(c) Reference, or master orBooks
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gauges
2.108 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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2.110 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
0 10 H 7 0.01 5
M AX LIM IT
O F H O LE
GO
H exa go nal
H andle
Fig. 2.88 (a) Renew able end type plug gau ge-sin gle ended
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2.112 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
M arke d a s red
o 0 .01 6
Fron t vie w
Go O JIYA S +, G o
R ear view
M an ufactu rers
n am e or tra de m ark
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Fig: 2.90 Marking on Plug G auge Handle for Identification
Books
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.113
N o m ina l size
cla ss o f
Tolera nce
21 h7 21 h7
21 h7 21 h7
0 0 .02 8
K 1 00 1 K 1 00 2
“G o “ G a uge “N o G o “ G a ug e
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Fig: 2.91 Plain Ring G auge
2.114 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
G au ge bo dy
R ed colour m arkin g
C la ss of tole rance
anvils
14 H7
anvils
‘G o ’ E nd
(m axim um size) N om ina l size
‘N o G o’ E nd
(m in im um size)
FIG: 2.92 RIB TYP E SN AP G AUG E
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.115
to the upper limit and the other side in the ‘No Go’ gauge
made to the lower limit of the dimension. These gauges
are conveniently used for inspecting sizes in the range of
3 mm to 100 mm.
(ii) Single ended progressive type: In this type of
snap gauge, both the apertures i.e ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ are
on the same side and are arranged such that the part
being measured can pass through them in sequence. The
part, if within tolerance, will pass through the ‘Go’
aperture (upper limit) (lower end) but will not pass
through the ‘No Go’ aperture (lower or minimum size
limit) (upper end). These gauges are suitable for sizes
ranging from 100 to 250 mm.
H a nd grip of
N o n-con ductin g
M aterial
`N o G o'
`G o '
Fig: 2.93 Progressive snap gauge
N o go
In this type both ‘Go’ and
‘No Go’ gauges are on M ARKED
either side of the same RED
IN S U LATIN G
PA D
NO GO
GO
Fig: 2.95 Prog res sive pla te sn ap gaug e
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.117
inspected is more.
L O C AT IO N GO NO GO
O F R E C E S S TO
BE CHECKED
REFERENCE
S U R FA C E
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Fig: 2.98 Positio n g au ge for location of R ec ess
Books
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.119
GO NO GO
LO C AT IO N
O F SU R FAC E TO
BE C H EC K E D
R EF ER EN C E
S U R FA C E
O bject
C o nto ur (or)
P ro file to be
che cke d
P ins
Fra m e
1 .7
1 .5
1 .7
1.
1 .5
2
5
25
2.25
2. 1 .2 5
5
25 1
2 .5
1
2.
5
2 .7
2 .7
5 R 1 -1m m
5
3 3
3. 5
5
5.
3.
6.5
5
4
4
4 .5
4 .5 5 5
6
5 .5
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.121
S p ace fo r
M arkin g
S o cke t u nd er
in spe ctio n
S ocke t u nd er
inspe ctio n
G au gin g
surface
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Fig: 2.104 In sp ection by taper rin g g au ge, plain
Books
Linear and Angular Measurements 2.123
E n d of
ta pe r G au g in g s u rface A
Tan ge d en d sh an k
C u nd er in sp ection
0.51
0.25
0 .1 8
3
0 .1
10
0. 0.
15
0
0 .2
0 .3 8
0 .64
Tolera nce
N ot
H igh
lim it
lim it
L ow
Go Go
H ole
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Fig: 2.107 D esign of plug gaug e
Books
2.126 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Go’ plug gauge checks the upper limit of the hole (it
should not pass through the hole) and is shorter than the
‘Go’ gauge. In the case of slightly elliptical holes, to check
the circularity, the ‘No Go’ gauge can be made in the
form of a pin. By placing the pin at different cross-section
of the hole, any error in circularity can be easily detected.
Thus, the variation of hole shape can also be measured
by making some modifications.
In the case of snap
Tolera nce
gauges, the ‘Go’ snap gauge is
of a size corresponding to the N
o
maximum limit of the shaft,
High
g
lim it
lim it
Low
o g
while the ‘No Go’ snap gauge o
2.6.6 TERMS
Shaft and hole: These terms are used to designate all
external and internal features respectively of any shape
and not necessarily cylindrical.
2.7 INTERCHANGEABILITY
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.131
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Advances in Metrology 3.1
Chapter 3
ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Light is considered as an electro magnetic wave of
sinusoidal form. The high point of wave is called the crest
and the low point is called trough. The distance between
two crests or two troughs is called the wavelength. The
time taken by light in covering one wavelength is called
the time period.
Fig. 3.1
3.2 LASER
The term ‘Laser’ stands for ‘(L)ight (A)mplification
by (S)timulated (E)mission of (R)adiation’. It usually
denotes a device for this purpose or the light beam
produced by it. The light beam produced is intensely
monochromatic, collimated and highly coherent. In a
coherent beam, all the waves have the same frequency
and phase. Lasers have greater coherent length than
lamps. Coherence length of a light beam refers to the
distance over which the beam stays in phase with itself.
E 2 -H ig he r
e ne rgy scale
h =E 2-E 1
E 1 -Lo w er
e ne rgy scale
Fig. 3.2
Eh
we know,
c
hc
E
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3.4 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
+ E1 E2 + E1 E2
S p on ta ne ou s em issio n
+ E1 E2 + E1 E2
Fig. 3.3
N e w pho ton
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Fig. 3.4
Advances in Metrology 3.5
G round
le vel E1
Atom in Atom in
excited state ground state
E 2 -E 1= E= hv
Fig: 3.5 Stimulated em ission
P u m p so urc e
(e xc itation m e ch an ism )
Tota l P a rtial
re fle ctor re fle ctor
O ptical
cavity
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Advances in Metrology 3.7
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3.8 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Pa rallel
beam
O bject
Light
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Advances in Metrology 3.11
Working
Light from a laser source falls on a rotating
mirror placed at the focus of a linear scanner
lens which renders a parallel beam. The object
is placed in the path of the parallel beam and
so carts a time dependent shadow. The time
between the leading edge of the beam being
extinguished by the object when it emerges from
the other side is a measure of the cross section
of the object.
Signal from the light entering the photocell is
processed by a microprocessor to provide display
of the dimension.
The scanning laser gauge is used to measure the
roundness and diameter of hot steel bars. It
provides an accuracy of 0.025 mm for 5 - 25 mm
diameter objects and offers a repeatability of
0.1 m.
H ysters is
syn chro no us
m otor
L aser O bjec t to be
M ea sure m e n t m ea sure d
P h oto
re gion d eflec to r
M otor W ind ow s E d ge
O scilla to r G ate
d rive sen sing
S c an n er
C o un ter O utpu t (d ig ital
d isplay sys te m )
Fig. 3.8 Laser telem e tric s ystem
Lase r
Ligh t
source
Product
P lan e of
m ea s ure m en t
L as er
sou rc e
w ire D e fle ctors
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Books
3.14 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
L aser so urce
C o llectio n
lens
O bject
Ba seline
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Fig. 3.11 Laser Triangular S en sor
Books
Advances in Metrology 3.15
3.3 INTERFERENCE
The pluexomenon in which two waves suppose to
form a resultant wave of greater or lower amplitude is
called interference.
R esu ltant
w ave
W ave1
W ave2
C o nstru ctive
inte rfe ren ce
(b rig ht)
D e structive
inte rfe ren ce
M on och rom a tic (d ark)
ligh t source
C o nstru ctive
inte rfe ren ce
(b rig ht)
Tw o slits D e structive
inte rfe ren ce
(d ark)
S cre en
Fig: 3.13 A tw o-poin t source interference pattern creates an alternating
pattern o f bright an d d ark lin es w hen it is projected onto a screen
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Advances in Metrology 3.17
3.4 INTERFEROMETRY
Metre was defined as the distance between two
finely scribed lines on the Platinum Iridium bar. In order
to reduce the dependence on the physical standard, the
process which was prone to errors, the wavelength of pure
monochromatic light is used as the natural standard of
length. Now, metre is defined as the distance travelled
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by light in vacuum during a specific interval of time.
3.18 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Books
Advances in Metrology 3.19
Homodyne Hetrodyne
Interferometry Interferometry
Here interference occurs Here two beams of slightly
between two beams at the different frequencies are
same frequency. combined to produce a beat.
This is based on Doppler
shift.
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3.20 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Homodyne Hetrodyne
Interferometry Interferometry
Displacement information is Displacement information is
carried on a dc signal. carried on a ac signal.
A single frequency laser Here, highly stablized
source is required. two-frequency laser source
and more intricate detector
electronics are required.
Laser source intensity level This system is less sensitive
changes, ambient light and to all such problems.
various other noises affect
measurements.
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Advances in Metrology 3.21
Fixe d
retro reflecto r,M 1
M ova ble
B eam retro refle ctor,M 2
splitter
L aser
A perture
P hotod etecto r
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3.22 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
2 N
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pro duced b y a m ichelso n inte rfero m eter
Advances in Metrology 3.23
Fixed m irro r
M1
First
C o llim ating Be am sp litter
len s
M ovable
S m irro r
M2
L1
Pin h ole Se co nd
source d iaph ra gm C o llim ating
L2
len s
S'
Eye
Ph otodetecto r
M on ochrom atic
ligh t source
Ko ster ’s
prism
Be am
splitting
surface
Fixe d M ovable
m irro r M 1 m irro r M 2
Fig: 3.17 Fringe co unting interferom eter
based on Koster’s prism
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Books
3.28 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Fix e d
R etro re fle c to r
R efere nce A rm
P o la rize d M o vab le
L ase r b ea m R eco m bin ed re tro refle cto r
b ea m R efle cte d be a m
L ase r
s o urc e
Tra ns m itted b e am
M o vem e nt
D etector B e am
Q u a rte r s p litter M e as u rem e n t a rm
w ave p la te
D etector
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Fig: 3.18 S ing le freq uency D C inte rferom ete r
Advances in Metrology 3.29
A n gu lar A n gu lar
in te rfe rom e te r re fle ctor
L1 6
S
S
L2 L1 - L2
S traightn ess
re fle ctor
S traightn ess
in te rfe rom e te r L1
6 S traightn ess erro r=
0 .5 x (L 1 -L 2)/S in 6
L2
a light source
a condensing lens system
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suitable table to position the work part (gauge)
Advances in Metrology 3.31
C o nd en sing len s
G re en filte r
P in h o le
Eye
4 5 d eg re es
S u rfa ce u nd er te st
B a se p la te
G au g e
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Fig. 3.20 NPL Flatness Interfero meter
3.32 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Fig. 3.23 Fringe Patterns for Different Conditions
Books
3.34 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Now,
Then,
N 2 N1
Error in parallelism
4
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4. Measurement display.
3.36 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
2. Optical Elements
(i) Beam splitters: Beam splitters divide the laser
beam into separate beams along different axes. The
commonly used form of beam splitter is a partially
reflecting metal or dielectric film on a transparent
substrate. Other forms are polarizing prisms and
diffraction gratings.
