Metrology and Measurements For IV PDF

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0(752/2*< $1'
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(For IV Sem B.E. Mechanical Engineering Students)
(As per Anna University New Syllabus)
Dr. A.Anderson, YVS. Karthik,
S.Baskar, Dr.S.Ramachandran,
AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

(Near All India Radio)
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First Edition: 9th August 2014
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Contents C.1
%%$
Chapter 1
GENERAL CONCEPT
1.1 Introduction ................................................................ 1.1

Types of Metrology.................................................... 1.2
Legal Metrology ......................................................... 1.2
Deterministic Metrology............................................ 1.2
1.2 Significance of Measurement ................................... 1.2
1.3 Need for Measurement (Inspection)........................ 1.3
1.4 Means of Measurement ............................................ 1.4
1.5 Methods of Measurement ......................................... 1.5
1.6 Generalised Measurement System .......................... 1.8
1.6.1 Primary Stage (or) Primary Element........... 1.8
1.6.2 Secondary stage or Conversion stage........... 1.8
1.6.3 Manipulation Stage ......................................... 1.9
1.6.4 Final or Readout-Recording Stage ................ 1.9
1.7 Units and Standards.................................................. 1.10
1.7.1 SI System ....................................................... 1.11
1.7.2 Table for derived units ................................ 1.13
1.7.3 Definitions ...................................................... 1.14
1.7.4 Standards........................................................ 1.16
1.7.5 Standard Systems of Measurement .......... 1.16
1.7.6 Line Standard ................................................ 1.16
1.7.7 End Standard................................................. 1.17
1.7.8 Difference between Line standard and
End standard.................................................. 1.17
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1.7.9 Wavelength standard .................................... 1.17
C.2 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
1.7.10 Classification of Standards ........................ 1.17

1.7.11 Primary Standard........................................ 1.18
1.7.12 Secondary Standard .................................... 1.18
1.7.13 Tertiary Standards ...................................... 1.18
1.7.14 Working Standards ..................................... 1.18
1.7.15 Advantages of standards ............................ 1.19
1.7.16 Traceability................................................... 1.19
1.8 Measuring Instruments ............................................. 1.20
1.8.1 Classification of measuring instruments .. 1.20
1.9 Sensitivity .................................................................... 1.21
1.9.1 Sensitivity for linear instrument ................ 1.22
1.9.2 Sensitivity for non-linear Instrument ........ 1.22
1.9.3 Solved Problem .............................................. 1.23
1.10 Stability...................................................................... 1.24
1.11 Readability................................................................. 1.25
1.12 Range ......................................................................... 1.25
1.13 Accuracy ..................................................................... 1.26
1.14 Precision..................................................................... 1.27
1.15 Accuracy Vs Precision.............................................. 1.29
1.15.1 Difference between Accuracy
and Precision .............................................. 1.31
1.16 Characteristics of a Measurement System ........... 1.31
1.16.1 Static And Dynamic Response .................. 1.33
1.16.2 Definitions .................................................... 1.33
Static Error ......................................................... 1.33
Dynamic Error .................................................... 1.34
Percentage Error ................................................ 1.34
Correction ............................................................ 1.34
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Dead-zone ............................................................ 1.34
Contents C.3
Threshold ............................................................. 1.34

Hysteresis ............................................................ 1.34
Drift...................................................................... 1.35
Resolution ............................................................ 1.35
Speed of response .............................................. 1.36
Lag........................................................................ 1.36
Fidelity ................................................................. 1.36
Trueness............................................................... 1.36
Uncertainty.......................................................... 1.36
Linearity .............................................................. 1.36
1.17 Repeatability.............................................................. 1.37
1.18 Errors in Measurement ........................................... 1.38
1. Bias or Systematic or Controllable errors 1.38
2. Random or Precision errors......................... 1.39
3. Illegitimate errors ......................................... 1.39
1.18.1 Systematic Errors........................................ 1.39
(a) Calibration Errors........................................ 1.39
(b) Ambient Errors ............................................ 1.40
(c) Loading Errors.............................................. 1.40
(d) Errors caused by defective equipment ..... 1.40
(e) Avoidable Errors............................................1.41
1.18.2 Random Errors ............................................ 1.41
1.18.3 Characteristics of Random Errors ............ 1.43
1.18.4 Difference between Systematic and
Random Errors........................................... 1.44
1.19 Correction .................................................................. 1.44
1.20 Calibration ................................................................. 1.44
(a) Primary calibration...................................... 1.45
(b) Secondary calibration .................................. 1.46
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(i) Direct calibration .......................................... 1.46
(ii) Indirect calibration ...................................... 1.46

1.21 Dimensional And Geometric Tolerancing.............. 1.47
1.21.1 Introduction .................................................. 1.47
1.21.2 Basic Size ..................................................... 1.48
1.21.3 Limits and fits............................................. 1.48
1.21.4 ISO System of Limits of Fits ................... 1.50
Field of use of Individual Tolerances............. 1.50
1.21.5 System of fit ................................................ 1.52
(a) Hole basis system ........................................ 1.52
(b) Shaft basis system....................................... 1.52
1.21.6 Geometric Tolerancing ................................ 1.53
1.21.7 Geometric Characteristics and Symbols... 1.54
1.21.8 Feature Control Symbol ............................. 1.56
1.21.9 Geometric Tolerancing Explanation .......... 1.57
Form Tolerances ................................................. 1.57
Profile Tolerances............................................... 1.57
Orientation Tolerances ...................................... 1.58
Location Tolerances.............................................1.58
Runout Tolerances ............................................. 1.59
Chapter 2
LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

2.1 Definition of Metrology................................................ 2.1
2.1.1 Main activities of Metrology.......................... 2.1
2.1.2 Types of Metrology.......................................... 2.2
1. Scientific Metrology..........................................2.2
2. Industrial Metrology ........................................2.2
3. Legal Metrology ................................................2.3
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4. Deterministic Metrology ..................................2.3
Contents C.5
2.2 Elements of Measurement .......................................... 2.3

2.3 Linear Measurements .................................................. 2.4
2.3.1 Steel Rule .....................................................2.4
2.3.2 Calipers .........................................................2.6
2.3.3 Dividers .........................................................2.8
2.3.4 Vernier Caliper ................................................ 2.9
Construction ...........................................................2.9
Working................................................................ 2.10
Principle of Vernier ........................................... 2.11
Minimum length or Thickness measurable
with the Vernier calipers is called its least
count..................................................................... 2.11
2.3.4.1 Types of Vernier Calipers.................... 2.13
2.3.4.2 Limitations of Vernier Calipers .......... 2.15
2.3.4.3 Errors in Measurement with
Vernier Caliper...................................... 2.16
2.3.4.4 Precautions in using a
Vernier Caliper ..................................... 2.17
2.3.4.5 Applications of Vernier caliper ........... 2.18
2.3.4.6 Care in use of Vernier Calipers......... 2.19
2.3.5 Vernier Height Gauge .................................. 2.19
Construction ........................................................ 2.20
Working................................................................ 2.21
2.3.5.1 Important Tests on Vernier
Height Gauge ........................................ 2.22
2.3.5.2 Sources of Errors in Vernier
Height Gauges....................................... 2.22
2.3.5.3 Precautions While Using A vernier
Height Gauge ........................................ 2.23
2.3.5.4 Applications of Vernier
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Height Gauges....................................... 2.23
2.3.5.5 Master dial indicator vernier caliper. 2.25

2.3.6 Vernier Depth Gauge ................................... 2.25
Construction ........................................................ 2.25
Working................................................................ 2.26
2.3.6.1 Errors in Vernier Depth Gauge. ........ 2.27
2.3.7 Micrometer (Screw Gauge)........................... 2.28
Principle............................................................... 2.29
Construction ........................................................ 2.29
Working................................................................ 2.33
To obtain the reading ....................................... 2.34
2.3.7.1 Terminology ............................................ 2.35
2.3.7.2 Specifications for External
Micrometers ........................................... 2.35
2.3.7.3 Errors In Micrometers.......................... 2.37
2.3.7.4 Precautions ............................................. 2.37
2.3.7.5 Types of Micrometer ............................. 2.38
(a) Outside micrometer ..................................... 2.38
(b) Inside Micrometer ........................................ 2.38
(i) Inside Micrometer (Caliper) ........................ 2.39
(ii) Inside micrometer (Tubular) ...................... 2.39
Working (Method of Measurement) ................ 2.41
(iii) Self centering inside micrometer ............. 2.41
(iv) Stick Micrometer......................................... 2.42
Testing of Internal Micrometers...................... 2.43
(c) Depth micrometers ....................................... 2.43
2.3.7.6 Special Function Micrometers ............. 2.44
(i) Thread Micrometer Caliper......................... 2.45
(ii) V-Anvil Micrometer ..................................... 2.46
(iii) Thickness Micrometer ................................ 2.47
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(iv) Blade Type Micrometer ............................. 2.48
Contents C.7
(v) Groove Micrometer....................................... 2.48

2.3.7.7 Special (Advanced) Micrometer
Instruments ......................................................... 2.49
(i) Vernier Micrometer ...................................... 2.49
(ii) Bench Micrometer........................................ 2.50
(iii) Digital Micrometers.................................... 2.51
Maintenance for a digital micrometer ............ 2.53
2.3.8 Slip Gauges .................................................... 2.53
2.3.8.1 Classification of Slip Gauges............... 2.55
2.3.8.2 Method to determine the gauge
block combination ................................. 2.58
2.3.8.4 Applications of Slip Gauges ................ 2.59
2.3.8.5 Care in using Slip Gauges .................. 2.60
2.3.8.6 Advantages of Ceramic Slip Gauges.. 2.60
2.3.8.7 Slip Gauge Accessories......................... 2.61
2.4 Tool Makers Microscope ............................................ 2.63
Construction ........................................................ 2.63
Working................................................................ 2.65
2.3.9.1 Applications ............................................ 2.66
1. Determination of the Relative Positions ... 2.66
2. Measurement of Angles................................ 2.66
3. Comparison Measurement............................ 2.66
4. Comparison with a Scale ............................. 2.66
2.5 Angular Measuring Instruments .............................. 2.68
2.5.1 Types ............................................................... 2.69
2.5.1.1 Bevel Protractor..................................... 2.69
(i) Mechanical bevel protractors ...................... 2.71
Type A ................................................................. 2.71
Type B ................................................................. 2.71
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Type C ................................................................. 2.72
(ii) Optical Bevel Protractor............................. 2.73

2.5.1.2 Universal Bevel Protractor .................. 2.74
2.5.1.3 Applications of Bevel Protractor......... 2.76
(i) For checking the inside bevelled face of a
ground surface. ................................................... 2.76
(ii) For Checking of Vee block..........................2.76
(iii) For measuring acute angle ....................... 2.76
2.5.1.4 Spirit Level ............................................ 2.77
2.5.1.5 Clinometers............................................. 2.78
2.5.1.6 Angle Gauges ......................................... 2.80
Uses of angle gauges......................................... 2.83
2.5.1.7 Sine Bar.................................................. 2.84
(i) Locating any work to a given angle ......... 2.87
(ii) Measurement of angles of
small components ........................................ 2.88
(iii) Measurement of angle of heavy
components ................................................. 2.89
(iv) Checking angles greater than 45° ........... 2.90
Sources of Errors in sine bar .......................... 2.91
Precautions while using sine bars .................. 2.91
2.5.1.8 Sine Table .............................................. 2.92
2.5.1.9 Sine Centre ............................................ 2.93
2.5.2 Optical Angular Measuring Instruments ... 2.94
2.5.2.1 Autocollimator ............................................. 2.94
Principle of Autocollimator ............................... 2.94
Construction ........................................................ 2.95
Working................................................................ 2.96
Factors Governing the specification of an
Autocollimator ..................................................... 2.98
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(i) Focal Length.................................................. 2.98
Contents C.9
(ii) Objective aperture size ............................... 2.98