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Books Fig. 3.25
Advances in Metrology 3.37
4. Measurement display
The signals from reference receiver and
measurement receiver are counted in two separate pulse
counters and subtracted. Necessary calculations are made
using a micro computer. The computed value and other
corrected input signals like temperature, coefficient of
expansions, air velocity, etc are displayed.
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The schematic of a ACLI is shown in the Fig. 3.26.
3.38 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Fixed in terna l
cube co rner
B1 f2
Beam splitte rs
Tw o B2
fre que ncy f1
zeem an
la ser f2 & f1
f1 + f
P1 P2 f 2 &(f 1 + f)
R eference b eam Externa l
cube co rner
Photo D opple r
D etecto rs signal
f 2(f 1+ f) Am plifier, A 2
UP
Pulse
R eference C onvertor
signal f 2 -f1 DOW N
Am plifier, A 1
Fig.3.26 AC Laser Interferometer
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Advances in Metrology 3.39
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Books
3.40 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Books
to 7 MHz. This is referred to as the split frequency or
Advances in Metrology 3.41
F ix e d
R e f er e n c e
A rm
B eam
f2 M e a s u re m e n t A rm
s p litt er
f 1 ,f 2
Z eem an
s ta b lis h e d
f1
L aser
s o u rc e
Ta rg e t
f 1 ,f 2 f1 + f M ove m en t
D e t ec t o r P o la riz in g C ub e
D2 b e a m s p litte r c o rn e r
D e t ec t o r
D1 f 2 -f 1+ f
(D e te c te d b e a t)
R e f er e n c e
b e a t f 1 -f 2
C o u n te r 2
S u b t ra c to r D is p la y
D e v ic e
C o u n te r 1
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3.42 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Books
3.44 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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3.46 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Probing Application
system softw are
The axes
Length measuring system
The machine base with work table
All CMM designs, incorporate the basic concept of
three co-ordinate axes. The movement of the x, y and z
axes fully describes the measuring envelope. Each axis is
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fitted with a linear measurement transducer for positional
Advances in Metrology 3.47
Z Y -a xis
Y b ea rin g
D isp la y
X
Coordinate system
X -a xis P ro be h ea d C o ntrol
P re cis io n P ro be e le ctron ic s
sca le
Joy stick
con tro ls
W ork tab le
M ac h in e
fo un da tion
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Fig: 3 .2 9 C om pon en ts of a conv entio nal C M M
3.48 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
(d) Software
The computer and the software together represent
one system. The software is a set of coded instructions,
formulae and operations that structure the actions of the
computer. It is the most important element of any CMM
because its power determines the number of part features
that can be measured and its ease of use and
sophistication is the key to productivity of all
computer-assisted CMMs. The functional capabilities of a
CMM software should include.
3.7.3 Operation
The part is placed on the worktable of the CMM at
a suitable location, usually central to the machine axes
to access all the part surfaces to be inspected with the
probe. It may be necessary to clamp the part to the
worktable depending upon the size of the part and the
type of probes used. If many similar parts are to be
inspected, a reference location point is established with a
reference precision cube (or) sphere. The probe is moved
to make contact with the surface of the part and
instantaneously the coordinate positions of the probe are
accurately measured by displacement transducers
associated with each of the three linear axis and recorded
by the CMM controller. Compensation is made for the
radius of the probe tip and any limited over travel of the
probe quill due to momentum is neglected. After the prob
is separated from the contact surface it returns to its
neutral position. The dimensional and geometric elements
are calculated, compared and evaluated.
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Advances in Metrology 3.51
(i) Benchtop
Z
Y Y
X
Z
(a) S tatio nary table , m oving b ridg e (b ) S tation ary b ridg e , m o vin g table ,
F ig. 3.30 Bridg e C M M
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Advances in Metrology 3.53
X
Y
Y
Z z
(a ) Fixe d ta ble
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Books
Fig. 3.31 C an tilever C M M (b ) M ovin g ta ble
3.54 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Y
x
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Fig. 3.32 Column type CM M
Books
Advances in Metrology 3.55
Y
X
Z
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Fig: 3.33 G antry CM M
Books
3.56 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
(c) Fixed-table.
Z
Y
X
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Books
3.58 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
accurate mechanical
adjustment of the
machine with the help of z
a tram.
Horizontal CMMs x
Y
Portable CMMs
(b) Flexibility
A CMM is a universal measuring machine that can
be used to inspect a variety of different part
configurations with minimal change over time. Also
special fixtures or jigs are required and most of the parts
can be inspected without being clamped to the table since
the probe contact is light.
3.10 PROBES
CMMs measure work place dimensions by moving
a sensing device, called a probe, in the machine’s is 3-D
envelope.
E lectrica l
circuit
E lectrica l
circuit
P o in ts o f
sup po rt
S tylus
W orkp ie ce
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Books
3.64 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
FX
FY
W orkp ie ce
FZ
surfaces.
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Books no n - contact vision measurement
3.68 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
scrib er styli
(g) Swiveling
styli (i) pin styli
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(h) Cylinder styli
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Books
Advances in Metrology 3.73
E x te nsio n
(carb o n - fib re )
S tyli
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Books
3.74 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Ad ap to rs w ith styli
Fig 3.50 S tylus Adapto rs
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Advances in Metrology 3.75
P rob e
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Books
3.76 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
(a ) B a se plate (b ) M ag ne tic ba se
Fig. 3.52
R e feren ce R e feren ce
sph ere sph ere
Ba se Scre w
Scre w plate
M ach ine M ag ne tic
ta ble Scre w base
Attach sph ere dire ct Attach sph ere to Attach sph ere to
to m ach in e tab le base plate m ag ne tic ba se
R e ference
sph ere
M ag ne tic
b ase
R e ference
sph ere
M ag ne tic
Tubula r S ide surface b ase
p art o f p art
Fig: 3.54 Uses of m agnetic base
M em ory
M on itor
C o ntroller
Processor C o nsole/
Test Ca mera keyboard
piece
Light Interface
source for o ther
devices
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Books
3.80 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Books
Advances in Metrology 3.81
Im age aquisition
N e tw ork
Se nsor
Ca mera Lighting system s CPU
+
Lens softw are
I/O
M aterial
handlin g
Preprocessor
Program m ing
So ftware
C o mpares th e im ag e an d
Allow s a p ro gram mer to runs the pro gram to m ake
configure the p rocessor decisions on the result o f
the com pa rison
Outp ut D evices
C o ntrol th e m a ch ine/pro ce ss
Fig. 3.57 Elements o f M achine vision
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3.84 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
C a m e ra
B righ t fie ld
D a rk fie ld D a rk fie ld
M irro re d
o bje ct
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Books
Advances in Metrology 3.85
C a m e ra
L ig ht L ig ht
sou rce sou rce
C a m e ra
O bject sh ad ow
O bject
D iffu s er
L igh t so urce
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Advances in Metrology 3.87
C am era
L aser
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Books
3.88 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
C a m e ra
Illum ina tion
C a m e ra
CC D e le ctron ics
L en s
Au tom a tic
Fig. 3.5 9 R aw dig ital im ages im a ge a na lysis
(e) Preprocessor
Pa rts
Synchronizin g
Se nsor
L ight
Pro cessor
Ca mera
D e cision
sensor
PL C
D e fective
R e ject
“kicker”
G ood
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Books
3.92 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
C able to pc
L aser
C am era
L aser line
3 D im a ge
Y
C onveyo r
X
E nco der
p ulse s
Fig. 3.61 Laser triang ulation
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Form Measurement 4.1
Chapter 4
FORM MEASUREMENT
Introduction
If the components of a machine have to function
property, accurate measurements of any dimension to a
specific length and other geometric features, must be
considered. Geometrical features of a measurement
include measurement of straightness, flatness,
squareness, parallelism, roundness, circularity,
cylindricity, co-axiality, etc., Various methods and
techniques are discussed here to measure these
geometrical features. The knowledge of straightness,
flatness, squareness, parallelism, roundness and
cylindricity are used to specify the quality of a product.
Toleran ce
D e viation from on
re fe rence line straightn ess
R e feren ce
line
Fig.4 .1 Ex aggerate d vie w of a s urfac e s how ing undula tions-ups a nd dow ns
L ength L
S traigh t edg e an d fla t su rfa ce
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Fig. 4.2 Straight edges
4.4 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
S ta n da rd
re feren ce
p lan e su rfa ce B e st fit p la ne
(S u rfa ce to b e teste d
d can b e co m p are d w ith
b est fit p la ne )
S ta n da rd
re feren ce p la ne surfa c e
Fig. 4.3 Flatn ess meas ureme nt
Tol.0,3 0 ,3
Tol.0,3
P o ss ible
surface
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4.8 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
4.3 PARALLELISM
Two entities (line (or) plane (or) surface) are parallel
to each other when the perpendicular distance between
the surfaces under test does not exceed an agreed value
over a specified time. Parallelism defines the angle
between two surfaces of a sample specimen. It can be
specified as a thickness difference per unit length or as
an angular deviation.
S u rfa ce A to be te sted
D ia l in dica to r
S u rfa ce B
S u pp ort w ith a fla t fa ce
(R e fe ren ce P lan e S u rfa ce )
m ovin g
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BooksFig. 4.5 Parallelism of tw o plan es
Form Measurement 4.9
A xis 1 o f cylinde r 1
D ia l in dica to r
A xis 2 o f cylinde r 2
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Books
4.10 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Plane surface
at the in terse ction
of tw o p lanes
Tw o p la ne s
Fig.4.8 Parallelism o f an axis to
the in tersectio n of tw o planes
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Form Measurement 4.11
Au tocollim ator
tele scope
Tilt
screw
L ight path
(optical axis)
Sa m ple
m ounting
p late
Sa m ple
Three-ball p la ne
Fig. 4.10 Auto collim ator
4.3.3.1 Autocollimator
An autocollimator is widely used to measure small
angular deviation of a reflecting surface placed in front
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of the objective lens of the autocollimator. It is an optical
4.12 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
P lan e
C o llim ating re fle ctor
le n s
P a ralle l b e am
P a ralle l b e am
P o in t
S o urc e o
O O ptical a xis 90
P a ralle l b e am
P a ralle l b e am
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Books
Form Measurement 4.13
Im a ge
f=Foca l leng th
of le ns
θ
Fig. 4.12 Princip le of autocollimator
Hence
x = OO′ = 2fθ
Lam p Targ et
graticule
O bjective lens
O ptical
M icrom eter
O'
Telescope
Be am splitte r R efle ctor
Se tting screw
Fig. 4.13 Constru ction of autocollim ator θ
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Form Measurement 4.15
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4.16 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
4.3.3.3 Applications
Measuring flatness
Measuring the flatness of large surfaces is usually
done by measuring the straightness in the relevant
direction of a series of lines in the surface plane in a
certain pattern. The procedure for each line is the same
as for single straightness measurements. By using an
extra deflection mirror, all the lines of the pattern can
be measured, while the autocollimator only needs to be
placed in a few different positions. By correlating the
straightness results, obtained along the lines, it is
possible to determine the errors of flatness of the plane
related to a reference plane.
Other applications
Aircraft assembly jigs
Rolling mills
Retro reflector measurement
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Roof prism measurement Books
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Form Measurement 4.17
C rest
R oot
R oot
Th read angle P itch p
C rest P itch diam ete r D p
Term inology of Threads
Fig. 4.14
4. Pitch (p)
It is an axial distance between two similar points
on adjacent threads. It is measured in millimeters.
5. Lead
It is defined as the axial distance which a screw
thread advances in one rotation of the nut.
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For single start threads, lead = pitch
Form Measurement 4.19
6. Crest
It is the top surface generated by the two adjacent
flanks of the thread.
7. Root
It is the bottom surface generated by the two
adjacent flanks of the thread.
8. Depth of thread
It is defined as the perpendicular distance between
crest and root.
9. Flank
The inclined surface, which joins the crest and root.
p
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α
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tan
Books =
πd
4.20 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Let
α - Helix angle
p - pitch
d - diameter
It is the angle
between any helix & an
axial line on its right
Fig:4.16
circular cylinder or cone.
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Form Measurement 4.21
16. Addendum
M ajor dia
pitch dia
M in or dia
Fig:4.17
17. Deddendum
It is the radial distance between the minor dia &
pitch dia.
19. Tolerance
The following are the requirement for proper
external and internal thread engagement.
1. External thread and Internal thread must have
sufficient contact at the flank.
2. External thread & Internal thread must have
enough engagement.
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3. Trapezoid shaped threads
4.22 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
British association
d
threads useful for small
diameter threads. The
root and crest are reduced p
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Form Measurement 4.23
3. Metric threads
The ISO metric screw threads are one of the first
international standard threads agreed when the
International organization for standardization was setup
in 1947. Each thread is distinguished by its major
diameter (d) and its pitch
(p). ISO metric thread 60
o
consists of V - shaped r
C re st
Trun ca tion
P itc h C re st
a pe x
D ede nd um A d de nd u m
An gular D e pth
P itc h Thre ad
L in e A n gle
R o ot R o ot
P itc h D ia.
M a jo r D ia.
M ino r D ia .
Trunca tio n
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Books
4.24 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
These are,
1. Major diameter
2. Minor diameter
3. Effective diameter
4. Pitch
Bench micrometer
F idu c ia l
in dica to r
B ox M ea s uring
a n v ils M ea s uring
m ic ro m e te r
Fig :4.22 Bench m icrom eter head
Let,
S - Standard gaugs diameter
R 1 - Micrometer reading measured on the cylindrical plug
S cre w th rea d
ga ug e
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Form Measurement 4.27
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Form Measurement 4.29
θ/
W ire of
D ia.’d ’
O
D E
Q
B C
A
E ffe ctive
d iam e ter
D iam eter ’T ’
P
E=T+P
Let,
E - Effective diameter
T - Dimension under the wires
where, T = M − 2 d
M - Dimension over the wires
d - Diameter of each wire
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P - Thread pitch
Books
4.30 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
W ire of dia ‘ d ’
Fig 4 .30 Th ree w ire m eth od
P itc h (P )
r α DE
α/2 tan =
S (d ista n ce o ve r w ire s )
A 2 H
α H
h co t =
2 DE
B C
H
α/2
α
De
D p /2
E
Fig 4.3 1
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Books
Form Measurement 4.31
where,
db is wire diameter
θ = Included angle
A p = P/4
2P
db = sec θ
4
p
db = sec θ
2
0
45
Ba rrel
Scale
Fra m e
Fig 4.33 Thread M icrom eter
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Form Measurement 4.33
C olum n
E ye p iec e
K n ob fo r m oving carrie r
S ig hting arm o n c olum n
m icros c ope
B a se
M e asu ring ta ble
Vernier for table rotation
F oot sc re w s
M icrom eter he ad for y - m ovem e nt
Measuring principle
Applications
Shadow protector
P ivo t
P ro tra ctor
A rm
S cre w P ro tra ctor
threa d
40
40
20 30
10 20
0 10
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on ho rizontal screens
Books
Form Measurement 4.37
1. Pitch error
Pitch
Pitch e rror
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(b) Periodic error
4.38 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
S ta n d a rd p re sc rib ed th re a d fla n k
A x is o f screw th re a d
Fig 4.3 8 F lank an gle Erro r
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Books
4.40 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
4.5.1 Introduction
D river
Follow er
+ +
L ine o f co nta ct
S hafts
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Books
Fig. 4.39 A Pair of Gears
Form Measurement 4.41
Advantages
1. There is no slipping. So exact velocity ratio is
obtained.
2. Large power can be transmitted.
3. High efficiency
4. Reliable service
5. It requires less space, Hence compact layout is
possible.
Limitations
1. Special machines, tools and technology are
required for the manufacturing of gears.
2. The defective gears may cause vibrations and
noise.
3. Cost of manufacturing is comparatively high.
ω2
2
1 Base circle
Pitch circle
ω1
ο1 Addendum
Base
circle
circle
Fig. 4.44 Internal gear and pinion
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Books
Form Measurement 4.45
B ase pitch R AC K
pb
θ
p
PIN IO N
Circular pitch
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Books
4.46 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
O utside or
us
blank diam eter
di
ra
le
rc
W hole de pth
Ci
h
tc
C ircu lar
Pi
C en tre distance
pitch
D edendum
Adde ndum
C learance
Adde ndum circle
W orking
depth D edendum or
rooth circle
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Books
Form Measurement 4.47
Pitch surface
elem ent
h
dt
wi
ce
nd
Fa
la
p
To
A dde nd um c ircle
ce
Fa
m C irc u la r
e ndu p itc h
A dd P it c h c
ir c le an
k
Fl
w idth o f
To o th sp ac e ( or)
nd
too th sp ace
dum th ic k n e s s
la
den
m
De
tt o
Bo
Fillet radius
clearance
D edendum circle
clearance circle
Fig. 4.48 G ear Tooth Term inology
πD
Circular pitch, p c =
T
T π
Diametral pitch p d = =
D pc
D 1
m= =
T Pd
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4.52 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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4.54 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
1. Runout
It is the total variation of the distance between a
surface of revolution and a reference surface measured
perpendicular to the surface of revolution. It may be
checked by using gear testing machine and a master
gauge.
2. Pitch measurement
Circular pitch is defined as the distance from a
point on one tooth to the corresponding point on the next
tooth, measured around the pitch circle.
It can be measured by
D ia l in dica to r
B od y
st
D ia l in dica to r
1
D ia l in dica to r
nd
2
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Fig. 4.5 0
4.56 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
3. Profile measurement
Profile measurement can be done by measuring the
tooth profile of a spur ie involute profile accurately. It
can be done in several ways. They are
(a) Optical projection technique
(b) Involute measuring machine
(c) Tooth displacement method
(d) Computer-controlled probe scanning method
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Form Measurement 4.57
Scre en
M ag nified
profile o f
te st g ea r
Test g ear
base circle of the gear are Fig.4.52. Involute m easu ring m achine
mounted on the mandrel.
Then the straight edge of the machine, to which the dial
gauge is attached, is brought in contact with the disc.
The straight edge is rolled around a base circle without
slipping the stylus present at the measuring end of the
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4.58 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Pitch
circle
L L1
θ θ1
(a) (b)
L2 L3
θ2
θ3
(C)
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Fig.4.53.Tooth displacem ent m ethod
(d)
Form Measurement 4.59
5
the instrument must
4
measure tooth thickness
at a specified position on
2
the tooth. Auxiliary slid e
1
Gear tooth vernier
0 1 2 4 5 7
an instrument shown in
Fig.4.55 has main scale
and vernier scale
perpendicular to each
Fig. 4.55 Gear-tooth Vernier
other. The horizontal scale
is used to measure the
depth at the chordal addendum on the gear at which its
pitch-line thickness is to be measured. The vertical scale
is used to measure the actual pitch-line thickness, also
called chordal thickness. Then, the measured values are
compared with the calculated values.
R a ck form
P itch line
o f th e rack
C d
A B
φ
h
D E
P
Tan ge nt to
base circle
P itch circle
B ase circle
O
Fig.4.56 C onstant chord m eth od
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4.62 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Tw o p a ralle l p la ne s
M icro m e te r
(lim ite d Fixe d an vil
m ove m e nt) L oc king
D im e nsio n to ga u ge block
M ring S e tting
(B a se Ta ng en t L en g th) tu be s
5
0
5
M ovin g G ea r
a nv il
Tan ge nt to B a se
B a se c ircle circle
Fig. 4.57 Too th T hick ness M easu rem en t (B ase Tang en t M eth od )
0
O ne 360 revo lution or on e rotation
F” I
F” r
F ”I
Fig.4.58(a)
Ba se
Pa rkinso n
G ear Test
Fu lly
Sa tisfa ctory M od erate U n satisfactory
4. Lead checking
Lead is the axial advancement of helix for one
complete turn, as in the threads of cylindrical and teeth
of helical gears.
Lead checking instrument is used for checking lead.
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4.68 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
5. Backlash checking
1. Circumferential backlash
2. Normal backlash
N o rm al
B acklash
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Fig. 4.61 B acklash
Books
Form Measurement 4.69
6. Concentricity measurement
x
x
x
x x
x x
E cce ntricity
In dica to r rea d ing
x
x G e ar To o th
x
N u mb er
x
x
x
Fig.4.62 G raphical represe ntation of eccentr icity
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4.70 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
7. Alignment checking
The alignment of the gear teeth with respect to the
axis of mounting is determined using a parallel bar
placed between the gear teeth.
A parallel bar is placed between the gear teeth, the
gear being mounted between centres. The centres are
parallel to a datum surface. Finally, the readings are
taken at the two ends of the parallel bar and difference
in readings will indicate the presence of misalignment.
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Form Measurement 4.71
Lay direction
Flaw
W aviness
R oughness h eigh t height
R oughness w idth
W aviness
w id th
R oughness-w idth cuto ff
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Fig.4.63 S urface characteristics
Books
4.72 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Types of Irregularities
The irregularities are classified as,
Waviness Height
Waviness height is the peak-to-valley distance of the
surface profile. It is measured in “mm”.
Roughness Waviness
It is usually produced by It is usually produced by
the action of the cutting instabilities in the
tool. machining process such as
unbalance of cutting tool.
It is caused due to the Waviness is the widely
short wavelength spaced component of the
irregularities in the surface texture. It is caused
surface. by spindle rotation, tool
deflection and vibrations
etc.
Lay
Lay indicates the direction of predominant surface
pattern produced and it reflects the machining operation
used to produce it. The various lays are shown in Fig.
4.65 and listed here.