(iii) Type of Beam Splitter ............................... 2.98
(iv) Fixed or variable distance setting ........... 2.99
Applications ......................................................... 2.99
2.5.2.2 Angle Dekkor ......................................... 2.99
Applications of Angle Dekkor ........................ 2.102
(i) Measuring the angle of a component...... 2.102
(ii) Checking the slope angle of a V-block .. 2.103
(iii) Angle measurement of a cone or
taper gauge .............................................. 2.103
2.5.2.3 Angle Alignment Telescope................ 2.104
2.6 Gauges........................................................................ 2.107
2.6.1 Gauge classification................................ 2.107
2.6.2 Limit Gauges ............................................... 2.108
2.6.2.1 Plug Gauge................................................ 2.110
2.6.2.2 Ring Gauge........................................... 2.113
2.6.2.3 Snap Gauge .......................................... 2.114
(a) Rib type snap gauge ................................. 2.114
(b) Plate Snap Gauges .................................... 2.115
2.6.3 Adjustable Type Gap Gauges............... 2.117
2.6.4 Miscellaneous Gauges ............................ 2.117
2.6.4.1 Combined Limit Gauge ...................... 2.117
2.6.4.2 Position Gauge..................................... 2.118
2.6.4.3 Contour Gauges ................................... 2.119
2.6.4.4 Receiver gauges ................................... 2.120
2.6.4.5 Taper Gauges....................................... 2.121
2.6.4.6 Feeler Gauges ...................................... 2.123
2.6.5 Gauge Design.......................................... 2.123
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2.6.5.1 Taylor’s Principle................................. 2.124
2.6.5.2 Points to be remembered for

Gauge Design ...................................... 2.126
2.6.5.3 Material for gauges............................. 2.127
2.6.5.4 Gauge Maker’s Tolerance and
Wear Allowance................................... 2.127
2.6.6 Terms ....................................................... 2.128
2.7 Interchangeability ..................................................... 2.129
2.7.1 Parameters of Interchangeability .............. 2.129
2.7.2 Types of Interchangeability ....................... 2.130
Chapter 3
ADVANCES IN METROLOGY
3.1 Introduction ................................................................... 3.1
3.2 Laser .............................................................................. 3.2
3.2.1 Basic Concept................................................... 3.2
3.2.2 Comparison between Laser light and
light from an incandescent lamp .............. 3.7
3.2.3 Types of Lasers ............................................... 3.7
3.2.4 Advantages of laser ........................................ 3.8
3.2.5 Applications of Laser ...................................... 3.8
3.2.6 Laser Inspection .............................................. 3.9
(i) Scanning Laser Gauge ................................. 3.10
(ii) Laser Telemetric system ............................ 3.11
(iii) Photo Diode Array Imaging...................... 3.12
(iv) Diffraction pattern technique.................... 3.13
3.2.7 Laser Triangular sensors ............................. 3.14
(vi) Two frequency laser interferometer......... 3.15
3.3 Interference.................................................................. 3.15
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3.3.1 Principle of superposition............................. 3.15
Contents C.11
3.4 Interferometry ............................................................. 3.17

3.4.1 Interferometer ................................................ 3.18
3.4.2 Applications of Interferometers ................... 3.18
3.5 Laser Interefometry.................................................... 3.19
3.5.1 Types of Laser Interferometer .................... 3.19
3.5.2 The Michelson Interferometer ..................... 3.20
Principle of Michelson Interferometer ............ 3.22
3.5.3 TWYMAN-GREEN INTERFEROMETER... 3.23
3.5.3.1 Counting of fringes ............................... 3.25
3.5.4 Single frequency DC Interferometer........... 3.27
3.5.5 NPL Flatness Interferometer....................... 3.30
3.5.6 AC Laser Interferometry......................... 3.34
3.5.6.1 Description of component in A.C
Laser Interferometer ............................ 3.35
Two frequency laser source .............................. 3.36
2. Optical Elements ........................................... 3.36
3. Laser head’s Measurement receiver ........... 3.37
4. Measurement display .................................... 3.37
3.5.7 AC Laser Interferometer (ACLI) ........... 3.37
3.5.7.1 Advantages of ACLI ............................. 3.39
3.5.8 Heterodyne Interferometry ........................... 3.40
3.6 Laser Alignment ......................................................... 3.42
3.6.1 Laser equipment............................................ 3.42
3.6.2 Straightness.................................................... 3.43
3.7 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) .................. 3.44
3.7.1 NEED for CMMs........................................... 3.44
3.7.2 Coordinate Measuring Machine –
Construction and Operation........................ 3.46
(a) Main Structure ............................................. 3.46
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(b) Probing System ............................................ 3.48
(c) Machine Controller and Computer............ 3.48

(d) Software......................................................... 3.49
3.7.3 Operation ................................................... 3.50
3.8 Types of CMM ............................................................ 3.51
3.8.1 Manual CMMs ............................................... 3.51
3.8.2 CNC or DCC CMMs..................................... 3.52
3.8.3 Bridge Type CMMs....................................... 3.52
3.8.4 Cantilever type CMM ................................... 3.53
3.8.5 Column Type CMMs................................ 3.54
3.8.6 Gantry Type CMMs ...................................... 3.55
3.8.7 Horizontal Arm CMM................................... 3.56
3.8.8 Benchtop CMMs ............................................ 3.58
3.8.9 Free Standing CMMs ................................... 3.58
Portable CMMs................................................... 3.58
Some advantages of portable CMM ................ 3.59
3.9 Advantages of CMM .................................................. 3.59
(a) Reduced inspection cycle time ................... 3.59
(b) Flexibility ...................................................... 3.60
(c) Reduced operator errors.............................. 3.60
(d) Improved accuracy and precisions ............ 3.60
(c) Improved productivity.................................. 3.61
3.10 Probes......................................................................... 3.61
3.10.1 Contact Probes............................................. 3.61
3.10.2 Hard (or) Fixed Probes .............................. 3.62
3.10.3 Touch trigger type Probes ......................... 3.62
3.10.4 Measuring Type (or) Displacement
Probes .......................................................... 3.64
3.10.5 Non-contact Probes...................................... 3.66
3.10.6 Optical Probes.............................................. 3.66
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3.10.7 Acoustical probe........................................... 3.67
Contents C.13
3.10.8 Laser probes................................................. 3.67

3.10.9 Vision probes................................................ 3.67
3.11 CMM Styli and Accessories .................................... 3.68
3.11.1 Styli ............................................................... 3.68
3.11.2 Applications of Different Styli................... 3.69
3.11.3 Stylus Extension.......................................... 3.73
3.11.4 Stylus tools................................................... 3.74
3.11.5 Stylus Adapters ........................................... 3.74
3.11.5 Reference Spheres ....................................... 3.75
3.12 Applications of CMM ............................................... 3.77
3.13 Machine Vision ......................................................... 3.78
3.13.1 Machine Vision System - Basic Concept . 3.79
3.13.2 General Operation of a Machine
Vision System............................................. 3.80
3.13.3 Elements of Machine Vision System........ 3.82
(a) Delivery system ............................................ 3.82
(b) Light source (Illumination)......................... 3.84
(c) Lenses (optics) .............................................. 3.87
(d) Image sensor and digitizer ........................ 3.88
(e) Preprocessor .................................................. 3.89
(f) Vision Processor/Controller.......................... 3.90
(g) Communication Links.................................. 3.90
(h) Output devices ............................................. 3.91
3.13.5 Specifications of a vision system:

Sensitivity and Resolution........................ 3.93
3.13.6 Uses of Machine Vision Systems.............. 3.93
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3.13.7 Application of Machine Vision System 3.94
Chapter 4
FORM MEASUREMENT
Introduction .......................................................................... 4.1
4.1 Straightness Measurement.......................................... 4.1
4.1.1 Methods of Straightness Measurement........ 4.2
4.2 Flatness Measurement................................................. 4.4
4.2.1 Methods of Fltness Measurement................. 4.5
1. Beam Comparator Used for
Flatness Testing .............................................4.5
2. Faltness Measurement by Interferometry ....4.6
3. Flatness Measurement Using Laser
Measurement System .......................................4.6
4. Flatness Measurement Electro-mechanical
Gauges ..............................................................4.6
4.2.2 Surface Plate.................................................... 4.7
4.3 Parallelism..................................................................... 4.8
4.3.1 Methods of Parallelism Measurement.......... 4.8
1. Using Dial Indicator and Test Mandrel.......4.8
4.3.2 Using Electro-mechanical Gauges ............... 4.10
4.3.3 Using an Auto collimator ........................... 4.10
4.3.3.1 Autocollimator ........................................ 4.11
4.3.3.2 Principle of autocollimator................... 4.12
4.3.3.3 Applications ............................................ 4.16
Measuring the straightness of machine
components .......................................................... 4.16
Measuring flatness ............................................. 4.16
Other applications .............................................. 4.16
4.4 Thread Measurement ................................................. 4.17
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4.4.1 Nomenclature of screw threads................... 4.17
Contents C.15
1. Major diameter or Nominal diameter (d) . 4.17

2. Minor diameter or core diameter or
root diameter (dc) .......................................... 4.18
3. Pitch diameter or Effective diameter (dp) 4.18
4. Pitch (p) .......................................................... 4.18
5. Lead................................................................. 4.18
6. Crest ................................................................ 4.19
7. Root...................................................................4.19
8. Depth of thread ............................................. 4.19
9. Flank ............................................................... 4.19
10. Angle of thread............................................ 4.19
11. Slope of the thread ..................................... 4.19
12. Screw thread ................................................ 4.19
13. Flank angle (θ) ............................................ 4.20
14. Helix angle ................................................... 4.20
15. Thread per inch ......................................... 4.20
16. Addendum..................................................... 4.21
17. Deddendum ................................................. 4.21
18. Thread angle ................................................ 4.21
19. Tolerance....................................................... 4.21
4.4.2 Types of threads............................................ 4.21
1. British association thread ............................ 4.22
2. Whitworth (BSW) threads.............................4.22
3. Metric threads ............................................... 4.23
4.4.3 Measurement of screw thread..................... 4.24
1. Measurement of major diameter ............... 4.24
Bench micrometer .............................................. 4.24
2. Measurement of minor diameter ................ 4.26
3. Measurement of effective diameter ............ 4.27
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(i) One wire method .......................................... 4.28
(ii) Two wire method......................................... 4.29

(iii) Three wire method..................................... 4.30
Best size wire ..................................................... 4.31
(iv) Thread micrometer ..................................... 4.32
4.4.4 Pitch measurement ....................................... 4.33
(a) Tool makers microscope .............................. 4.33
Measuring principle ........................................... 4.35
Applications ......................................................... 4.35
4.4.5 Measurement of thread form Angle ........... 4.36
Shadow protector................................................ 4.36
4.4.6 Errors in screw thread................................. 4.37
1. Pitch error ...................................................... 4.37
Types of pitch error........................................... 4.37
(a) Progressive error ........................................ 4.38
(b) Periodic error .............................................. 4.38
(c) Irregular error .............................................. 4.38
(d) Drunken error .............................................. 4.38
2. Major diameter error .................................... 4.39
3. Minor diameter error.................................... 4.39
4. Effective diameter error ............................... 4.39
5. Thread Angle error ....................................... 4.39
6. Flank angle error .......................................... 4.39
4.5 Gears Measurement ................................................... 4.40
4.5.1 Introduction .................................................... 4.40
4.5.2 Advantages and Limitations of Gear Drive ....4.41
Advantages .......................................................... 4.41
Limitations .......................................................... 4.41
4.5.3 Classification of Gears ............................................ 4.41
4.5.3.1. Based on position of axes of the shaft.. 4.41
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(i) Parallel Shafts............................................... 4.41
Contents C.17
(ii) Bevel gears for Intersecting shaft .......... 4.43

(iii) Non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts.4.43
4.5.3.2 Based on type of gearing.......................... 4.43
(iii) Rack and pinion: ........................................ 4.44
(iv) Worm and Worm Wheel............................ 4.45
4.5.4 Terminology and Definitions........................ 4.46
Pressure angle (or) Angle of obliquity (φ): .... 4.47
Diametral pitch (pd): ......................................... 4.48
4.5.5 Forms of Gears.............................................. 4.49