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(b) Circular lay
4.74 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
(o r)
a) Straig ht Lay
b) C ircular Lay
Fig.4.65 Various L ay
P ro du ctio n m e th od
tre atm e nt o f coa tin g
R o ug hn ess
v alue S a m pling len gth
D irec tio n of la y
Fig.4 .6 6. S pe cificatio n
of Surface Te xtu re
a s per IS O : 30 93 of 19 67
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Form Measurement 4.75
Production method
Symbol Process
T Turning
M Milling
G Grinding
P Planing
Symbol R a (μm)
– above 25
∇ 8 to 25
∇∇ 1.6 to 8
∇∇∇ 0.25 to 16
∇∇∇∇ < 0.025
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4.76 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
(ii) Feed
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(e) Quality of the machine tool
Form Measurement 4.77
Important terms
Average roughness R a;
d Valley
L /2 L /2
Valley
L
Fig: 3.67 A cro ss-section through the surface
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4.78 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Manufacturing ‘R a’ values
Methods
Process in μm
Metal-removal- 1. Turning 0.32 to 25
Process 2. Boring 0.4 to 6.3
3. Planing 1.6 to 50
4. Shaping 1.6 to 12.5
5. Drilling 1.6 to 20
6. Reaming 0.4 to 3.2
7. Milling 0.8 to 6.3
8. Broaching 0.4 to 3.2
Finishing and 9. Cylindrical 0.068 to 5
Super-finishing grinding
Process 10. Burnishing 0.04 to 0.8
11. Polishing 0.04 to 0.16
12. Honing 0.25 to 0.4
13. Lapping 0.012 to 1.16
14. Super finishing 0.16 to 0.32
15. Abrasive jet 0.1 to 1.6
machining
16. Ultrasonic 0.2 to 3.2
machining
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Form Measurement 4.79
Manufacturing ‘R a’ values
Methods
Process in μm
Non- 17. Electric Discharge 0.5 to 6
conventional Machining (EDM)
material- 18. Electric Beam 0.4 to 0.6
removal process Machining
19. Plasma arc 3.2 to 25
machining
20. Electrochemical 0.05 to 3.2
machining
21. Chemical 0.2 to 6
machining
Forming 22. Rolling 2.5 to 50
process 23. Sawing 1.6 to 2.5
24. Forging 1.6 to 25
25. Extrusion 0.16 to 5
Casting process 26. Die 0.8 to 16
27. Permanent mould 0.8 to 3.2
28. Investment 1.6 to 2.3
A vera ge pe ak
P1 P2 P3
P e ak
h
A vera ge max
Valle y
valle y
v1 v2 v3 v4
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Form Measurement 4.81
A1
A3 A5
0
12 3 4 5 A2 A4
ΣA
=
L
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4.82 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
O y y 10 yn
1
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Form Measurement 4.83
P e ak (5 P e aks )
P e ak P e ak
P e ak
P e ak
1
Rz = ⎡ ⎛ R + R 3 + R 4 + R5 ⎞ − ⎛ R6 + R 7 + R 8 + R 9 + R 10 ⎞ ⎤
5⎣⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
(5 Peaks) (5 Valleys)
3. Form factor
En ve lo pe
re ctangle
Are a of m aterial
Ba se
line
Area of meterial
Degree of fullness (F) =
E nvelopin g rectangle Area
1. Touch Inspection
2. Visual Inspection
3. Scratch Inspection
4. Surface Photographs
5. Reflected light Intensity
6. Micro Interferometer
7. Microscopic Inspection and
8. Wallace surface dynamometer
1. Touch Inspection
In this method, the surface of the component is
measured by finger-tip itself. The finger tip is moved
along the surface at a speed of about 25 mm/sec and the
irregularities as small as 0.01 mm can be easily detected.
This method cannot assess the degree of surface
roughness or detect minute flaws but can only tell which
surface is more rough.
2. Visual Inspection
This method is used to check the surface by naked
eyes. This method will mislead particularly when surfaces
having high degree of finish are inspected. Therefore this
method is limited to rougher surfaces and values of result
vary from person to person.
3. Scratch Inspection
In the scratch inspection method, a soft material is
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rubbed over the workpiece surface. The scratches formed
4.86 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
4. Surface photographs
6. Micro Interferometer
7. Microscopic Inspection
(ii) Profilometer
S kid S u rface to
stylus b e me asu red
S tylus m ovem e nt (z)
stylus
m ovem e nt
D ia m on d (z - dire ctio n)
tip Fig 4.73 S tylus probe instrum ent
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Form Measurement 4.89
(ii) Profilometer
The schematic diagram of a profilometer is shown
in Fig. 4.74. It consists of stylus or tracer point with a
diamond tip, induction coil, optical detector and laser, etc.
The tip of the stylus moves over the ups and downs
of the surface. As its upper end is connected to an
induction coil, the small currents excited by the up and
down movements of the stylus are amplified. The
induction coil is located in the magnetic field. The stylus
is suspended on the spring. The readings are obtained on
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galvanometer.
Books
4.90 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Po le
M
ag
ne
t
Po le
Types of profilometer
Principle
The instrument uses mechanical-optical
magnification method.
Construction
The skid is attached to the body and its height is
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adjusted to enable the diamond tipped stylus to be
4.92 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Sp rin g
H o rizonta l
Fixed R olle rs M otion of B od y
Ve rtica l
M otion of
Stylus AR M
D u e to
Wavine ss Bo dy
Operation
While measuring surface finish, the instrument
body is drawn across the surface by rotating a screw
slowly (~ 1 rpm ) by the help of synchronous motor while
the glass is maintained stationary. The ups and downs
(irregularities) in the surface make the stylus to move
vertically up and down. This vertical movement of the
stylus makes the steel cylinder to rotate on which the
steel arm is pivoted. Thus the movement of arm is
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Form Measurement 4.93
recorder, oscillator
P rincip le
and ‘E’ shaped
Fig.4.76 Talysurf p rinciple
stamping, etc.
The Taylor Hobson Talysurf is an electronic
instrument which gives very rapid output, when
compared to Tomlinson surface meter.
Principle
This instrument works on carrier modulating
principle.
Construction
be inspected.
Filte re d w ave form
The armature
carrying the D M eter
F ilter
stylus, pivots
D em od ulator
A m plifier
about the centre B C
leg of the R e co rde r
E-shaped
A
stamping. The O scilla to r
other two legs
of the E-shaped
C a rrie r M od ulated D e m o du la te d an d
stamping carrier sm o o the ne d
consist of two Fig. 4.77 Talysu rf sch em atic layou t
Operation
The armature is pivoted about the centre element.
The movement of the stylus causes armature to vary the
gap and the amplitude of the A.C current in the coil gets
modulated. The modulated output of the bridge is then
demodulated. So the current flow is directly proportional
to the vertical displacement of the stylus.
Applications
Laboratories
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Form Measurement 4.95
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4.96 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
P erfe ct
any two opposite points are circular fo rm
Irre g ular
p rofile
constant, but still the part is
not of circular form.
(c) Irregularities of No
specific form: This refers to
the condition where the cross
of the circular part has no
specific form as shown in Fig. 4.79 (c) Irregular fo rm
Fig.4.79(c)
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(a) Diametral method
Form Measurement 4.97
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confinin g gauge
4.98 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Varying levels of
indicator contact
r2 r1
r2
M r3
o
60
Pa rt
(f) Roundness
measuring Spindle
3-Ja w inside m icro m eter
The roundness Fig. 4.86 Thre e point p robe m eth od
measuring spindle can be
classified into two types.
1. Overhead Spindle
2. Rotating table
P a rt In dica to r
In dica to r S p in dle Fixe d
P a rt stan d
R o tatin g
S ta g in g ta ble
p lat fo rm
Fig.4.87.Ro un dness m easu ring Fig.4.88.Ro un dness m easu ring
spin dle-overh ead spindle spin dle-rotating table
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4.102 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Fig. 4.90
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4.104 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
O ut of
rou ndn ess
(iv) Maximum Inscribed
Circle (MICI)
P
It is defined as the circle
of maximum radius which will
be enclosed by the profile data.
The out of roundness is the
maximum departure of the
profile from this circle. It is
also referred to as the plug
gauge reference circle.
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Form Measurement 4.105
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.1
Chapter - 5
MEASUREMENT OF POWER,
FLOW AND TEMPERATURE
F = ma
W = mg
m− Standard mass
g− Acceleration due to gravity
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.3
W A ⋅ xA = W 1 ⋅ x 1 − W 2 ⋅ x2
Beam S cale
Adjustable
C ounterpo ise b a
W1 W
W2
Tension T
Platform
Pan
W eight
Wy
M ain lever F e
c
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Fig.5.2 Platform b alance
Books
5.4 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
T × b = Wy × a
...(1)
⎛ f ⎞
and , T × c = W 1 ⎜ ⎟ e + [W 2 × h]
⎝d⎠
h f
We know that, linkage proportion, = hence
e d
⎛ f ⎞
h=⎜ ⎟e
⎝d⎠
T × c = h ( W1 + W2 ) = h × W
(∴ W = W 1 + W 2 )
T×c=h×W ...(2)
Wy × a
∴ equation (1) ⇒ T =
b ...(3)
h×W
∴ equation (2) ⇒ T =
c ...(4)
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Equating equation (3) and (4)
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.5
Wy × a h×W
(3) = (4) ⇒ =
b c
⎛a c ⎞
W = ⎜ × ⎟ Wy
⎝b h⎠
W = SW y
⎛a c ⎞
Where S (Scale Multiplication ratio), = ⎜ × ⎟
⎝b h⎠
l2 l1
Load a rm Po w er arm
P
G
Q
Fg
Po inter attached to kno w n sm aller
beam for leveling w eights
W eight to be m ea su red
We know that, F g = m .g
Now,
F t × l 2 = F g × l1
F g × l1
Ft =
l2
Ft = m t ⋅ g
m t ⋅ g × l2 = m ⋅ g ⋅ l1 unknown mass,
l1
mt = m ×
l2
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.7
S cale fra m e
S e ctors
S u pp ort
ta pe s
E q ua lize r
b ar
P ivo t P ivo t
C o un ter W W C o un ter
W eigh t W eigh t
L oa ding
ta pe s
R a ck& L oa d
P inion ro d
a rran ge m en t W e ig ht
sca le
P u ll,p
Fig.5.5. Pend ulu m Scale
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5.8 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
(i) Accelerometers
The Accelerometer is a device, which is used to
measure the acceleration. From that, we can find force
in the following manner.