4.5.6 Errors In Spur Gear..................................... 4.50
1. Gear Blank Run-out Errors......................... 4.51
3. Gear Tooth Errors......................................... 4.51
4.5.7 Spur Gear Measurement and checking ..... 4.54
1. Runout............................................................. 4.54
2. Pitch measurement ....................................... 4.54
(a) Tooth to Tooth pitch measurement .......... 4.54
(b) Two-Dial Gauge Method (or) Direct
angular measurement ................................ 4.55
3. Profile measurement ..................................... 4.56
(a) Optical projection method........................... 4.56
(b) By involute measuring machine................ 4.57
(c) Tooth displacement method ........................ 4.58
(d) Computer-controlled probe scanning
method........................................................... 4.59
4. Tooth thickness measurement..................... 4.59
(a) Gear tooth vernier caliper method ........... 4.59
(b) Constant chord method............................... 4.60
(c) Base tangent method................................... 4.61
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(iv) Rolling Gear Test ....................................... 4.63
(a) Single contact method (single flank

testing)............................................................4.64
(b) Double contact method (Double flank
testing)............................................................4.65
Parkinson Gear Roller Tester .......................... 4.65
Measurement Over Pins Or Balls................... 4.67
4. Lead checking ................................................ 4.67
5. Backlash checking ......................................... 4.68
6. Concentricity measurement.......................... 4.69
7. Alignment checking....................................... 4.70
Recent development in gear metrology .......... 4.70
4.6 Surface Finish Measurement .................................... 4.71
4.6.1 Surface Texture ............................................. 4.71
Types of Irregularities....................................... 4.72
(a) Primary texture (Roughness) ..................... 4.72
(b) Secondary texture (Waviness) .................... 4.72
4.6.2 Key Words...................................................... 4.73
Roughness Height (or) Height of unevenness 4.73
Waviness Height..................................................4.73
Difference between Roughness and Waviness4.73
Lay........................................................................ 4.73
Specification of surface texture........................ 4.74
Production method ............................................. 4.75
Reasons for measuring the surface texture... 4.76
4.6.3 Factors Affecting the surface finish ........... 4.76
Important terms ................................................. 4.77
4.6.5 Analysis of Surface Finish........................... 4.79
3. Form factor..................................................... 4.83
4.6.6 Measurement of Surface Finish .................. 4.84
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(a) Surface Inspection by comparison method4.84
................................
Contents C.19
1. Touch Inspection............................................ 4.85

2. Visual Inspection ........................................... 4.85
3. Scratch Inspection ......................................... 4.85
4. Surface photographs...................................... 4.86
5. Reflected Light Intensity ............................. 4.86
6. Micro Interferometer..................................... 4.86
7. Microscopic Inspection .................................. 4.86
8. Wallace surface Dynamometer .................... 4.87
(b) Direct Instrument method.......................... 4.87
(i) Stylus probe Instrument.............................. 4.87
(a) Skid (or) Shoe .............................................. 4.88
(b) Stylus (or) Probe .......................................... 4.89
(c) Amplifying device and Indicator................ 4.89
(d) Recording device............................................4.89
(ii) Profilometer .................................................. 4.89
Types of profilometer......................................... 4.90
(a) Contact profilometer .................................... 4.90
(b) Non-contact profilometer............................. 4.91
(iii) Tomlinson surface meter ........................... 4.91
Principle............................................................... 4.91
Construction ........................................................ 4.91
Operation ............................................................. 4.92
(iv) Taylor - Hobson Talysurf .......................... 4.93
Principle............................................................... 4.93
Construction ........................................................ 4.93
Operation ............................................................. 4.94
Applications ......................................................... 4.94
4.7 Roundness (or) Circularity ........................................ 4.95
4.7.1 Types of Irregularities of a Circular Part 4.95
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4.7.2 Causes of out-of roundness:......................... 4.96
4.7.3 Methods of Roundness Measurement......... 4.96

(a) Diametral Method ........................................ 4.97
(b) Circumferential Confining Gauge .............. 4.97
(c) Rotating on Centers..................................... 4.98
(d) V-block Method ............................................ 4.98
Limitation of the V-Block Method ................ 4.100
(e) Three Point Probe Method ....................... 4.100
(f) Roundness measuring Spindle.................. 4.101
(g) Reference Circles........................................ 4.102
(i) Least Squares Reference Circle (LSCI) .. 4.103
(ii) Minimum Circumscribed Circle (MCCI) 4.103
(iii) Minimum Zone
Reference Circles (MZCI) .............................. 4.104
(iv) Maximum Inscribed
Circle (MICI)..................................................... 4.104
(h) Roundness Measuring Machines ............. 4.104
1. Rotating Pick up type ................................ 4.106
2. Turn table type ........................................... 4.106
Modern Roundness Measuring Instruments 4.107
Chapter 5
MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND

TEMPERATURE
5.1 Force Measurement ...................................................... 5.1
5.2 Direct Force Measurement.......................................... 5.1
(i) Analytical Balance Method ............................5.1
(ii) Platform Balance ............................................5.3
(iii) Unequal Arm Balance Method....................5.5
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(iv) Pendulum Scale..............................................5.7
Contents C.21
5.3 Indirect Force Measurement ....................................... 5.8

(i) Accelerometers ..................................................5.8
(ii) Electromagnetic Balance Method .................5.8
(iii) Load Cells.......................................................5.9
5.4 Types of Load Cells ..................................................... 5.9
(i) Capacitive Load Cell .................................... 5.10
(ii) Magnetoelastic Load Cell ........................... 5.10
Pressductor .......................................................... 5.10
(iii) Strain Gauge Load Cell ............................ 5.11
(iv) Hydraulic Load Cell ................................... 5.13
(v) Pneumatic Load Cell ................................... 5.13
(vi) Shear Type Load Cell................................ 5.14
5.5 Elastic Loaded Members ........................................... 5.15
(a) Coil Springs .................................................. 5.15
(b) Proving Rings ............................................... 5.16
(c) Load cell have been already discussed .... 5.17
(d) Electronic Weighing System....................... 5.17
5.6 Measurement of Pressure.......................................... 5.18
Fluid Pressure Sensors ..................................... 5.18
Manometers ......................................................... 5.18
Manometers are classified as:.......................... 5.18
Mechanical Gauges ............................................ 5.19
5.7 Pressure Measurement Methods .............................. 5.19
5.7.1 Bourdon gauge (C-Type)............................... 5.20
Principle............................................................... 5.20
Mechanism and working ................................. 5.21
Other types of Bourdon gauges....................... 5.21
5.7.2 Diaphragm-type Pressure Gauge ............... 5.22
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Principle ............................................................. 5.22
Working .............................................................. 5.23

Capsule Pressure Sensor .................................. 5.24
5.7.3 Bellows ............................................................ 5.25
Principle............................................................... 5.25
Features of Bellows ........................................... 5.25
5.7.4 Dead Weight Pressure Gauge ..................... 5.26
5.7.5 Capacitive Pressure Transducer.................. 5.28
5.7.6 Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer ............ 5.29
5.7.7 Piezoelectric Sensors ................................... 5.30
5.7.8 Tactile Sensors............................................... 5.30
5.8 Simple Manometers.................................................... 5.31
(i) Piezometer:..................................................... 5.32
(ii) Simple U tube manometer......................... 5.32
(iii) Single column Manometer ........................ 5.34
(a) Vertical single column Manometer ........... 5.34
(b) Inclined Single Column Manometer ......... 5.35
Pressure at A...................................................... 5.35
5.9 Differential Manometer.............................................. 5.36
Under Equilibrium ............................................. 5.37
To Find Pressure, .............................................. 5.38
Problems In Simple Manometer ...................... 5.38
Pressure Head at A........................................... 5.38
Pressure Head at B = h2s2 ................................ 5.39
Under equilibrium,............................................. 5.39
Problems In Differential Manometer .............. 5.44
Under equilibrium,............................................. 5.46
5.10 Torque Measurement ............................................... 5.47
Torque Reaction Methods ................................. 5.48
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5.10.1 Cradled Shaft Bearing Type...................... 5.48
Contents C.23
5.10.2 Dynamometers ............................................. 5.48

(i) Hydraulic Dynamometer .............................. 5.48
Description........................................................... 5.48
Operation ............................................................. 5.49
(ii) Eddy Current Dynamometer...................... 5.50
5.10.3 Strain Gauge Type...................................... 5.51
5.10.4 Slip Ring Type............................................. 5.51
5.11 Torque Measurement Using Torsion Bar ............. 5.52
5.11.1 Optical Method ............................................ 5.53
Capacitive method.............................................. 5.54
5.11.2 Magnetostrictive Type................................. 5.55
5.11.3 Laser-Optic Method..................................... 5.56
5.11.4 Proximity Sensor Method........................... 5.57
Strobescope Method ........................................... 5.58
Saw Method ........................................................ 5.59
5.12 Flow Measurement ................................................... 5.60
Types of Fluid Flow .......................................... 5.60
5.12.1 Orifice Meter................................................ 5.61
5.12.2 Flow Nozzle.................................................. 5.68
5.12.3 Electromagnetic Flow Meters .................... 5.69
5.12.4 Hot Wire Anemometer................................ 5.70
5.12.5 Ultrasonic Flow Meter................................ 5.72
5.12.6 Other Flow Measurements......................... 5.73
(i) Current Meter ............................................... 5.73
(a) CUP Type Current Meter .......................... 5.73
(b) Propeller (or) Screw type Current Meter 5.73
5.12.7 Venturimeter ................................................ 5.75
Basic Principle .................................................... 5.75
Description........................................................... 5.75
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Operation ............................................................. 5.77
Application........................................................... 5.77
Advantages .......................................................... 5.78
Limitations .......................................................... 5.78
5.12.8 Rotameter (Variable-area Meter) .............. 5.78
Description........................................................... 5.78
Operation ............................................................. 5.79
Applications ......................................................... 5.80
Advantages .......................................................... 5.80
5.12.9 Pitot Tube .................................................... 5.81
5.12.9.1 Advantage of pitot tube .......................... 5.86
Disadvantage of pitot tube ............................... 5.86
5.13 Power Measurement................................................. 5.86
Types of Dynamometers.................................... 5.86
(a) Absorption dynamometers............................5.87
(b) Driving dynamometers ................................ 5.87
(c) Transmission dynamometers ...................... 5.87
Different Arrangements used to find Brake
Power.....................................................................5.87
5.13.1 Rope Brake Arrangement .......................... 5.87
5.13.2 Prony Brake Arrangement......................... 5.89
5.13.3 Band Brake Arrangements ........................ 5.90
D.C. Dynamometer............................................. 5.91
5.14 Comparators .............................................................. 5.92
5.14.1 Mechanical Comparators ............................ 5.92
(i) Dial Gauge (or) Dial Indicator ................... 5.93
Mechanism of dial Indicator ............................ 5.94
(ii) Reed type Mechanical Comparator........... 5.95
Merits of mechanical comparator .................... 5.97
Disadvantages ..................................................... 5.97
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5.14.2 Pneumatic Comparator ............................... 5.97
Contents C.25
(a) Flow (or) velocity type pneumatic

comparator........................................................... 5.98
(b) Back pressure type pneumatic comparator5.99
...............................
(c) Solex Air Gauge ......................................... 5.101
Solex pneumatic Comparator. ........................ 5.101
Internal measurements: .................................. 5.102
External measurements:.................................. 5.103
Merits of Pneumatic Comparator .................. 5.103
Disadvantages ................................................... 5.103
5.14.3 Electrical Comparator ............................... 5.104
Merits ................................................................. 5.105
Disadvantages ................................................... 5.105
5.15 Temperature Measurement ................................... 5.106
5.15.1 Temperature ............................................... 5.106
5.15.2 Temperature Scales................................... 5.106
5.15.3 Temperature measuring devices.............. 5.106
5.16 Temperature Measuring Instruments.................. 5.107
5.16.1 Bimetallic Strip Thermometer................. 5.107
Working.............................................................. 5.108
5.16.2 Thermocouple ............................................. 5.108
5.16.2.1 Measuring Thermocouple Voltage ........ 5.109
5.16.2.2 Thermocouple Junction .......................... 5.110
Advantages of Thermocouple.......................... 5.111
Disadvantages ................................................... 5.112
Thermocouple Specifications ........................... 5.112
5.16.3 Thermometer .............................................. 5.112
A Mercury-In-Glass Thermometer ................. 5.113
5.16.4 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)...............................
5.113
.......................
RTD’s Working Principle ................................ 5.114
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5.16.4.1 Platinum Sensing Resistors .................. 5.115
5.16.4.2 Film Style Element .............................. 5.115

Standard Resistance Thermometer data ...... 5.116
5.16.4.3 Rating of temperature Sensors ............ 5.116
5.16.5 Wiring Configuration (RTD) .................... 5.117
5.16.6 RTD Design Characteristics .................... 5.118
Advantages ........................................................ 5.119
Disadvantages ................................................... 5.119
Limitation .......................................................... 5.120
5.17 Thermistor ............................................................... 5.120
5.17.1 Types of Thermistors ................................ 5.121
Thermistors are classified as follows: ......... 5.121
1. (a) Positive Temperature co-efficient (PTC)
thermistors ........................................................ 5.122
(b) Negative Temperature Co-efficient (NTC)5.122
.................................
2. (a) Bead thermistor..................................... 5.123
(b) Washer Thermistor .................................... 5.123
(c) Disc Thermistor .......................................... 5.123
(d) Rod Thermistor .......................................... 5.124
(e) Probe Thermistor ....................................... 5.124
Applications ....................................................... 5.124
Advantages ........................................................ 5.125
Disadvantages ................................................... 5.125
Limitations ........................................................ 5.125
5.18 Pyrometers............................................................... 5.126
5.18.1 Types of Pyrometer................................... 5.127
1. Optical Pyrometer ....................................... 5.127
Construction ...................................................... 5.128
Working.............................................................. 5.129
Advantages ........................................................ 5.130
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Disadvantages ................................................... 5.130
Contents C.27
2. Total Radiation Pyrometer ........................ 5.131

Advantages of radiation pyrometers are:..... 5.132
Disadvantages ................................................... 5.132
3. Fibre-optic Pyrometers................................ 5.132
Advantages of Fibre Optic Pyrometers ........ 5.133
4. Infrared Pyrometers .................................... 5.133
5. Thermal Imaging ......................................... 5.135
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General Concept 1.1
Chapter 1
GENERAL CONCEPT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
For anything to be understood, it has to be
expressed in numbers. The process of expressing anything
(object, property, etc) in terms of numbers or obtaining
quantitative information about anything is called as
measurement. For this an internationally accepted
predefined standard i.e unit is necessary for every kind
of quantity measured. Further, an instrument or
apparatus is required to measure that quantity in terms
of that corresponding unit. The science of measurement
is called as metrology and when related to the practice
of engineering, it is called engineering metrology.
The basic or fundamental measuring process can be
explained as follows. It consists of
(i) A measurand, which is the unknown quantity or
parameter being observed and quantified. This is
the input to the measuring process.
(ii) Comparator or measurement where the
measurand is quantitatively compared with a
reference or predefined standard. Both the
measurand and the standard are of the same
character. The standard is usually defined by a
recognised agency or organization like,
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1.2 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
ISO – The International organization for

standardization.
NBS – National Bureau of Standards.
ANSI – The American National Standards Institute.
BIS – Bureau of Indian Standards, which is the
National body for standardization in India.
(iii) Result - The quantitative comparisons made

between the standard and unknown parameter
produces a result in terms of standard units.
A schematic representation is shown below.
M easurand C om parator R esult
S ta ndard
TYPES OF METROLOGY
LEGAL METROLOGY
The units of measurement methods and measuring
instruments used for the various measuring processes are
in relations to statutory, technical and legal requirements.
DETERMINISTIC METROLOGY
This is used for high precision manufacturing where
process measurement replaces the measurement of parts.
1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENT

The quantitative information obtained through the
process of measurement leads to better understanding of
the physical parameters being studied. This
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understanding is the basis for design and development of
General Concept 1.3
various products, devices or processes and also for

improving them.
The various devices or processes developed have to
perform for the intended purpose. So, to check whether
the actual output is in line with the derived output, the
various qualities related to the operation and performance
of the device or process are measured.
For any control process, the basic element is

measurement. Unless the controlling portion of any
system has the knowledge of the difference between the
actual and derived performance, it cannot act accordingly.
The proper performance of any system is ensured

through measurement of the various parameters related
to the system. Also economics of the any system are
worked out through measurement of the various inputs
and costs incurred throughout the process.
Hence measurement is the basis for all engineering

and commercial activities and plays a vital role in the
development of science and technology.
1.3 NEED FOR MEASUREMENT (INSPECTION)

In the traditional approach, both the production and
assembly of a product were at the same place.
So, whenever there was a unfit during assembly,

either of the mating part was altered there itself to fit
into the assembly. Hence, no two similar parts of an
assembly were the same. However, with the demand for
higher quantities with better quality and cheaper price,
mass production came into existence. Here different parts
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of a component or product are manufactured separately.
So when a large number of the same parts are

produced, the need for measurement arised.
 To ensure the interchangeability of parts, i.e any

two mating parts taken at random should
satisfactorily mate with each other.
 To ensure the efficient use of resources.
 To provide quality products to the end user.
The actual size of the components is not necessary.
It is enough if the various dimensions of a part fall within
the prescribed limits to enable satisfactory mating. This
leads to the usage of gauges which save a lot of time and
money.
Due to inspection, the quality of the products get

improved. Better inspection means better products which
leads to the development of precision inspection
instruments. This inturn leads to the development of
better tools and processing techniques.
1.4 MEANS OF MEASUREMENT

(i) Standards or Reference Masters: Standard is
a predefined magnitude of a given quantity or
condition. Definite values of a given quantity but
may be of different physical nature reproduced
using these standards.
(ii) Fixed gauges: These are used to check whether
the dimensions of given parts fall within the
specified tolerances. Also these are used to check
the form and position of various features of a
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product.
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General Concept 1.5
(iii) Measuring Instruments: The values of a

quantity or condition being measured are
determined using these devices. Measuring
instruments should be ten times more accurate
than the dimension being measured.
1.5 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

The various methods of measurements are as
follows:
(a) Direct method: Here the value of the quantity

being measured is obtained directly by comparing it with
the standard.
Example: measurement of length by means of

graduated scale; measurement of mass on equal arm
balance.
(b) Indirect method: Here, different parameters of the

quantity are measured directly using which the value of
the quantity is determined by a mathematical
relationship.
Example: measurement of speed by measuring

distance and time.
(c) Fundamental method: Here, the measurement of

base quantities which define the quantity are used for
the measurement.
Example: measurement of pressure determined from

measurements of density, acceleration due to gravity and
length which are derived from base quantities of length,
mass and time. This is also known as absolute method
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of measurement.
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(d) Comparison method: Here, measurements are

made by comparison with a known value of the same
quantity or another quantity which is a function of the
quantity to be measured.
Example: measurement of pressure by bourdon tube
gauge.
(e) Substitution method: Here the measurement of

the quantity is obtained directly on a indicating device
by substituting the measuring quantity with same other
known quantity which produces the same effect on the
indicating device.
Example: determination of temperature with

beckmann thermometer.
(f) Transposition method: Here, the method of

measurement is by direct comparison where the quantity
to be measured is first balanced by a known value and
then balanced by another known value of the same
quantity. From these two known values, the value of the
quantity is determined
Example: measurement of mass by gauss double

weighing method.
(g) Differential method: Here, the measurement is

made by the difference between the given quantity and
a known master of the same value.
Example: determination of diameter with master

cylinder on a comparator.
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General Concept 1.7
(h) Coincidence method: In this method, the small

difference between the given quantity and the reference
is found by the observation of the coincidence of scale
marks.
Example: measurement of length by vernier caliper.
(i) Null method: Here the measurement is made by

comparing the given quantity with a known source and
the difference between the two is made zero.
Example: measurement of electrical resistance using

wheatstone bridge and null indicator.
(j) Deflection method: Here, the deflection of a pointer

on a calibrated scale, directly indicates the value of the
quantity.
Example: measurements of length by dial indicator.
(k) Complementary method: Here, the value of the

unknown quantity is combined with a known value of the
same quantity and the sum of these two values is
adjusted so as to be equal to a predetermined comparison
value.
Example: determination of the volume of a solid by

liquid displacement.
(l) Contact and contactless methods: In contact

method, the instruments measuring tip touches the
surface to be measured. For contactless method, there is
no contact between the instrument and quantity being
measured.
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Example: projection comparator.
1.6 GENERALISED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

The function of a measuring system is usually to
determine the values or magnitude of a particular
phenomena. A general measuring system can be broadly
described as below consisting of the following stages. A
block diagram is shown in Fig. 1.1.
A nalo gous
Input P rim ary output Conve rsion M anip ulation
sta ge sta ge sta ge
A m plified
signa l
Read ou t
Recording
sta ge
Fig. 1.1 B lock d iagram o f the elem ents of a m easuring system
 Primary or Input sensing stage

 Secondary stage or Conversion stage
 Tertiary stage or Manipulation stage
 Final stage or Readout - Recording stage
1.6.1 Primary Stage (or) Primary Element

Here the measurement is sensed and transduced
into a signal analogous to the input signal (measured).
Ideally in this stage, the sensor should select only the
required input quantity to be measured and excluding all
other possible inputs.
1.6.2 Secondary stage or Conversion stage

Here the conversion of the transduced signal into a
signal suitable to the final stage takes place without
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changing the information content of the input signal. Also
General Concept 1.9
certain basic operations, like selective filtering is done to

remove unwanted input components. Not all measuring
instruments necessarily go through this stage.
1.6.3 Manipulation Stage

In this stage, the amplitude or power, or both of
the signal is amplified without changing the nature of
the signal to a level necessary for indication or recording
at the final stage. Here, the nature of the signal is not
changed. Also, it serves as a means of transmission of
the signal to the final stage.
1.6.4 Final or Readout-Recording Stage

The required information is presented in an
understandable form to the human observer or controller
in this stage. Usually the information is indicated in an
analog or digital form. In analog form, a pointer and a
scale with suitable calibration are used. In digital form,
LCD or LED are used where the values are directly
displayed. For some cases, the information is recorded
and printed. Also the values of the quality measured may
be used as an input for various computing systems or to
a controller.
The measuring system can be explained further

with the following example of a indicating thermometer
as shown in Fig 1.2. In the primary stage, heat is
converted into fluid displacement by the thermometer
sensing bulb. The displacement is proportional to the
temperature at the bulb. In the secondary stage, the fluid
displacement is converted into a displacement of a link
by the bourdon tube pressure gauge. In the manipulation
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stage, the link displacement is amplified by suitable
D e tecto r
Transd ucer stage Scale
(Termin ating stage or
Final stag e)
Po in ter
G ears
(M an ip ulatio n
Bo urd on Tub e sta ge )
dete ctor
(Se con da ry ( Intermediate (or)
stage ) m odifying stage)
Th ermo m eter
Se nsin g
bulb
(Primary
stag e)
Liquid
Fig. 1.2 Different stages of m easurin g system
(H o t)
gearing to produce a sizeable deflection of the pointer. In

the final stage, the deflection of a pointer over a scale
indicates the temperature.
1.7 UNITS AND STANDARDS

As discussed earlier, Measurement is a process of
comparision of an unknown phenomena with a predefined
standard. This predefined standard is called as an unit.
This quantitative value or information of any dimension
is expressed in terms of unit. For example for the
dimension of length, meter is the unit. There may be
many units for a particular dimension. For example,
length can be expressed in inches, feet, meters, etc. The
system of units should be standardized for universal
applicability. Further, as there are various systems of
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General Concept 1.11
units, the method of conversion from one system to

another must also be established. Hence the standards
are applicable to the units, system of unit and the
conversion between the systems.
The ‘National Bureau of Standards’ (NBS), now
known as the ‘The National Institute of standards and
Technology’ is an International Organisation responsible
for the development, research and calibration of standards
and devices. In India, the ‘Bureau of Indian Standards’
(BIS) is the national body for standardization.
1.7.1 SI System
The Eleventh General Conference on Weight and
Measures established formally the SI (International
System of Units (or) System International units) system.
It consists of six dimensional standards for length, mass
time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature and
luminous intensity. Later the standard for amount of
substance (mole) was added. The SI system of units is
more convenient to use than other systems and
comprehensive as the seven base units cover all
discipline.
The table below shows the seven base units in the

SI System.
Basic Units of SI System
S. Unit Unit
Physical Quantity
No. Name Symbol
1. Length Meter m
2. Mass Kilogram kg
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S. Unit Unit
Physical Quantity
No. Name Symbol
3. Time Second s
4. Electric current Ampere A
5. Temperature Kelvin K
6. Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
7. Amount of Substance mole mol
In addition, two supplementary units are used in

the SI System for the measures of plane and spherical
angles. Though these can be measured in terms of the
base units, they have been added for convenience.
Supplementary Units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle Steradian sr
From these base and supplementary units, the other

physical quantities are derived. These are known as
derived units. Some derived units are assigned special
names. For example, the unit of force kgm/s2 is called
newton (N) and unit of work and energy kgm 2/s is called
joule J.
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1.7.2 Table for derived units
Parameter Symbol Unit
Force F N
(i.e., 1N  1 kg m/s2)
Pressure P N/m 2 or Pascal
Density  kg/m 3
Sp.wt w N/m 3
Energy E Nm or Joule
Area A m2
Velocity v, u m/s
Moment or couple M N-m
Angle  rad
Angular velocity  rad/s
Acceleration a m/s 2
Angular acceleration  rad/s2
Torque T N-m
Power P Watts or J/S
Frequency f Hz
Volume V m3
Work W1  2 N-m
Impulse – kg - m/s
Moment of force – N-m
Stress – N/m 2
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1.7.3 Definitions
Meter, m
The unit of length is meter m. It is defined as the
length of the path travelled by light in vacuum in a time
interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.
Second, s
The unit of time is second (s). The duration of
9,192,631,770 of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the cesium 133 atom is called a second.
Kilogram, kg
The unit of mass is kilogram, kg. It is defined as
the mass of the International prototype kilogram, made
of platinum iridium kept at the International Bureau of
weights and Measures at Sevres, near paris.
Kelvin, K
The unit of temperature is called kelvin K. It is
the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature
of the triple point of water, i.e. The temperature of which
the solid, liquid, and vapour phases of water coexist in
equilibrium.
Ampere, A
The unit of electric current is ampere, A. It is
defined as the constant current required (or to be
maintained) to produce a force equal to 2  10  7 Newton
per meter length between two parallel rectilinear
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conductors of infinite length of negligible circular
cross-section, placed at a distance of one metre apart in

vacuum.
Candela, Cd
It is the unit for luminous intensity. It is defined

as the luminous intensity, in the perpendicular direction,
of a surface of 1/600,000 square metre of a black body at
a temperature of freezing platinum under a pressure of
1,01, 325 newtons per square metre.
It is also defined as the luminous intensity, in a

given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic
radiation of frequency 540  10 12 Hertz and that has a
radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per
steradian.
Mole, mol
The unit of quantity of substance is mole, mol. It

is defined as the amount of any substance that contains
as many elementary entities (Ex: atoms, electrons, etc) as
there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12.
Radian (rad) 
Plane angles are represented by radians (rad). A

radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center of
a circle by an arc of length equal to the radius of the
circle. (arc of unit length at unit radius). A radian is pure
number as it a ratio of two lengths [one radian is equal
to 180/ degrees]
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Steradian (sr) 
Solid angles are represented by steradians, (sr). It

is defined as the angle subtended by a unit area on the
surface of a unit sphere. It is also dimensionless.
1.7.4 STANDARDS
Measurement of dimensions is of primary

importance in the field of engineering. So, it is necessity
to prescribe standards for the basic physical quantities.
The measurement of linear and angular dimensions is of
fundamental importance in the production process.
1.7.5 Standard Systems of Measurement