F = ma
Let, F− Force
m − Mass of the body
a− Acceleration
A ccelero m ete r
Am plifier
Light de tector
Sc reen
Voltage s ource
Light So urce
C oil
Am m eter
Perm anent
M agnet
U nknow n Forc e
Fig.5.6 Electrom ag ne tic balance
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(iii) Strain Gauge Load Cells
5.10 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Pressductor
F F
F
Se nsin g
elem e nt
P S P S
Fig.5.8.Pressdu cto r
R1 R2
A C V
Strain
R3 R4 gauge
D
F
R1
-
1
F
Longitudinal Strain =
AE
Let, F − Load
A− Cross sectional area
E− Young’s Modulus
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.13
Force(F )
D ia phragm
C h am ber
Fo rc e (F )
D ia p hra gm
P re s su re
g au ge
A ir
S u pp ly
C h am b er
N o zzle
Fig. 5.11 Pne um atic load C ell
F− Applied force
spring
k− Stiffness
Fre e end
8FD3n
δ− Deflection =
Gd 4
L oa d h oo k
D − Mean diameter
n− no.of turns
G− Rigidity modulus
W=mg
d− Wire diameter
Fig.5.13. Sprin g balance
(b) Proving Rings
Proving ring is a circular ring of rectangular section.
It may be carrying tensile force or compressive force. The
proving ring is made up of steel, which is used for
calibration of material testing machines.
The deflection of the ring is measured with the help
of micrometer. One end of the micrometer is connected to
vibrating read for getting vibratory motion. The
micrometer wheel is moved forward, until vibration is
observed.
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.17
F
F
M icrom e ter
w h eel
F Fig.5.14.Proving ring
S e rvo
In dica to r
Ze ro S e t A n alog
R e co rde r D isp la y
L oa d S ign al ADC
Filte r P rinter
C e ll C o nd ition er
C o m p uter
In te rfa ce
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Fig.5.15 E lectron ic W eighing System
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5.18 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
2. Mechanical Gauges
Manometers
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(b) Differential Manometers
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.19
Mechanical Gauges
Mechanical gauges are devices used for measuring
the pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring
or dead weight. The commonly used mechanical pressure
gauges are
(a) Diaphragm pressure gauge
(b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge
(c) Dead-weight pressure gauge
(d) Bellows pressure gauge
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5.20 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Principle
The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that
a flattened tube tends to change to a more circular
cross-section when pressurized. Although this change in
cross-section may be hardly noticeable, the displacement
of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the
tube into a C shape or even a helix, such that the entire
tube tends to straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is
pressurized as shown in the Fig.5.16
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.21
(a) (b)
Principle
An elastic steel diaphragm usually is designed so
that the deflection-versus-pressure characteristics are as
linear as possible over a specified pressure range, and
with a minimum of hysteresis and minimum shift in the
zero point.
When the diaphragm is subjected to pressure the
diaphragm deflects linearly and this deflection is
magnified by mechanical linkages to indicate the pressure
as shown in Fig. 5.18 (a) & (b).
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.23
M otion M otion
Dia phragm Dia phragm
(Flat) (corrugated
typ e)
P ressure P ressure
(a) (b)
Fig 5.18 (a) Flat diaphragm ; (b) C orrugated diaphragm
P ivot
Overrange Underrange
sto p S to p
Dia phragm
capsule
P ressure o r
vacuum
Fig 5.18 (c) Use of Capsule elem ent in Pressure gauge
Working
Fig.5.18 (c) shows the use of capsule element in
pressure gauge. To amplify the motion that a diaphragm
capsule produces, several capsules are connected end to
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5.24 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
D isp la ce m en t D isp la ce m en t
P re ssure
P re ssure
(a )C onvex C a psu le (b ) N e sted C a psule
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Fig.5.19 C ap sule Pressu re Senso r
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.25
P ressure
Input pre ssure
B ellow s
slid e w ire
B ellow s S lid er
N eed le
W h eatstone
bridge
S pring
Features of Bellows
Made of Bronze, Stainless steel, Beryllium
Copper, Monel etc.,
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5.26 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Pressure W eights
gauge
Plung er Screw
Pisto n
Valve
Oil
Fig 5.21 Dead w eight pressure gauge
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5.28 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Pressure
bellows Pressure
port
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.29
Strain gauge
ele me nts Fixed resistor
Strain gauge
ele me nts
Dia phragm
Dia phragm
Strain
Fixed points gauges
W ire resistance strain gauge Double bonded
strain gauge
Fig 5.23 Strain G auge Type Pressure Transducer
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5.30 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
P re ssu re
O utpu t C ry stal
+ + +
O utpu t D ia p hra gm
- - -
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.31
Layer 1
C o nd ucto r o f
negligib le
resistance
Layer 2
M esh insula to r
seperator
Layer 3
F
C o nd ucting strip s w ith E
know n resista nce D F
C E
B D
A
C
B
A
Fig. 5.25 Tactile pressure sensor
(i) Piezometer
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(iii) Single column Manometer
5.32 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
(i) Piezometer:
It is the simplest form of
manometer used for measuring
gauge pressure as shown in Fig.
h
5.26
If at a point A , the height A
of liquid (say water) is h in
piezometer tube, then pressure at
A is given by P ie zo m eter
Fig.5.26
PA = ρ × g × h ...(1)
h p ‘m ’ of wa ter
S1
h2
h1
z A B
z
sm
Fig. 5.27 ‘U’ - tu be M ano m eter
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.33
hp + h 1 s1 = 10.3 + h2 sm
So h p + h 1 s1 = h 2 s m
Pressure of ⎫
h = h 2 sm − h1 s1 in m of water. ...(2)
liquid in pipe ⎬⎭ p
a × h2
then PA = [ρ2g − ρ1g] + h2ρ2g − h1ρ1g
A
a
Here is very small so
A
P A = h 2 ρ 2 g − h1 ρ 1 g
...(3)
X
Δh X X
Y Y Y
Pressure at A θ
P A = h 2ρ 2g − h 1ρ 1g Fig.5.29. Inclin ed sing le
co lum n M an om eter
. .
P A = L sin θ × ρ2g − h1ρ1g [ . h 2 = L sinθ]
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5.36 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
hA hB
hA
A hB
A B
h3
B
h3 h1 D
h1
D x
x z C z
z C z
sm sm
Tw o pipes at different levels. Tw o pipes at sam e levels.
Fig.5.30. U - tube differential m anom eters
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ater
= hA + h 1 1 in m of w
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.37
= hB + x sm + h3 s3 in m of water
Under Equilibrium
Pressure head at C = Pressure head at D .
∴ h A + h 1 s 1 = h B + x sm + h 3 s3
h1 = x + h3 and s1 = s3
ie h3 = h1 − x
Pressure head ⎫
= hA − h B = xsm + (h 1 − x) s1 − h1 s1
difference ⎬⎭
= xsm + h 1 s1 − xs1 − h 1 s1
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If water is flowing in pipe line, then s1 = 1
5.38 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Then h A − hB = x (13.6 − 1)
hA − hB = 12.6 x
...(6)
[s m = specific gravity of mercury = 13.6 ]
To Find Pressure,
P A − P B = w (h A − hB )
Given: h 1 = 40 mm = 0.04 m; s1 = 1
Solution:
Pressure Head at A
= hp + h 1 s 1
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= hp + (0.04 × 1) in m of water.
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.39
h-’m ’ of w ater
s1
h 2 =150m m
h 1 =40mm
A B
z z
sm
Under equilibrium,
Pressure head at A = Pressure head at B
hp + (0.04 × 1) = h 2 s2
= 2 m of water head
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5.40 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Given:
Specific gravity of oil in pipe sp = 0.8
Solution:
To find Gauge pressure (neglecting atmospheric pressure)
Pressure head above xx in left limb = Pressure head
above xx in right limb.
90mm
Liquid(s 1 = s p = 0.8)
150m m
h2
h1
P ipe
x x
M ercury (s 2 = s m = 13.6)
h p + h 1 sp = x sm
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.41
hp = x ⋅ sm − h1sp
= 1.992 of water.
The pressure P is given by
P = w hp
= 9810 × 1.992
= 19541.5 N /m 2
= 19.542 kN/m 2
Absolute pressure of oil in pipe.
P abs = P atm + P gauge
= 1.01325 × 10 5 + 19541.5
= 120866.5 N/m 2
= 120.87 k N/m 2
[atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 × 105 N/m 2 ]
Problem 5.3: Consider a double fluid manometer attached
to an air pipe shown in fig. If the specific gravity of one
fluid is 13.55, determine the specific gravity of the other fluid
for the indicated absolute pressure of air. Take the
atmospheric pressure to be 100 kpa.
(April/May - 2008 - AU)
Given
Air pressure in the air pipe = 76 KPa (Absolute)
h1 = 22 cm = 0.22 m
SG 1 = 13.55
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h2 = 40 cm = 0.4 m
5.42 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
A h 2 =40cm
SG 2
SG 1 =13.55
P = 76 KPa = 76 × 10 3 P a
Solution:
Starting with the pressure at point “A” at the air
liquid (1) interface and reaching point “B” where
atmosphere make contact with liquid (2).
P Patm
i.e + h1 ⋅ SG 1 = + h 2 ⋅ SG 2
ρw ⋅ g ρw ⋅ g
76 × 10 3 100 × 10 3
⇒ + 0.22 × 13.55 = + 0.4 × SG 2
1000 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81
10.7282 − 10.1937
SG 2 = = 1.34 Ans
0.4
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.43
Given:
Specific gravity of water in pipe sp = 1
Water(s 1 = s p =1.0 )
x=80 m m
Pipe
[ [
M ercury(s 2 = s m =13.6)
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5.44 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Solution:
Neglecting atmospheric pressure, under equilibrium,
Pressure head in left limb above xx
= Pressure head in right limb above xx
h p + h 1 sp + x sm = 0
= − 1.128 m o f water
Gauge pressure = wh = 9810 × (− 1.128 )
Absolute Pressure:
= 1.01325 × 10 5 − 11066
= 90259 N/m 2
Given:
Specific gravity of oil s1 = 0.8
Solution:
We know pressure head difference between A and
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B is given by
Books
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.45
hA − h B = x (sm − s1)
Given:
Pressure in Pipe A , P A = 120 kN/m 2 and in Pipe B ,
P B = 220 kN/m 2
Solution:
Pressure of liquid in B is greater than that of A .
PB PA
So h B − h A = −
w w
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5.46 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
220 × 10 3 120 × 10 3
hB − hA = − = 10.194 m of water
9810 9810
= h A + h 1 s1 + x s m
. .
= hB + x s3 [ . h3 = x ]
2
P ip e ‘A’ p A = 120kN /m
2
p B = 220kN /m
P ip e ‘B ’
h 1=3 m
x h3=h2
z C D z
sm
Under equilibrium,
h B − h A = h 1 s1 + x s m − x s 3
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Difference in mercury level = 0.4214 m
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.47
Po w er absorb er
C ra dle
C ra dle
F
Po w er absorb er
(a) Cradled p ower generato r
C ra dle
C ra dle
F
(a) Cradled p ower absorber
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Fig.5.20 M easurin g cradled fo rces in cradled shaft bearing s
5.48 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
T=F×L
5.10.2 Dynamometers
Description
C ham be r
D isc
W ater in
A ntifriction
B earin gs
D rivin g sha ft
W ater
W ater ou t C asin g
Operation
When the driving shaft rotates, water flow flows in a
helical path in the chamber. Due to vortices and
eddy-current setup in the water, the casing tends to
rotate in the same direction as the of the driving
shaft.