English (yard) and metric (metre) system are the
two standard systems for linear measurement.
NOTE: Yard or metre is defined as the distance

between scribed lines on a bar of metal under certain
conditions of temperature and pressure.
The different standard for linear measurements are
 Line standard
 End standard
 Wavelength standard
1.7.6 Line Standard

When length measured is expressed as the distance
between two lines, it is called line standard.
Example: Rulers, etc

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1.7.7 End Standard

When the length measured is expressed as the
distance between two parallel surfaces, it is called as End
standard.
1.7.8 Difference between Line standard and

End standard
Line Standard End Standard

Length expressed as a Length expressed as a
distance between two lines. distance between two
surfaces
Less accurate (  0.2 mm) Highly accurate
(  0.001 mm )
Low cost High cost
Less skill required High skill required
Subjected to parallax effect. Not subjected to parallax
effect
1.7.9 Wavelength standard

The wavelength of a selected radiation of light is
used to express the basic unit of length. Unlike material
standards, this is not influenced by variation of
environmental conditions like temperature, pressure,
humidity, ageing, etc.
1.7.10 CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS

 Primary Standards
 Secondary Standards
 Tertiary Standards
 Engineering
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1.7.11 Primary Standard

A primary standard is precisely defined, whose
value is fixed and does not change. There is only one
material standard preserved under the most careful
conditions. This is used for calibration and comparison
with secondary standards.
1.7.12 Secondary Standard

The secondary standard is obtained by comparison
with the primary standard. These standards resemble
closely to primary standards as regards to material, size
and design. These serve as a backup in case of loss or
destruction of primary standard. Also, they are kept in
different countries for practical purposes, for reference to
the tertiary standards. In India, these standards are
maintained by the National Physical Laboratory.
1.7.13 Tertiary Standards

These are obtained by comparison with secondary
standards. These standards are used for reference with
working standards.
1.7.14 Working Standards

These standards are similar to the above standards
except for the materials used. They find applications in
the measuring laboratories.
Standards are also classified as
 Reference standards – used for reference purposes.

 Calibration standards – used for calibration purposes.
 Inspection standards – used for inspection purposes.
 Working standards
– used for operational purposes.
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1.7.15 Advantages of standards

 By adopting standard specifications
internationally parts manufactured at different
locations can be used in any location,
irrespective of the country of origin. For example
a bolt with M6  1 mm specification would fit
into every M6  1 mm nut irrespective of the
manufactured location i.e interchangeability is
made possible.
 The manufacturing costs are reduced due to
increased batch sizes.
 Inventory can be reduced as assemblies can be
done on non-selective basis which reduces costs.
 By standardization, uniform and better quality
of components is achieved.
 The cost of conversion is eliminated, training of
personnel is easier and fewer errors occur.
1.7.16 TRACEABILITY
Traceability is a system of transferring the
standardized units from the point of definition to the
uses. It refers to an unbroken chain of comparisons
relating to an instrument’s measurements to a known
standard.
Measurement being a science of comparison,

traceability to a known standard makes the measurement
result meaningful. The standards followed in various
industries must be traceable to the national standards
which inturn must be traceable to international
standards. The value of any measurement in any industry
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must be related in discrete steps and with known error
to the value of the national standard. In the process of

traceability, national laboratories, standardizing
laboratories, etc are to be established for country, states
and industries which are traceable to a single source.
1.8 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The devices used for measuring the physical
quantities of objects and events are called measuring
instruments. These instruments differ according to the
nature of the variables to be measured and also the
accuracy required. So, a large number of measuring
instruments are in use today. We will study about some
of the basic and vital instruments used in the practice of
mechanical engineering in this book.
1.8.1 Classification of measuring instruments

They are classified as follows
1. On the basis of function
(a) Length measuring instruments
(b) Angle measuring instruments
(c) Geometrical form checking instruments
(d) Surface finish - checking instruments
2. On the basis of accuracy
(a) Most accurate instruments

Example: light interference instruments.
(b) Moderate accurate instruments
Example: comparators.
(c) Below-moderate accurate instruments
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Example: dial indicators
3. On the basis of precision
(a) Precision measuring instruments
(b) Non-precision measuring instruments
1.9 SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity is the degree of response of an

instrument to an incoming signal. It is the ratio of the
change in the output of an indicating instrument or
transducer to the change in the value of the measured
quantity.
Change in instrument output

Sensitivity  
Change in value of measured quantity
So, a more sensitive instrument shows better

response to slight changes in a quantity being measured.
Sensitivity is also called the gain of the instrument.
The disadvantage of high sensitivity instruments is

that drifts in indication may occur due to variations in
temperature draughts or other effects.
Sensitivity can also be defined as ratio of the range

of the instrument to the number of divisions on the scale
of the instrument.
Range

No. of divisions
The largest range of values of the measured

quantity to which the instrument does not respond is
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called the dead zone.
1.9.1 Sensitivity for linear instrument
O u tpu t,V C alibration

curve
Fo rce ,F
F
V V
S lope =
Loa d O u tpu t, V F
cell (Vo lta ge)
Fig. 1.3 Calibration Curve Inpu t,F
Sensitivity of an instrument is equal to the slope of

the calibration curve. For linear instruments, the slope is
constant, so sensitivity is the same for all values of the
input.
1.9.2 Sensitivity for non-linear Instrument

Here, the sensitivity of the instrument varies
according to the values of the input quantity.
O u tpu t,y
X 2
y 2
X 1
y 1
O u tpu t, x
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Fig. 1.4 Calibration Curve
The units of sensitivity depend upon the measuring

system.
If a measuring system consists of a number of

devices, then the overall sensitivity of the measuring
system is the product of the individual sensitivities of all
the devices. If the individual sensitivities of the devices
are S 1, S 2, S 3  then.
Overall sensitivity S  S1  S2  S 3
1.9.3 Solved Problem

Problem 1.1: The individual sensitivities of different
elements comprising a temperature measuring system are
Transducer  0.3 Ohm/C
Wheatstone bridge  0.01 V/o hm
Amplifier gain  80 V/V
Pen recorder  1.2 mm/V. Determine the overall sensitivity
and the temperature change corresponding to a recorder pen
of 30 mm. (Anna University Dec’03)
Solution
Given
Sensitivity of the different elements are
Transducer, S 1  0.3 ohm /C
Wheatstone bridge S 2  0.01 V /ohm
Amplifier, S 3  80 V/V
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Pen recorder S 4  1.2 mm/V
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Overall sensitivity
 S1  S2  S3  S4
 ohm V V mm 
 0.3  0.01  80  1.2    
 C ohm V V 
 0.288 mm/C
Change in instrument output

Sensitivity,  
Change in value of measured quantity
here, temperature change
30
 0.288 
Change in tempera ture
30  m 
 Change in temperature 
0.288  mm/C 
 
 104.167 C
Answ er: Overallsensitivity  0.288 m/C
Temperature change  104.167 C
1.10 STABILITY
Stability is the property of a measuring instrument,
whereby its metrological properties remain constant with
time. It helps us to evaluate the performance of an
measurement device over time.
Stability studies enable us
 To check whether bias changes over time. If

changes in bias happens, the device is less
repeatable over time.
Note: Bias is the constant error which exists over
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the full range of measurement of an instrument.
 To determine the proper intervals for calibration

and repairs.
Stability studies are carried out using stable and
reliable standards which do not degrade or wear over
time and have a longer self-life.
Usually control charts are used as a method for

evaluating stability of measuring instruments. Here many
measurements of the same samples are taken and
repeated over a period of time. The control limits are
calculated and plotted on a chart. Any out of control
conditions indicate instability of the device, so appropriate
actions can be taken to rectify them.
1.11 READABILITY
It is measure of an instrument’s ability to display
incremental changes in its output value.
Or it is the smallest subdivision of the measuring

scale. For example a weighing balance having a
readability of 0.1 mg will not display any indication for
values like 0.001 mg.
Readability is a term mostly used for analog

instruments. It also refers to the ease with which the
readings of a measuring instrument can be read.
1.12 RANGE
Range of an instrument describes the lowest to
highest values that can be measured using that particular
instrument. And, the difference between the highest and
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lowest calibration point is called as span. For example a
thermometer calibrated from 50 to 150, the range is

50 to 150 and the span is 100.
1.13 ACCURACY
The closeness (proximity) of the measured value to

the true value is called as accuracy. It is the ability of
an instrument to produce correct results.
The accuracy of an instrument is usually specified

as a percentage of the instrument span. For example, if
a pyrometer with  0.4 percentage accuracy and span of
500 C then the accuracy is of the values with a deviation
of  2C.
(Or)
Let us say, if an instrument has an accuracy of

 0.02 mm and it is required to measure. The dimension
of a part of 30 mm, then the true value of the dimension
could be any where between 29.98 mm to 30.02 mm.
For measuring the dimension of any component a

set of readings are taken. The average of the readings
gives a mean value which is considered as the value of
the dimension. The proximity of this mean value to the
reference or true value determines the accuracy of the
instrument. From the Fig 1.5 it is clear that lesser the
value of ‘d’, i.e lesser the error (which is the difference
between mean value and true value), greater is the
accuracy of the instrument.
The possibility of error for any measurement is

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bound to arise. Even if a measuring instrument is
d
Frequen cy of D istribution
occurance
(or)
True value curve
R eference
value
M ean value
D im ension
Fig. 1.5 Accuracy.
manufactured to produce the desired accuracy, there are

other factors, which may affect the accuracy like,
 The temperature difference between the
instrument and component (work).
 human errors like parallax error, improper use
of the instrument, sense of feel, etc.
 The quality of the measuring instrument (like
the accuracy of scale graduations).
 The method of measurement, for Example
angular measurement using sine bar, errors may
occur while measuring large angles.
1.14 PRECISION
Usually, to determine the value of the dimension of
a component, a set of readings are taken to arrive at an
average or mean value. In some cases, the values of the
measured quantity repeat themselves or are close to each
other and in some cases they do not. So, the degree by
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which the repeated measurements of the some dimension
show the same results under unchanged conditions is

called as precision of a measurement system.
True value
D istribution
curve
Fre quency
(No of
occurance)
e e
M ean value
D im ension
Fig. 1.6 Precision
From the Fig 1.6, ‘e’ represents the maximum

dispersion of the measured value from the mean value.
So lesser is the value of ‘e’, higher is the precision of
measurement system.
Precision relates to the repeatability and

reproducibility of a measuring system.
Repeatability of a measurement process is ability to

produce the same result in repeated measurements of the
same dimension using the same instrument of operator
under similar conditions over a shorter time period.
Reproducibility of a measurement process is its

ability to produce the same result in repeated
measurements of the same dimension using different
instruments and operators over longer time periods.
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1.15 ACCURACY Vs PRECISION

Accuracy refers to the trueness of a measured value,
ie, the proximity of the mean value of the measurement
results to the actual or true value of the measured
quantity. Whereas precision refers to the closeness of the
individual results of repeated measurements of the same
quantity.
To understand accuracy and precision better in
general, we can consider an archery practice where the
centre of the board is the target. (The illustration is
shown in Fig. 1.7).
The difference between precision and accuracy in a
measurement process is shown in the Fig 1.8. Here
Not Accurate not precise Accurate not precise
Not Accurate but Precise Accurate and Precise

Fig. 1.7 Accured Vs Precision.
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Average valu e
x x
D im en sion x x True value
Fre quency
a) A ccurate and P re cis e
x x Average
D im ension
x x
E rror
True value
Fre quency
b) P recise but not Accurate (Results of
M easu rem ent c lose to Average Value)
x x x
x
D im ensio n
x Average
x E rror
x True value
x
x
Fre quency
c) A ccurate but not P recise
Fig. 1.8 D ifference betw een P recision a nd A ccu racy.
several measurements are made on a component with

different instruments and the results plotted.
From the above example, it is clear that accuracy
relates to the conformity of the mean value with the true
value of the measured quantity.
Precision is concerned about the set of
measurements performed by the same instrument on the
same component and how well these measurements agree
with each other, ie it represents the repeatability of
measurements. Poor repeatability is a sign of poor
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accuracy but good repeatability necessarily does not

indicate good accuracy. The root mean square of
repeatability and systematic error will give accuracy.
Accuracy   Repeatability2  Systematic error2


The difference between the average value of the
measurements and the true value of the measured
quantity is the error in the instrument. More accuracy is
achieved by reduction of error in the instrument. As the
true value of the measured quantity is never known,
there is uncertain to the measurement process which has
to be estimated by taking care of systematic and constant
errors.
1.15.1 Difference between Accuracy and Precision
S.No. Accuracy Precision

1. The closeness of The repeatability of a
measured value to true measuring process is
value is accuracy. precision. The closeness
of measured values to
each other is called
precision.
2. Reducing systematic Reducing random error
error will increase will increase precision.
accuracy.
1.16 CHARACTERISTICS OF A MEASUREMENT

SYSTEM
To choose an instrument most suitable for a
particular measurement, knowledge of the characteristics
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of the measurement system is important. These
characteristics describe the expected performance of the

measurement system. These can be broadly classified as
1. Static and
2. Dynamic characteristics
1. Static characteristics refer to the performance of

a measuring system for the measurement of
quantities that remain constant over a period of
time. Example: accuracy, sensitivity, drift
resolution, repeatability hysteresis, etc.
Accuracy, sensitivity and reproducibility are
desirable characteristics of a measuring instrument
whereas static error dead zone and drift are undesirable.
2. Dynamic characteristics of a measuring system

show the relationship between the input and
output of the system, when the measured quantity
is varying rapidly. Dynamic quantities are further
classified as
1. Steady-state periodic
2. Non-repetitive or transient
(a) Single pulse or aperiodic
(b) Continuing or periodic
Speed of response, lag, fidelity are all dynamic

characteristics.
Speed of response and fidelity are desirable whereas

lag and dynamic error are undesirable for a measuring
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1.16.1 Static And Dynamic Response

The evaluation of a measuring system’s ability to
faithfully sense, transmit and present all the relevant
information in the measured quantity (measurand)
excluding other unwanted inputs is called the response
of a measuring system.
Static (or steady state) response relates to the static

characteristics of the measuring system. It gives the
relationship between the output and input of the
measuring system, when the input does not change or is
changing at a slow rate.
The change in the output caused by a change in

the input where both input and output are functions of
time, is the dynamic response of a measuring system i.e
the ability of a measurement system to respond to a time
varying input is called dynamic response.
Overall response of a measuring system is the

product of both responses in the static and dynamic
states.
1.16.2 DEFINITIONS
Static Error
The difference between the true value of a quantity

not changing with time and the measured value is the
static error of the instrument i.e
True value  static error  measured value.
Note: Static error divided by measurement range gives

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measurement precision.
Dynamic Error
The difference between the true value of a quantity
changing with time and the indicated value by the
instrument with respect to time, is called dynamic error.
If no static error ie the error resulting from inadequate
dynamic response of a transducer in a time varying
signal.
Percentage Error
The error of measuring system is expressed as a
percentage of the measuring range of the instrument.
Indicated value  True value

Percentage error   100%
Scale value
Correction
The negative of error is known as correction
Correction   error
Dead-zone
The range of different input values over which there
is no change in the output value is known as dead-zone.
Threshold
The minimum value of input below which no output
value is achieved is known as Threshold.
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the difference between the indications
of a measuring instrument when the same value of the
measured quantity is reached by increasing or decreasing
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that quantity.
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O u tpu t
reading
D ead M easured
variab le
zone
Drift
The actual change in the measurement value when
the same characteristic is measured under similar
conditions and same operator at different points in time,
is called drift. It indicates how often a measuring
instrument needs recalibration or it is the slow change
of a metrological characteristic of a measuring
instrument.
Resolution
The smallest change in the measured value which
can be indicated in the instrument’s readout scale is
called as resolution.
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Speed of response
The speed with which an instrument responds to
changes in the measured quantity is called as speed of
response.
Lag
The delay in the response of an instrument to
changes in the measured quantity is called as measuring
lag.
Fidelity
The degree to which an instrument indicates the
changes in a measured value without dynamic error is
called fidelity.
Trueness
It is the closeness of agreement between the true
value and the average value obtained from a large series
of measurements. Accuracy relates to single measurement
whereas trueness applies to average value of a large
number of measurements.
Uncertainty
Uncertainty in measurement is defined as the range
about the measured value within which the true value of
the measured quantity is estimated to lie with some level
of confidence.
Linearity
It is defined as the maximum deviation of the
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output of a measuring system from a specified straight
line applied to a curve plotted between the measured

values and the input value.
1.17 REPEATABILITY
In any measurement, the dimensional value of a

quantity is ascertained through a sequence of repeated
measurements. Repeatability is defined as the ability of
a measuring system to produce the same indicated output
when the same measurand value is applied to it
consecutively under similar conditions. It is an important
factor in any measuring process.
Any measuring process is subject to a large number

of sources of variation like inconsistency in operator
performance, environmental changes and instrument
parameters. Repeatability is a measure of how well the
output returns to a given value when the same precise
input as applied to the system several times or the ability
of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of readings
within a given accuracy. It is characterised by the
dispersion of output indications. It can be expressed as
the maximum difference between output readings or as
percentage of full scale output.
maximum  minimum
Repeatability   100%
full scale
largest deviation  average

Repeatability   100%
full scale
Repeatability is a characteristic error of a

measurement system which cannot be completely
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eliminated by calibration. So, it is a limiting factor in the
calibration process, limiting the overall measurement

accuracy of the system.
1.18 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

All measurements of physical quantities are subject
to uncertainties in the measurements.
In any measurement made in the laboratory, there

is a certain inherent inaccuracy or variations i.e any
measurement made with a measuring device is
approximate. This inherent inaccuracy or variation is
called error. It does not imply incompetence on the part
of the experimenter but reflects the condition that our
measuring instruments are imperfect. So, the error in
measurement is a mathematical way to show the
uncertainty in the measurement. It is the difference
between the result of measurement and the true value of
the measured quantity.
It is important to determine the measuring errors,

wherever possible, to take steps for reducing them. Hence,
for the result of a measurement to have a clear meaning,
apart from the measured value, an indication of how
precise and accurate the result is, must also be included.
There are several types of errors which may arise

during measurement. Each component of the measuring
system has sources of errors and the combined effect of
the component errors is the error of measurement.
Errors in measurement can be broadly classified as
1. Bias or Systematic or Controllable errors
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(a) Calibration Errors
(b) Ambient Errors
(c) Loading Errors
(d) Errors caused by defective equipment
(e) Avoidable Errors
2. Random or Precision errors

These are caused by
(a) disturbances to the equipment
(b) fluctuating experimental conditions
(c) lack of measuring system sensitivity
3. Illegitimate errors
 mistakes committed by personnel during an
experiment.
 computational errors after an experiment.
1.18.1 Systematic Errors
These errors tend to shift all measurements in a
systematic way, so when a number of measurements are
taken, the mean value is constantly displaced or varies
in a predictable way. These errors can be determined and
reduced, hence controllable both in their magnitude and
sense. These errors arise due to following reasons.
(a) Calibration Errors

These errors occur when an instrument’s scale has
not been adjusted to read the measured value properly.
These errors may be zero offset errors, where all readings
are offset by a constant amount or scale errors where all
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readings error by a fixed percentage. To identify and
eliminate these errors, calibration procedures are used

where the measuring system’s readout scale is compared
with a standard one and calibrated.
(b) Ambient Errors

These errors occur due to changes in environmental
conditions from the time an instrument is calibrated and
the time it is used. The internationally agreed standard
value of temperature is 20C , barometric pressure is 760
mm of mercury, 10 mm of mercury vapour pressure.
Variations in these conditions may give rise to these
errors.
(c) Loading Errors

Loading errors refer to the influence of the
measurement procedure on the system being tested.
These errors are caused from the change in the
measurand itself when it is being measured. For example,
the deformation of a soft component under contact
pressure of the measuring instrument. So, a measuring
system should be selected such that its sensing element
will minimise the instrument loading error in the
particular measurement involved.
(d) Errors caused by defective equipment

These errors are a result of incorrect design,
fabrication or maintenance. These are mostly consistent
in sign and magnitude and often can be corrected by
calibration.
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(e) Avoidable Errors

The errors due to misalignment of the work and
measuring instrument, parallax errors, improper
instrument location (like placing a thermometer in
sunlight while measuring air temperature), all contribute
to these type of errors.
1.18.2 Random Errors

These errors are those which are accidental, whose
magnitude and sign cannot be predicted from knowledge
of measuring system and conditions of measurement.
These occur randomly and specific causes of these errors
cannot be determined. Few of the several causes are
discussed below.
 These may arise from outside disturbances to

the measuring system, like temperature
variations or mechanical vibrations.
 Also poorly controlled processes in the
measuring system lead to random variations in
the system output.
 Also noise in the measurement is a disturbance
which is unpredictable and cannot be completely
accounted for.
 Poor experimental design may result in
variations in the actual quantity being measured
which may lead to precision error in the results.
 An instrument may not be able to respond to or
indicate a change in measured quantity or the
observer may not be able to discern the change.
So, insufficient measuring instrument
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insensitivity may lead to precision errors.
 Friction and play in the instrument’s linkages,

operator errors in reading scale and pointer type
displays, errors in positioning the measured
object, etc. all contribute to random errors.
R elative
Frequency
x-3  x x+3
M easured Valu es
Fig. 1.9 Norm al distribution
Since the specific cause of random errors cannot be

determined, statistical analysis is required. A series of
repeated measurements made on a component under
identical conditions do not provide identical results and
on analysis, usually reveal a Gaussian (normal)
distribution as shown in Fig 1.9 the arithmetic mean of
standard deviation is determined which are used to assess
the random errors.
Consider a series of n readings denoted by
x 1, x2, x3,  xn. The arithmetic mean of these
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measurements of the same quantity is the best estimate

of that quantity.
 x1  x 2  x3   x n
Arithmetic mean, x 
n
The standard deviation of the measurements shows

the accuracy of the estimate.


 x  x 2
Standard deviation,   
n
And the,

Standard error of the mean value 
n
1.18.3 Characteristics of Random Errors

 Random errors are variable in magnitude and
sign.
 Since random errors follow normal frequency
distribution, the probability of occurance is equal
for positive and negative errors of the same
absolute value.
 In a given series of measurements, the
arithmetic mean of random errors approaches
zero, as the number of measurements increases.
 Standard deviation is the main characteristic of
random errors which is used to determine the
maximum measuring error. Three times the
standard deviation gives the maximum error for
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a given method of measurement.
1.18.4 Difference between Systematic and

Random Errors
S.No. Systematic Errors Random Errors

1. These errors are These errors are
predictable random and
unpredictable.
2. These can be Since these errors are
determined and variable, they can not
reduced, if properly be eliminated.
analyzed.
3. These can be These have to be
determined by determined through
comparison with statistical analysis.
standards.
4. Example for SE Example for RE
Errors due to improper Errors due to
calibration. temperature variations
1.19 CORRECTION
Correction is the value algebraically added to the
indicated value of measurand to obtain its actual value.
It is numerically equal to the error but opposite in sign.
Correction factor is a numerical value which is

multiplied to the result of a measurement to compensate
the assumed error in the measurement system.
1.20 CALIBRATION
The ability of all measuring instruments to measure
accurately and reliably is to be proved, to get meaningful
results. For this, the results of measurement are to be
compared with higher standards. The process of
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comparison of a device with unknown accuracy to a device
with a known, accurate standard to eliminate any

variation in the device being checked is called calibration.
So, calibration of a measuring system means
introducing an accurately known sample of the variable
that is to be measured and then adjusting the readout
device of the measuring system until its scale reads the
introduced known sample of the variable accurately, i.e
the calibration procedure establishes the correct output
scale for the measuring system.
Steps or precautions to be observed during
calibration of a measurement system
 Specified environmental conditions are to be
maintained, so that similar conditions prevail
when the system is calibrated and when the
actual measurements are made.
 The device to be calibrated is checked for any
physical defects.
 The standard measurement system used for
calibration should be at least ten times more
accurate than the desired measurement system
accuracy i.e accuracy ratio of 10:1
Calibration procedure
 The procedure for calibrating instruments is of two
types namely
(a) Primary calibration
(b) Secondary calibration
(a) Primary calibration