By varying the amount of water and its pressure, the
braking action can be initiated. Braking can also be
provided by varying the distance between the rotating
disk and the casing.
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5.50 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
B e aring
S tato r
E n co d er
M otor
R o tor
R o tatin g
m em b er
W a tt m e te r
L oa d c e ll
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Fig. 5.32(a) E ddy C u rren t dy nam o m eter
Books
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.51
1 2
R1 R3
+ Vo ut
+ -
4 3 R2
-
R4
strain
gauge
Shaft
R1
R2 R2
R1
+
R3
R4
R4 R3
Sliprings
R2 R1
+
Supply
Voltage
-
Am m eter
R3 R4
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.53
T Cθ
=
J L
Let, T− Torque
J− π 4
Polar moment of inertia [J = d ]
32
C− Modulus of rigidity
θ− angle of twist
L− Shaft length
1 2
observer Light source
Sh aft
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5.54 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Se nsin g
Sh aft
D ie le ctric tube C apacitor
C ap ac itive
tra nsdu cer
Va ria ble
Fre quen cy
C1 L1 L2 gen erato r
50 0- 50 00 H z
T τ
=
J R
Let, T− Torque
J− Polar moment of interties [J = π/32 ⋅ d4]
τ− Shear Stress
R− Radius of shaft
S h aft P P
M ag ne t
S
AC
C u rren t
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.57
Op
t ic
al es
f ib fi br
re
s ic al
pt
O
O utput
Shaft
R otation
of shaft
G ear
L
Strobescope Method
The stroboscope method is shown in Fig. 5.35 (f)
Stroboscope
a le
Sc
P o in t
er
F la n g e
A
Sh aft
F la n g Torq ue
eB
Fig.5.35(g). S troboscop e for torque m easurem ent
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.59
Saw Method
Saw stands for Surface Acoustic Wave
The SAW electronic arrangement and transducer
arrangement is shown in Fig.5.35 (h) and (i).
The SAW deals with, waves can propagate along the
surface of an isotropic elastic medium. There are two
Re
ce i
ver
y
nc
q ue
r fre
e n te
o fc
Ex
c it n g th
a ti e le
on av
So W
ur c
e
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5.60 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Transd ucer
o
45
o
45
Fig.5.35(i).Saw transducer
(a) Orificemeter
(b) Venturimeter
These are,
1. Laminar flow
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3. Turbulent flow
Books
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.61
D irection of flow
1 2
D ifferential
M anom eter
x
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5.62 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
P1 V 21 P2 V 22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
w 2g w 2g
2 2
⎛ P1 ⎞ ⎛ P2 ⎞ V2 V1
⎜ + Z1 ⎟ − ⎜ + Z2 ⎟ = −
⎝ w ⎠ ⎝ w ⎠ 2g 2g
But
⎛ P1 ⎞ ⎛ P2 ⎞
⎜ + Z1 ⎟ − ⎜ + Z 2 ⎟ = h = D ifferential manometer head
⎝ w ⎠ ⎝ w ⎠
V 22 − V21
So h =
2g
A2
The coefficient of contraction Cc =
A0
Coefficient of contraction
A 1V 1 = A2V 2
A 2V 2 Cc A0 V 2
∴ V1 = =
A1 A1
C 2c A 20V 22
V 22 − = 2gh Ve na
A 21 contracta
C Jet
2⎢
⎡ C 2c A 20 ⎤
V2 ⎢ 1 − ⎥ = 2gh d 2
2 ⎥
⎢ A1 ⎥ C
⎣ ⎦
d/2
⎯⎯⎯
√ 2gh Fig. 5.36 (a)
V2 =
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
⎡ C 2A 2 ⎤
⎢1− c 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ A 21 ⎥ . .
⎣ ⎦ ⎡ . A 2 = A 0 Cc ⎤
⎣ ⎦
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Theoretical discharge Q th = V2A2 = V2 × A0 Cc
5.64 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
2gh
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
= × A 0C c
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
⎡ C2 A 2
⎢1− c 0
⎤
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ A 21 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎯⎯⎯
√ 2gh × A 0 × C c
=
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
⎡ A2 − A2 ⎤
⎢ 1 0 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ×C
⎢ A1 ⎥ c
⎣ ⎦
A 1A 0 ⎯⎯⎯
√ 2gh
=
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ A21 − A 20
Actual discharge = C d Q th
C dA 1A 0 √
⎯⎯⎯
2gh
Q actual =
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ A 21 − A 20
Given:
π
Area o f pipe = A 1 = × 0.25 2 = 0.0491 m 2
4
Coefficient of discharge C d = 0.65
Specific gravity of oil in pipe sp = 0.8
Specific gravity of mercury in manometer
= sm = 13.6
= 80 c m
Difference of ⎫
⎡ sm ⎤
⎪ ⎡ 13.6 ⎤
∴ pre ssure heads ⎬ h=x⎢ − 1 ⎥ = 0.8 ⎢ −1⎥
⎪ sp ⎣ 0.8 ⎦
in two se ctions ⎭
⎣ ⎦
= 12.8 m of oil
A 0 A1 √ 2gh
⎯⎯⎯⎯
(Q) = Cd
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√A 21 − ⎯
A 20
7.854 × 10 − 3 × 0.0491 × √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2 × 9.81 × 12.8
= 0.65 ×
√0.0491 2 − (7.854 × 10 − 3⎯)2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
(Q) = 0.08196 m 3/sec = 81.96 lit/s
. .
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m = ( . 1 3
/sec 1000 L/S)
5.66 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Given:
π
Area of pipe A 1 = × 0.24 2 = 0.04524 m 2
4
π
A rea of orifice A 0 = × 0.12 2 = 0.01131 m 2
4
= 0.4 m
Solution
⎡ 13.6 ⎤
= 0.4 ⎢ −1⎥
⎣ 0.88 ⎦
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= 5.782 m of oil
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.67
Cd A 1 A 0 √ 2gh
⎯⎯⎯⎯
(Q ) =
√A21 − ⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ A20
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
0.65 × 0.04524 × 0.01131 √ 2 × 9.81 × 5.782
=
0.04524 2 − 0.01131 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
Q = 0.080867 m 3/s = 80.867 lit/s
[1 m 3/s = 1000 L/s]
Problem 5.9: An orificemeter with orifice diameter 15 cm
is inserted in a pipe of 30 cm dia. The pressure on the
upstream and downstream of orifice meter is 14.7 N/c m2 and
9.81 N/c m2. Find the discharge. Cd = 0.6.
(April 2000 Madras University, April 2007 Anna University)
Given:
π
A rea o f orifice A 0 = × 0.15 2 = 0.0177 m 2
4
π
Area of pipe = A 1 = × 0.3 2 = 0.0707 m 2
4
Coefficient of discharge ⎫
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for orifice meter ⎬ C d = 0.6
⎭
5.68 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Solution
Difference of pressure ⎫
⎪
in between upstream ⎬ = P1 − P2
⎪
and down stream ⎭
P 1 − P2 = 48900 N/m 2
48900
So h = = 4.985 m of water
9.81 × 10 3
Cd A 1 A0 √ 2gh
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Discharge (Q) =
A 21 − ⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ A 20
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
0.6 × 0.0707 × 0.0177 √ 2 × 9.81 × 4.985
=
0.0707 2 − 0.0177
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ ⎯2
D 0.5D
D d
Cd ⋅ A 1 ⋅ A 2 ⎯ 2gh
√⎯⎯⎯
Q=
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ (A1)2 − (A2)2
Let, Q − Discharge
Cd − Coefficient of discharge
A1 − Pipe area at inlet condition
A2 − Nozzle area
C oil
Electrode
N on-m etallic
Fluid portion of pipe
flow
Pipe
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.71
Flow Flow
H ot-w ire H ot-w ire
Vo ltm e ter
R1 R1
D G C D G C
R2 R3 R2 R3
B B
A A
I4R2
V=
(x2 − y) ρ
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5.72 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Where, V− Velocity
I− Electric current
R− Resistance
ρ− Density of fluid
x&y− Constants
R e ce iver “B ” R e ce iver “A ”
Flow
v
Van e to align
the me ter w ith
flow direction
C o nica l
cup s
Flow
Tail
S pin dle
B ala ncing
W h eel w e ight
con tain ing
b la des
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.75
5.12.7 Venturimeter
Basic Principle
Description
(P re ssu re
P MAX R e du ce s) P M IN D ive rging
P ipe E n erg y C o nvergin g Th ro at S e ctio n P ipe
S e ctio n
Flow
Flow
α1 α2
D iffe re nta l
p res sure sen so r
S tatic P re ssu re
P re ssu re D ro ps
o o
N o te: α1 = 1 9 to 2 3
o o
Fig. 5.4 3 Ventu ri M eter. α2 = 5 to 1 5
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.77
Operation
Application
Advantages
Limitations
Description
Operation
As the fluid whose flow rate is being measured
comes and touches the bottom portion of the
float blocking the inlet of the tapered
transparent glass tube, the float starts to rise
when the following happens:
⎡ Pressure of ⎤ ⎡ Down ward ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ pressure due to ⎥
⎢ flowing fluid ⎥ is greater than ⎢ ⎥
⎢ + fluid byoyancy ⎥ ⎢ weight of float ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
When the float rises, an annular space is created
between the periphery of the float and the inner
wall of the tapered transparent glass tube. This
annular space which is a concentric opening
through which the fluid passes to the other side
of the instrument keeps on increasing until the
following happens.
(Pressure of flowing fluid) + (Fluid buoyancy) =
(Downward pressure due to weight of the float)
F low
O u tlet
P ip e
P r e ss u re P 2 F loa t
T a p e re d
T r a n sp a r en t
G la ss T u be
P r e ss u re P 1
F low
In le t
Fig. 5.44 Rotameter.
Applications
Advantages
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Flow conditions are visible.Books
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.81
P1 V 21 P2 V 22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g ...(i)
But Z1 = Z 2 as points (1) and (2) are on same line
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Also V2 = 0
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5.82 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
P1
Pressure heat at (1) = =H
ρg
P2
Pressure heat at (2) = = (h + H)
ρg
V 21
H+ = (h + H)
2g
V 21
h=
2g
or V1 = ⎯⎯⎯
√ 2gh
Pitot - tube h
1 2 H
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Fig.5.45 P itot Tube.
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.83
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5.84 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Given:
Dia. of pipe (d) = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Difference of pressure head
h = 60 mm of water = 0.06 m of w ater
C v = 0.98
Solution
Mean velocity V′ = 0.80 × central velocity
Central velocity
V = Cv ⎯ 2gh = 0.98 ×
√⎯⎯⎯ √⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯ ⎯
2 × 9.81 × 0.06 = 1.063 m/s
πd2 π
= × V ′ = (0.30)2 × 0.850
4 4
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recorded by the pitot-tube is 0.981 N/cm2. Calculate the rate of
Books
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.85
Given:
Diameter of pipe (d) = 0.3m
πd2 π
Area of pipe = = (0.3)2 = 0.07068 m 2
4 4
Static pressure head = 100 mm of mercury (Vacuum)
100
=− × 13.6 = − 1.36 m of water
1000
Stagnation pressure =
Solution:
∴ stagnation pressure head
0.981 × 10 4 0.981 × 10 4
= = = 1m
ρg 1000 × 9.81
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Q Books
Books ( ) = 0.40 m 3/s
5.86 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Types of Dynamometers
The dynamometers are classified into following
methods. Engineering
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.87
Spring
bala nce
W
Fig. 5.47
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.89
D+d
R= m
2
T = (W − S) × R in kN−m S
2πNT
Brake Power = in kW R
60
2πN ⎡ (D + d) ⎤
B.P = ⎢ (W − S) × ⎥ in kW
60 ⎣ 2 ⎦
W Fig. 5.47(a)
where W = Dead load in kN
d = Dia. of rope in m
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So the resisting torque (clockwise) T = W × L
5.90 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
N ut
Loa d lever
B rake sho e
S pring
B rake
drum
W
L
Fig.5 .4 8 Pro ny B rake A rran gem e nt
2πNT
Brake Power B.P = in kW
60
2πN(W L)
B.P = in kW
60
T = [ (W 1 + S) − W 2 ] × R
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where W 1 = Wt. on right side load carrier in kN
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.91
2πNT
Brake Power = B.P = in kW
60
2πN
B.P = [ [ W 1 + S ] − W 2] × R in kW
60
Sp rin g
S balan ce
Be lt
w2
w1
Fig.5.49 Band brake
D.C. Dynamometer
In D.C dynamometer, the mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy. The D.C. dynamometer
is a kind of both absorption and transmission type
dynamometer. The D.C dynamometer acts as a D.C.
motor with a provision to run as a D.C. generator. The
measuring balance force is used to measure the power
(or) torque, during this the D.C dynamometer is used as
a transmission dynamometer so that it acts as a D.C.
motor.
When the D.C dynamometer is used as an
absorption dynamometer, it act as a D.C generator
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5.92 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
B e aring
D .C . M achine
C a sing
B e aring
Torq ue
a rm
Fig.5.50
5.14 COMPARATORS
The comparator is a device, which is generally used
to measure the dimensional differences, that means it
doesn’t show the exact dimension but only shows the
deviation of the dimension from the standard dimension.
The comparators are kind of linear measurement
device. The comparators can be broadly classified as
follows:
(a) Mechanical Comparators
(b) Pneumatic Comparators and
(c) Electrical Comparators
5.14.1 Mechanical Comparators
The mechanical comparator are generally used for
inspection of components in workshop and tool room
industry etc. Even small deviations can also be magnified
in the mechanical comparator. The mechanical
comparator is further classified into two types.
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.93
0
C a se 10
90
0 10 Po in te r
90
20
80
20
80
1 /10 0 Sm a lle r
mm a rm
1
30
70
70
30
40
60
50
40 60
50
G ra du ate d
d ia l
Plun ge r
Pointer G ears
Plunger
Spring
Ou
d is p la tp u t
cem e
X nt
S cale
R e ed s R 2
R e ed s R 1
A B
x (In pu t disp la ce m en t)
C o m p o ne nt
Disadvantages
Air W ork be in g
Flexib le hose
m ea sured is
Ad justm e nt screw sho w n in cross
sectional vie w
Scale
Floa t
Air
Tap ere d glass tu be
C le arance
Air supply (o r) Air gap
M ea suring
device show n in
cross sectional
Sh ut-off Pre ssure H ose vie w
C om p ressor
Filte r valve re gulator
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.99
C le aran ce
C le aran ce
d2 − Diameter at point 2
O1 − Orifice at point 1
O2 − Orifice at point 2
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5.100 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
P1 P2 D ista n ce
W ork
p ie ce
d2
A ir sup ply
o1 O2
P1 − Pressure at point 1
P2 − Pressure at point 2
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.101
1. Restriction chamber
2. Control orifice
3. Flexible pipe
h
H
D ip tube
W ater tank W ork being
M anom eter tube m easured
Fig. Solex Air G auge.
Internal measurements:
External measurements:
Friction is less
Disadvantages
Am plifier
C oil 1
M eter
Arm ature
Plunger
Flexib le
strip C oil 2
W ork
piece
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.105
Merits
It consists of less moving parts
Magnification range is high.
The instrument is compact.
Disadvantages
External power supply is needed
Variation of voltage will affect the output
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5.106 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
1. Temperature sensors
2. Absolute thermometer
(a) Thermocouples
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.107
2. Thermocouples
3. Thermometer
4. Thermistors
5. Pyrometers
R ive t
C o nta ct
Working
Two pieces of metal with different co-efficients of
thermal expansions are bonded together to form a
bimetallic strip as shown in Fig 5.59. Metal B would
be chosen to expand faster than metal A if the device is
used in oven. In refrigerator, an a opposite setup is,
imposed, so that when the temperature rises, Metal A
expands faster than metal B . This causes the strip to
bend upward, touching the contact so that current can
flow. The strip is in the form of cantilever beam. When
the bimetallic strip is heated to the temperature higher
than the bonding temperature, it will start to bend in
one direction. If it is heated to a temperature lower than
the bonding temperature, it will bend in the other
direction.
5.16.2 Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a device made of two different
wires joined at one end, called junction end. The two
wires are called thermoelements.
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.109
TAIL JU N C TION
+ EN D W IR E1 EN D
V T1 T 2>T 1
- W IR E2
Fig. 5.60
J3
Cu Cu
+ +
V V J1
- C - 1
Cu
J2
Equivalent circuits
Cu + - Cu Cu
V3
+ J1 +
J3 J1
V1 V1
- -
+ - -
+
Cu V2 C Cu V2 C
J2
J2
Fig. 5.62 M easu ring jun ction voltage w ith a D VM
1. Grounded thermocouples
2. Ungrounded thermocouples
3. Exposed thermocouples
+ - + - + -
Advantages of Thermocouple
• Rugged and inexpensive
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5.112 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Disadvantages
Possible to get corroded because thermocouple is
made with two different types of metal
composition. It reduces the accuracy.
The relationship between the process
temperature and the thermocouple signal is not
linear.
Thermocouple Specifications
Type E, J, K and T are base-metal thermocouples
and can be used upto about 1000 °C
Type S, R and B are noble-metal thermocouples
and can be used upto about 2000 °C .
The following criteria are used in selecting a
thermocouple:
• Temperature range
• Abrasion and Vibration Resistance
• Chemical Resistance of the thermocouple
5.16.3 Thermometer
Thermometer was invented by physicist Daniel
Gabriel Fahrenheit in Amsterdam in 1714. One of the
most common devices for measuring temperature is the
glass thermometer. This consists of glass tube filled with
mercury or some other liquid, which acts as the working
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fluid. When the liquid mercury is heated, it expands
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.113
A Mercury-In-Glass Thermometer
A mercury-in -glass thermometer is a thermometer
consisting of mercury in a glass tube as shown in Fig.
5.64. Calibrated marks on the tube allow the temperature
to be read by the length of the mercury within the tube,
which varies according to the temperature. There is
usually a bulb of mercury fixed at the end of the
thermometer to increase the sensitivity. The bulb contains
full of the mercury.
36 38 40 42
35 37 39 41
Bu lb M ercury
Fig:5.64 D iagram of Th erm om eter
C o nnection
R e sistan ce to le ads S h eam
C o nnection lea ds In su la to r
the rm om eter
Fig:5.65 RTD construction
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.115
Chemical Inertness
Almost linear relationship between temperature
& Resistance
Greater stability because the temperature
resistance remains constant over a long period
of time.
Large temperature co-efficient of resistance,
resulting in readily measurable values of
resistance changes due to variations in
temperature.
The Platinum is ductile so that it can be formed
into small wires.
G LA S S C O V E R IN G TO
P R O T E C T F O IL C O N D U C T O R S
G LA S S O R E P O X Y C O V E R IN G
TO P R O T E C T LE A D W IR E S
AT AT TA C H M E N T P O IN TS
P L ATIN U M F IL M W IT H
C O N D U C TO R S E T C H E D
L E A D W IR E C E R A M IC O R C U T IN TO IT
P L ATIN U M C O AT E D S U B S T R ATE
N IC K E L O R P L ATIN U M
A L LO Y
Fig. 5.66 Film S tyle E lem ent
F 0.3 − 50 to + 500°C
F 0.15 − 30 to + 300°C
F 0.1 0 to + 150°C
R3
configuration allows for up to 600
meters of cable. The 3 wire circuit Fig: 5.68
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.119
Advantages
• Good stability at high temperature
• Speed response
• No drift over long period
• High accuracy and good reproducibility
• Interechangable sensors
Disadvantages
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5.120 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Limitation
5.17 THERMISTOR
Thermistors are made up of solid semiconductor
materials having a high coefficient of resistivity.
Semiconductors used to measure the temperature are
called thermistors.
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5.122 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Δ R = K (Δ T)
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I=n⋅A⋅V⋅e
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.123
(e = 1.602 × 10 − 19 Coulomb)
be attached radially or L ea ds
axially to the top and / or
bottom of the disc. Some
of the disc thermistors
Fig.5.72 Disc typ e T hermistor
have no leads, and are
fabricated with metal
plated faces that can be clipped in the circuit. They are
mainly used for temperature control.
Applications
PTC thermistors can be used as current limiting
devices for circuit protection, as replacements for
fuses.
NTC thermistors can be used to monitor the
temperature of an incubator.
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.125
Advantages
High sensitivity and fast response than RTD.
Low cost and increased stability with age.
They are very reliable and convenient to use.
They are smaller in size as compared to
thermocouples.
Unlike thermocouples which provide milli volt
outputs, use of thermistor results in reasonable
output voltages.
Disadvantages
Since thermistors are semiconductor devices,
their operation are highly non-linear. This effect
of non-linearity needs to be compensated.
Another disadvantage of thermistors is their
limited temperature range due to which they are
not suitable for higher temperatures.
Limitations
Unstable at high temperature
Interchangeability of individual elements often
creates a problem.
Wide temperature range can’t be obtained.
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5.126 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
5.18 PYROMETERS
If the temperature of a very hot body has to be
measured, then contact-type temperature-measuring
devices will not be suitable, since they will be damaged
when they come in contact with the very hot body. So
non-contact-type temperature-measuring devices are
needed and they are called pyrometers.
E α T 2 or E = σ T4
E = e σ T4a
3. Infrared Pyrometer
1. Optical Pyrometer
Construction
The construction of an optical thermometer is
similar to a telescope. However a tungsten filament lamp
is placed at the focus of the objective lens. The filament
lamp acts as the standard source, so that the image of
the hot target is on the plane of the filament. Due to
this, the target image and filament lamp are super
imposed on one another when viewed through the
eyepiece. A two-volt battery with a multimeter and
E yep ie ce
R e d filter
O bjective
R h eo stat
B a tte ry A m m eter
Working
1. An operator views a hot body (target) and adjusts
the lamp brightness until its image is seen in red.