 As per this procedure, a system is calibrated against
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a primary standard.
 While calibrating flow meters, if the flow is

determined through measurement of time and volume
or mass of fluid, then it is termed as primary
calibration.
(b) Secondary calibration

 As per this procedure, a device that has been
calibrated by primary calibration is used as a
secondary standard for further calibration of other
devices of lesser accuracy.
 A turbine type flow meter is used as a secondary
standard to calibrate other flow devices.
 Secondary calibration is of two types namely
(i) Direct calibration
(ii) Indirect calibration
(i) Direct calibration

 In this procedure, a standard device is placed in series
with the device to be calibrated.
 Now calibration is done by comparing readings of the
two devices over the desired range.
(ii) Indirect calibration

 This procedure is based on the equivalence of two
different devices adopting some similarity concept.
Example: Flow measurement-Requirement of similarity
is ‘Reynold’s number should be equal’.
By comparing the discharge coefficient of two

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devices, calibration is done.
1.21 DIMENSIONAL AND GEOMETRIC

TOLERANCING
1.21.1 Introduction
It is common knowledge that it is impossible to
manufacture a part to a perfect size and even if it is
possible there is no means to measure it accurately.
Further it is quite uneconomical in most of the cases.
This is due to the variations or limitations in tooling,
machining, raw materials and operators. Hence, some
allowance for a given size should be allowed, according
to the requirement of the assembly. This is known as
tolerance. It is defined as the allowance for a specific
variation in the size and geometry of a part or on the
magnitude of permissible variation of a dimension or
other measured or control criterion from the specified
value.
Large variation of dimensions from the specified

value may affect the functionality of the parts and
producing parts with very little variation from the
specified value will increase the cost. So, to permit
variation in dimensions without degradation of the
performance beyond the limits established by the
specification of the design is the main purpose of
tolerances. That is, the magnitude of tolerance must be
set to permit low manufacturing cost and still achieve the
necessary functional performance.
Any part manufactured to a specified value lies

between two limits, maximum and minimum. Permissive
Tolerance is the difference between these two limits. We
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have following tolerances.
(i) Unilateral Tolerance – Permissible variation is

on only one side of
basic size.
(ii) Bilateral Tolerlance – Permissible variation is
on both sides of basic
size, plus and minus.
1.21.2 Basic Size

This is the exact theoritcal size of a component. It
is size, in relation to which all limits of variation are
determined.
1.21.3 Limits and fits

An assembly is the result of a number of
components fitted with each other. So the components
must fit with each other in a desired way to ensure
correct and reliable functioning of the machine. For
Example: If a shaft is to rotate in a hole, there should
be enough clearance between the two, allow the oil film
to be maintained for lubrication. Similarly, if the shaft is
be held tightly in the hole, there should be enough
interference between the two so as not to allow any
relative movement between them.
Limits
The two extreme permissible sizes for any
dimension (maximum and minimum) are called the limits.
While deciding the limits for a particular dimension, the
following should be considered.
 Functional requirement of the component.

 Interchangeability.
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Production time and cost to
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be minimal.
Tolerance: The total amount by which a dimension is

allowed to vary off. ie the difference between maximum
and minimum limits of size.
Fits: The relation resulting from the difference between
the sizes of two mating parts is called a fit. By varying
the hole and shaft sizes, varying fits can be obtained.
C le aran ce
M in im um
Tolera nce
M axim u m
C le a ran ce Tolera nce
Ze ro line
B a sic size
S che m atic
R e pre sen tatio n
of
Tolera nce s
S h aft
H o le
Fig. 1.10 Lim its of size and Tolerance.
Clearance fit: Here, the maximum permitted shaft

diameter is smaller than the minimum hole diameter so
as to enable the shaft to rotate or slide through the hole.
Interference fit: Here the minimum shaft diameter is
larger than the maximum hole diameter. This fit is used
to hold both the mating parts tightly.
Transition fit: Here the maximum hole diameter is
greater than the minimum shaft diameter, but the
smallest hole is smaller than the largest shaft, so that
small positive or negative clearance between the shaft
and hole are possible.
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For uniformity, a number of standards on limit and

fit system have been published - some of which are Indian
Standard (IS 919 - 1993), British standard 1916, ISO:
286-1:1998, etc.
1.21.4 ISO System of Limits of Fits

This is an international standard for linear
dimension tolerances which defines a system of
tolerances, deviations and fits for basic sizes upto 3150
mm.
Basic size: The size whose limit dimensions are

specified using the upper and lower deviations. In case
of a fit, the basic size of both mating elements must be
the same.
The ISO system provides 20 grades of accuracy to

meet the requirements of various production branches.
Each of the tolerance is marked ‘IT’ (International
Tolerance) with attached grade of accuracy (IT01,
IT0...IT18)
Field of use of Individual Tolerances
Tolerance grade Used for

IT 01 to IT6 Production of gauges and measuring
instruments.
IT 5 to IT 12 Fits in precision and general
engineering.
IT 11 to IT 16 Production of semi-products
IT 16 to IT 18 Structures
IT 11 to IT 18 Specification of limit deviations of
non-tolerated dimensions
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The term ‘shaft’ is used to specify all outer elements

of the part, including those which do not have cylindrical
shape. The term ‘hole’ so used to specify all inner
elements regardless of their shape. The ISO system
defines 28 classes of basic deviations for both holes and
shafts. For holes these classes are marked by capital
letters (A, B, .... Z, ZA, ZB, ZC) (excluding I, L, O, Q,
W). The tolerance zone for the specified dimensions is
denoted in the drawing, which consists of this letter
marking the basic deviation followed by a numerical
marking of the tolerance grade (Ex H7, D5, etc.) For
shafts, lower case letters (a, b, ... z, za, zb) excluding (i,
l, o, q, w).
ES
EI
H ole
ei
es
D m ax
D m in d
d m ax
d m in
S haft
Fig. 1.11 Tolerance Zones.
Where:
dD basic size
D max, D min limits of size for the hole
dmax, dmin limits of size for the shaft
ES hole upper deviation
EI hole lower deviation
es shaft upper deviation
ei shaft lower deviation
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1.21.5 System of fit

Two methods of coupling of holes and shafts are
recommended. They are
(a) Hole basis system

The various fits are achieved by combinations of
various shaft tolerance zones with the hole tolerance zone
‘H’. Here the lower deviation of the hole is always equal
to zero.
(b) Shaft basis system

The various fits are achieved by combinations of
various hole tolerance zones with the shaft tolerance zone
‘h’. Here the upper deviation of the hole is always equal
to zero.
H o le B asis S ystem S haft Basis Sy stem

A
B
d
Tolera nce
zone
Fig. 1.12 Hole and Shaft Basis System
Where, dd basic size

//// hole tolerance zone
\\\\ shaft tolerance zone
Note: Hole basis system is usually preferred.
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 A fit is usually indicated by the basic size

common to both components followed by
tolerance zone corresponding to each component
eg. 40 H8 / g7 or 40H8-g7.
 Tolerance zone: A spherical zone limited by
the upper and lower dimensions of the part.
 Hole based system: Size of hole is kept
constant. Shaft size is varied to get different fits.
 Shaft based system: Shaft size is kept constant
Hole size is varied to get different fits.
1.21.6 Geometric Tolerancing
For defining and communicating engineering
tolerances, a system of Geometric Dimensioning and
Tolerancing (GD&T) is used. GD&T uses a symbolic
language on engineering drawings to define nominal
geometry of parts and assemblies, the allowable variation
in form, and possible size of individual features and the
allowable variation between features. Standardization of
the symbols and rules used to GD&T is necessary for
uniform understanding and interpretation among design,
production and inspection groups. Some organizations
establishing standards are American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).
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1.21.7 Geometric Characteristics and Symbols
Datum
Tolerances Characteristics Symbols
Needed
Form Straightness No
Form Flatness No
Form Circularity No
Form Cylindricity No
Profile Line Profile No
Profile Surface Profile No
Orientation Perpendicularity Yes
Orientation Angularity Yes
Orientation Parallelism Yes
Location Symmetry Yes
Location Positional Yes And

No
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Datum
Tolerances Characteristics Symbols
Needed
Location Concentricity Yes
Runout Circular Runout Yes
Runout Total Runout Yes
Other Recommended Symbols
Description Symbols
Max. Material Condition (MMC) M
Least Material Condition (LMC) L
Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) S
Spherical Diameter (SD) S
Radius R
Diameter
Envelope Requirement E
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Free State Condition

F
(Non Rigid Parts)
Minor Diameter LD
Major Diameter
Pitch Diameter
Common Zone
Exact Dimension 60
Dimension Origin
All Round (Profile)
A A A
Datum Feature Indication
6
Datum Target Indication 6
or
A1 A1
Projected Tolerance Zone P
1.21.8 Feature Control Symbol

The geometric tolerances are indicated in a
rectangular frame divided into compartment known as
feature control symbol as shown in (Fig 1.13).
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0.03 M A B C
G eo m e tric Toleran ce
characteristic D ia. A t m ax. P rim ary S econ dary Tertiary
sym bo l m aterial datum datum datum
condition referen ce referen ce referen ce
Fig 1.13 Feature control sym bol
The feature control symbol is marked on an

extension line from the feature. It consists of the
geometric characteristic symbol, tolerance value and other
applicable conditions and datum references GD&T can be
explained with the following example.
1.21.9 GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING

EXPLANATION
Form Tolerances
Form tolerances can be stated by four tolerance
zones. These form tolerances are Straightness, Flatness,
Circularity, and Cylindricity. These form tolerances are
applied to individual features therefore the Form
Tolerances are not related to datums.
Profile Tolerances
Profile tolerances can be stated by two tolerance
zones. These are Line Profile and Surface Profile. Profile
Tolerance can be defined as a profile of a line or profile
of surface generated by off setting each point on the
nominal surface in direction normal to the nominal
surface at that point. A Profile is the outline of an object
in a given plane. Profile tolerance also defines a uniform
boundary around a surface within where the elements of
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the surface must lie.
Profile tolerances can control the location,

orientation, size and form of a feature. The profile
elements are curved lines, straight lines, and areas. The
actual profile of the surface can be defined by basic radii
dimensions, coordinate dimensions, angular dimensions.
MMC and LMC are not used in the feature control frame
with the profile symbol.
Orientation Tolerances
Orientation Tolerances can be stated by three
tolerance zones. These are Perpendicularity, Angularity,
and Parallelism. Perpendicularity is 90 to a datum and
parallelism is 0 to a datum. Angularity controls a surface
(non feature of size), a center plane or an axis of a feature
of size to a specified angle. These tolerances control the
orientation of features to a datum plane or axis.
Orientation Tolerances are related to datums. LMC or
MMC can apply to feature of size of the orientation
tolerances.
Location Tolerances
Location Tolerances can be stated by three tolerance
zones. These are position, concentricity, and symmetry
tolerances. Concentricity and symmetry are used to
control the center distance of feature elements. Position
is used to control coaxiality of features, the center
distance between features, and the location of features as
a group, position, concentricity, and symmetry tolerances
are associated with datums. LMC or MMC can apply to
feature of size.
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Runout Tolerances
Runout tolerances can be stated by two tolerance
zones. These are circular or total runout. Runout
tolerances are three dimensional and apply only to
cylindrical parts, especially parts that rotate. A part must
be rotated to inspect runout. A calibrated instrument is
placed against the surface of the rotating part to detect
the highest and lowest points. Both circular and total
runout reference a cylindrical feature to a center
datum-axis. The material condition applied to the feature
being controlled and the datum feature or features is
always RFS because 360  rotation is required to conduct
the inspection. Circular run out controls the cumulative
variation of circularity (roundness) and coaxiality for
features constructed around a datum axis and circular
elements of a surface constructed at an angle not parallel
to the datum axis. Total run out controls the entire
surface simultaneously hence it controls cumulative
variations in circularity, coaxiality, straightness, taper,
angularity and profile of a surface.
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Linear and Angular Measurements 2.1
Chapter 2
LINEAR AND ANGULAR