When the lamp filament is initially cooler than
the target, its image appears as darker red (or)
black spot superimposed on the target’s image.
(Fig 5.76 (a))
2. If the lamp current is increased till the filament
becomes hotter than the target, then the image of
filament appears brighter red than the target.
(Fig. 5.76 (b))
Fila m en t
Fila m en t Fila m en t
d arker he re Targ et im a ge
(ligh t from furn a ce ) b rig hte r h ere d isap pe ars h e re
Advantages
It shows lower temperature error.
Disadvantages
It is only suitable for spot measurements and it
requires a skilled operator to use it.
It is not capable of quick response and is totally
unsuitable for control purposes.
Fragile: Expensive - capability required.
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.131
In co m in g
ra diation
M irro r E y e piec e
Fu rn ace or
h ot bo dy L en s
Tem p era tu re
Th erm o cou ple (o r) T he rm op ile
d is play u nit
sen so r (o r) d e tecto r
Fig. 5.77 Tota l radiatio n py rom e ter
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5.132 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Disadvantages
1. Due to emission of radiations to the atmosphere,
errors in temperature measurement are possible.
2. Errors due to emissivity affect measurements.
3. Fibre-optic Pyrometers
A temperature-sensing component is placed at the
tip of the fibre optics’ free end. The desired radiation is
collected by connecting a measuring system to the other
end of the fibre optic cable. The data collected is then
converted into a temperature value. The fibre-optic
pyrometer consists of a fibre-optic cable, probes sensors
or receivers, terminals, lenses, couplers, and connectors.
A fibre-optic cable will transmit radiation from the black
box cavity to a spectrometric device which computes the
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temperature. The operating temperature of the fibre
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.133
4. Infrared Pyrometers
D ispla y
d evice
IR Filte r
Ve ry h ot
ta rget
D e tecto r L en s
(Tem p era tu re
S e nso r) Field of view
λm ax T = 2.898 × 10 − 3
2.898 × 10 − 3
λmax for 298 K = = 9.7 × 10 − 6 m
298
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(λmax for 298 K )
Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.135
5. Thermal Imaging
One important application of infrared pyrometry is
thermal imaging or infrared thermography. Infrared
thermography is used in medical imaging, in testing
buildings for heat leakage, in satellite surveys, in night
time surveillance and in measuring temperature
distributions in electronic equipment. Many devices
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operate by scanning the image across a single, cooled
5.136 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.1
Chapter 1
GENERAL CONCEPT
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TM.2 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.3
S ta ndard
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TM.4 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Line standard
End standard
Wavelength standard
Standard systems
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.5
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TM.6 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.7
Change in Ou tput
Also, Sensitivity
Change in Input
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TM.8 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.9
Static error
Reading error
Interpolation error
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TM.10 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Environmental error
Characteristic error
Loading error
1.39 Distinguish between relative error and random
error? (Anna Univ. Nov’07)
Relative error indicates how good a measurement is
relative to the size of the object being measured.
absolute error
Relative error
value of object measured
Speed of response
Lag
Fidelity
Dynamic error
1.42 Define Calibration. (Anna Univ. April ‘04)
The process of comparison of a device with unknown
accuracy to a device with a known, accurate standard to
eliminate any variation in the device being checked is
called calibration.
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.11
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TM.12 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.13
Position Tolerances
Concentricity Tolerances
Symmetry Tolerances
1.53 What is Allowance?
It is the intentional deviation between the hole
dimension and shaft dimension for any type of fit.
Allowance is positive for clearance fit and negative for
interference fit.
1.54 Differentiate between allowance and Tolerance.
Allowance is the intentional or planned deviation
from the nominal dimension. Whereas, Tolerance is the
unintentional but acceptable deviation from the nominal
dimension.
1.55 Explain feature control symbol.
Feature control symbol is a frame containing the
geometric characteristic symbol, tolerances, references and
applicable conditions.
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TM.14 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
0.03 M A
G eo m e tric Toleran ce
characteristic D ia. At m ax. D atum
sym bo l m aterial referen ce
condition
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.15
Chapter 2
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TM.16 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.17
Micrometers
Slip gauges
Comparators
2.7 Define the principle of vernier scale?
Principle of Vernier
N divisions on the vernier scale is equal to (N-1)
divisions on the main scale.
i.e. N Vernier Scale Divisions (VSD)
N 1
1VSD MSD
N
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TM.18 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.19
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TM.20 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.21
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TM.22 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.23
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TM.24 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
2. Measurement of Angles
3. Comparison Measurement
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.25
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TM.26 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.27
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TM.28 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.29
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TM.30 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.31
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TM.32 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Chapter 3
ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.33
Transmitting unit
Photo cell (receiver)
Microprocessor & control unit
3.5 Why laser telemetric system is used? What it
measures?
Laser telemetric system is used for high speed,
non-contact dimensional and positional measurement and
control. The system measures outside diameters, multiple
dimensions or part position of either opaque or
transparent objects. It is rugged and can be used on-line
and in harsh industrial environments.
3.6 What ae the components of laser telemetric system?
The laser telemetric system consists of three
components: transmitter, receiver and processor
electronics.
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TM.34 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.35
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TM.36 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.37
a light source
a condensing lens system
suitable table to position the work part (gauge)
projection optics comprising lenses and mirrors
an optical flat.
3.20 What are the components of A.C. laser
interferometer?
1. Two frequency laser source
2. Optical Elements
(i) Beam splitters
(ii) Beam Benders
(iii) Retro-reflectors
3. Laser lead’s measurement receiver.
4. Measurement display.
3.21. What is meant by beam benders?
These are usually flat mirrors having very high
reflectivity. They are used to deflect the light beam
around corners on it path from the laser source to each
one’s.
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TM.38 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.39
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TM.40 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.41
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TM.42 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
(i) Benchtop
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.43
(b) Flexibility
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TM.44 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.45
Cylinder styli
Ceramic half sphere styli
Swiveling styli
Pin styli
Apart from the above styli, there are custom styli
designed and manufactured to suit specific requirements.
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TM.46 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.47
Output devices
3.49 What is the function of delivery system in machine
vision system?
The delivery system positions the part for
inspection. It performs the following functions.
Ensures that the surface of the part that is to
be inspected is facing the camera.
Holds the part still for a brief moment required
for the camera to take a picture.
3.50 What are the cameras used in machine vision
system?
Cameras used in machine vision applications are of
two types namely, vidicon cameras and solid state
cameras.
Vidicon cameras are similar to those used in
television systems. Here an image is formed by focussing
the incoming light through a series of lenses on to the
photo conductive surface of the vidicon tube.
Solid state cameras employ either charge coupled
device (CCD) or charge injected device (CID) image
sensors. They contain a matrix of accurately spaced
photosensitive elements fabricated on silicon chips.
3.51 What is Windowing in Machine vision system?
Windowing is a technique in which various
mathematical operations are applied to the image data,
with a computer, in order to create an enhanced image
that is more useful.
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TM.48 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.49
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TM.50 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Chapter 4
FORM MEASUREMENT
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.51
These are,
1. Major diameter
2. Minor diameter
3. Effective diameter
4. Pitch
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TM.52 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.53
1. Pitch error
2. Major diameter error
3. Minor diameter error
4. Effective diameter error
5. Angle error
4.14 What is Gear?
Gears are used for transmitting motion and power
from one shaft to another with constant velocity ratio.
When the Driver Gear is rotated by an input shaft, it
will rotate the follower in the opposite direction.
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TM.54 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.55
4.20 What are the methods used for rolling gear test?
Rolling gear test can be done by two methods.
1. Circumferential backlash
2. Normal backlash
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TM.56 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.57
Roughness Waviness
It is usually produced by It is usually produced by
the action of the cutting instabilities in the
tool. machining process such as
unbalance of cutting tool.
It is caused due to the Waviness is the widely
short wavelength spaced component of the
irregularities in the surface texture. It is caused
surface. by spindle rotation, tool
deflection and vibrations
etc.
(ii) Feed
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TM.58 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.59
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TM.60 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.61
Chapter - 5
MEASUREMENT OF POWER,
FLOW AND TEMPERATURE
F ma
F ma
Let, F Force
m Mass of the body
a Acceleration
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TM.62 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.63
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TM.64 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.65
(a) Orificemeter
(b) Venturimeter
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TM.66 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.67
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TM.68 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
1. Restriction chamber
2. Control orifice
3. Flexible pipe
Friction is less
High magnification can be obtained.
Wear of measuring head is less due to absence
of direct contact.
Pneumatic comparator is very accurate and fast.
It has very high magnification capacity.
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.69
2. Thermocouples
3. Thermometer
4. Thermistors
5. Pyrometers
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TM.70 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Simple construction
Reasonably short response time
High Accuracy
Used to measure the temperature ranges of
1000 C
Temperature range
Abrasion and Vibration Resistance
Chemical Resistance of the thermocouple
5.35 Why Platinum sensing resistors are preferred?
Platinum is the most popular and internationally
preferred material due to following factors:
Chemical Inertness
Almost linear relationship between temperature
& Resistance
Greater stability because the temperature
resistance remains constant over a long period
of time.
Large temperature co-efficient of resistance,
resulting in readily measurable values of
resistance changes due to variations in
temperature.
The Platinum is ductile so that it can be formed
into small wires.
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.71
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TM.72 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Index I.1
INDEX
A B
A Mercury-In-Glass Back lash , 4.49
Thermometer, 5.113 Backlash checking, 4.68
Absorption dynamometers, 5.87 Band Brake Arrangements, 5.90
AC Laser Interferometry, 3.34 Bare wire thermocouple, 5.111
AC Laser Interferometer Base tangent method, 4.61
(ACLI), 3.37
Basic Size, 1.48
Accelerometers, 5.8
Bead thermistor, 5.123
Accuracy, 1.26
Bellows, 5.25
Acoustical probe, 3.67
Bench Micrometer, 2.50, 4.24
Addendum, 4.21, 4.47
Benchtop CMMs, 3.58
Addendum circle , 4.48
Bevel Protractor, 2.69
Adjustable Type Gap Gauges,
2.117 Bias or Systematic or
Controllable errors, 1.38
Alignment checking, 4.70
Bimetallic Strip Thermometer,
Ambient Errors, 1.40 5.107
Amplifying device and Blade Type Micrometer, 2.48
Indicator, 4.89
Bourdon gauge (C-Type), 5.20
Analysis of Surface Finish, 4.79
Bridge Type CMMs, 3.52
Analytical Balance Method, 5.1
British association thread, 4.22
Angle Alignment Telescope,
2.104 C
Angle Dekkor, 2.99 C.L.A. Method, 4.81
Angle Gauges, 2.80 Calibration, 1.44
Angle of thread, 4.19 Calibration Errors, 1.39
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I.2 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Index I.3
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I.4 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Index I.5
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I.6 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Index I.7
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I.8 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
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Index I.9
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