MEASUREMENTS
2.1 DEFINITION OF METROLOGY

Metrology is defined as the ‘science of
measurement’, which includes both its theoretical and
practical aspects at any level of uncertainty, in any field
of science and technology. The word is derived from the
Greek word ‘metron’ meaning ‘measure’ and ‘logos’
meaning speech, quote, etc. Measurement is described
more accurately, if it includes a number that is referenced
against a standard unit of measure. Metrology deals with
establishment, reproduction, conservation and transfer of
units of measurement and their standards. In
engineering, it mainly caters to the measurement of
length, angles and their related quantities.
2.1.1 Main activities of Metrology

 Defining and establishing internationally
accepted units of measurement.
 Reproducing these units in the form of
standards.
 Developing measurement methods and
estimation of their accuracy.
 Establishing uncertainty of measurement and
finding causes of measuring errors and
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eliminating them.
 Application of chains of traceability linking

measurements made in practice to reference
standards.
 Design, manufacturing and testing of gauges of
all kinds.
2.1.2 Types of Metrology

 Scientific or fundamental metrology
 Industrial metrology
 Legal metrology
1. Scientific Metrology
This is concerned with,
 The establishment of units and standards of

measurement.
 The transfer of traceability from these standards

to the users in society.
 Development of new measurement methods. It

signifies the highest level of accuracy in the field
of metrology.
2. Industrial Metrology
It refers to the application of measurement science

in industries in areas like production and quality control.
It finds use for
 Calibration procedures and calibration intervals,
 Control of measurement processes

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The management of measuring equipments.
3. Legal Metrology
Legal metrology relates to statutory technical

requirements concerning
 Unit of measurement
 Methods of measurement
 Measuring instruments.
 It implements those requirements that would
guarantee correct measurements in the areas of
public interest such as trade, health, the
environment and safety.
4. Deterministic Metrology
The advancements in production technology have

led to the development of machines under automatic
control whose performances are totally deterministic. For
such processes, the part measurement was replaced by
process measurement. The system processes are
monitored by temperature, pressure, flow, force, vibration
sensors and techniques such as 3D error compensation.
This is used for very high precision manufacturing and
to achieve very high accuracies.
2.2 ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT

(a) Linear dimensions (length measurement)
(b) Angular dimensions (angular measurement)
(c) Non-linear functions (concentricity, roundness,
flatness and surface texture).
The art of ensuring that all dimensions are
machined within acceptable limits of accuracy is called as
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dimensional control. It is uneconomical to machine to fine
limits, the dimensions which have no effect on the quality

or performance of the component.
2.3 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

The measurement of distance between two points on
a straight line can be termed as linear measurement.
Linear measurements can be made by two methods,
which are
(a) Line measurement - measurement of distance

between two lines. Example of measuring
instrument - steel rule.
(b) End measurement - measurement of distance
between two surfaces. Example of measuring
instrument - micrometer.
There are various linear measuring instruments.
They are
 Steel rule
 Calipers, Dividers, etc used in combination with
steel rule.
 Dial indicators and vernier calipers.
 Micrometers
 Slip gauges
 Comparators
2.3.1 Steel Rule
A steel rule is a simple and basic line measuring

device. It is used to measure actual sizes, based on the
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technique of comparing an unknown length to the one
Fig. 2.1 Steel Ru le
previously calibrated. A steel rule is shown in the Fig.

2.1.
The steel rule is a strip of hardened steel having
line graduations at interval of fraction of a standard unit
of length. The graduations are either machine divided or
photo engraved to ensure that the lines are at the correct
distance apart and evenly spaced.
A good steel rule - should be made up of good
quality steel, should have clearly engraved lines and
should be of minimum thickness.
When used correctly, a good steel rule is a
surprisingly accurate measuring device. Certain
techniques to follow while measuring are given here:
 End of scale should never be set with the edge
of part to be
measured since
it is difficult to
35
line up the end 30
25
of the scale 20
15
accurately with 5
10
the edge and

also the scale, 15
generally gets
worn at the
Fig: 2.2 C orrect M eth od of
ends.
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U sing a Steel R ule
 The scale should never be laid flat on the part

to be measured because parallax error may occur.
2.3.2 Calipers
Calipers are measuring instruments consisting of a
pair of movable, curved legs hinged together at one end,
used to measure thickness, diameter, or distances. When
measurements cannot be taken directly by a ruler,
calipers can be used. The ends of legs of a caliper span
the part to be inspected and then is transferred to the
rule to read the measurement. This method reduces
sighting errors and increases the reading accuracy.
According to construction, calipers can be of (1) firm
joint type and (2) Spring type.
According to application, calipers can be of
(a) Outside caliper and (b) Inside caliper.
We also have transfer and hermaphrodite calipers
which are of firm joint type.
Outside calipers are used to measure outside
dimensions like diameter
of shafts, etc whereas
inside caliper is used to
measure width of recesses,
diameter of holes, etc.
In spring type
calipers, the spring
provides sufficient tension
to hold the legs rigid at all
(a) (b)
points of adjustment.
(a) O utside caliper (b) Insid e caliper
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Fig. 2.3 Firm Jo int
(a) O utside ca liper (b) In sid e ca liper

Fig. 2.4 Sp ring Joint
Transfer calipers are provided with an auxiliary arm

which is used to preserve the settings. They are used for
measuring recessed areas. They are shown in Fig. 2.5.
auxiliary
arm
Fig. 2.5 (a) O utsid e and Inside

Transfer C alipers
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Hermaphrodite calipers have one leg bent inward

and one straight leg ending in a sharp point i.e one
caliper leg and one divider leg. These are also called odd
leg calipers or odd leg jennys. They are used for scribing
lines at a specified distance from a flat or curved surface.
The bent leg is used to run along the workpiece edge
while the scriber makes its mark at a predetermined
distance. (Refer Fig.2.6). Hermaphrodite calipers are used
in layout work for locating and testing center, laying off
distances from an edge, etc.
F ixe d
P o int
L o ck
Nut
S c rib e r
N o tch
(b) Uses of Herm op hrodite caliper
Fig. 2.6 (a) Herm ophrodite Caliper
2.3.3 Dividers
Dividers consist of two legs (pivoted), whose end
points are suitably heat treated to inpart hardness and
sharpened so that they act as scribers. They are used for
scribing arcs and circles. One leg is placed in the dimple
on workpiece created by a center punch and the other leg
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S crew
L ock nut
Firm-Join t Divider Spring Divider

Fig: 2.7
is used to scribe a line (i.e arc or circle) on the workpiece

surface.
2.3.4 Vernier Caliper

A vernier caliper is a precision measuring
instrument for linear dimensions which can measure
inside, outside and depth measurements. It was
introduced by Picrre Vernier of France in 1631. Vernier
calipers are widely used in scientific laboratories and in
manufacturing sectors for quality control measurements.
Construction
A vernier caliper mainly consists of following:

Lock
N u ts
 M ain S ca le
Be am 
Fixed Ve rn ier S cale

Jaw Ad justing
M ovable Scre w
Jaw 0 10 20
24 M ain S ca le
M easuring Ve rn ier
Tips 0 10 20 25
Scale
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Fig. 2.8 Vern ier calip er.
 Rectangular metal frame with a fixed jaw,

 Movable jaw.
On the rectangular frame (beam), a scale is
graduated in centimeters along the lower edge. This is
called the main scale. One end of the frame contains
the fixed jaw, which is shaped into a contact tip at its
extremity.
The movable jaw called the vernier slides over the

main scale and can be fixed at any point by means of a
lock nut. On this is graduated a scale called the vernier
scale. The movable jaw at its left extremity is shaped
into a measuring tip. The vernier scale and the main
scale are parallel to each other. When both the measuring
tips are in contact with each other, the scale shows zero
reading. The measuring faces of a vernier are referred as
ribes.
A vernier caliper is illustrated in the Fig. 2.8. The

length of the beam and the length of the jaw specify the
size of the vernier. Vernier calipers are available with a
capacity to measure upto 2000 mm. The measuring
surfaces are given a fine ground finish. The portion of
the jaws between the measuring faces are relieved. The
fixed jaw is made as an integral part of the beam and
the movable jaw is made to have a good sliding fit with
the beam to have a seizure free movement.
Working
For measurement by a vernier caliper, the part to
be measured is placed in between the two jaws. The
movable jaw is then adjusted, so that the two measuring
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tips touch the part to be measured. Depending upon the
sense of correct feel, the final adjustment is made by the

adjusting screw. Then the lock nut is tightened and the
reading is noted down. The measuring tips are designed
to measure both inside and outside dimensions. It should
be noted that while taking internal measurements the
total thickness of the two measuring jaws must be added
to the reading on the vernier. The vernier caliper can
also be preset to a given measurement for checking the
dimension of a component.
Vernier scales of 25 or 50 divisions are commonly
used.
Principle of Vernier
N divisions on the vernier scale is equal to (N-1)
divisions on the main scale.
i.e. N Vernier Scale Divisions (VSD)
 N  1 Main Scale Divisions (MSD).
N  1
1VSD  MSD
N
Minimum length or Thickness measurable with the

Vernier calipers is called its least count
Least Count (LC)  1 MSD  1VSD
N  1
LC  1 MSD  MSD
N
 N  1 
LC  1 MSD  1  
 N 
MSD 1
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LC 
N
Let us assume that each division of the main scale

is 0.5 mm. Say the vernier scale contains 25 divisions
which coincide exactly with 24 divisions of the main scale.
so one vernier division is equal to 1/25 of 24 main scale
divisions.
1
 1 VSD   24  0.5  0.48 u nit
25
 LC  1 MSD  1 VSD
 0.50  0.48  0.02 units
It means that if the zero o f the main sc ale and zero

o f vernier c o inc ide, then the first vernier divisio n w ill
read 0.02 unit less than the first main sc ale divisio n.
Sec o nd vernier divisio n w ill read 0.04 units less than the
sec o nd main sc ale divisio n and so o n. So if the zero o f
the vernier sc ale lies betw een tw o main sc ale divisio ns,
its exac t value c an be o btained by o bserving w hic h
vernier divisio n is c o inc iding w ith a main sc ale divisio n.
To obtain the reading: First the number o f divisio ns

o n the main sc ale are read. Then the vernier sc ale is
o bserved to determine w hic h o f its divisio n c o inc ides o r
is mo re c o inc ident w ith a divisio n o n the main sc ale. That
divisio n multiplied by the least c o unt is added to the
main sc ale reading to give the to tal reading. The
pro c edure is illustrated w ith an example as sho w n in the
Fig. 2.9.
Here the main sc ale is graduated in half millimeters

and the vernier sc ale is 12 mm lo ng and has 25 divisio ns.
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So the least c o unt is 0.02 mm. The 12th division of the
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20 30 M ain scale
21
0 5 10 15 20 25
Ve rn ie r sca le
C o in ciding
d ivisio n
2 H (12 x0.0 2)
=2 1 .24 m m
Fig. 2.9
M a in sca le d ivid e d into 1 /2 m m d iv isio n s
vernier scale coincides with a main scale division, so, the

reading is 21  12  0.02 i.e 21.24 mm.
2.3.4.1 Types of Vernier Calipers
IS:3651 recommends three types of vernier calipers
A , B and C to meet the various needs of internal and
external measurements upto 2000 mm with a vernier
accuracy of 0.02, 0.05 and 0.1 mm and the recommended
measuring ranges are 0-125, 0-200, 0-250, 0-300, 0-500,
0-750, 0-1000, 750-1500 and 750-2000 mm.
Type A
This type of vernier caliper has jaws on both sides
of the beam for external and internal measurements.
Also, a blade is provided, which is connected to the
movable jaw, for depth measurements. It is illustrated in
the Fig. 2.10.
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Ed ge M e asuring
Kn ife F ace Fo r Intern al
M easurem ent
Be am M ain Scale
D e pth
M easuring
Ve rn ier Blade
Scale
Fixed G uiding
Jaw Su rfa ce
C lam ping
Scre w
External
Sliding Ja w
M easuring
Fa ces
Fig.2.10 Type A Vernier Calip er.
C la m pin g Screw
B ea m M a in Scale
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14
Vernier G uiding Surfac e

S cale
E xtern al
Fixed M ea su ring
Jaw F ace s
E xternal Sliding Jaw

M easuring
Face s Fig.2.11. Type B Vernier Caliper.
Type B
This is provided
with jaws only on one
side. The jaws are so
designed to enable both Add ed total jaw
internal and external thickness to the
read ing w hen
measurements. The m akin g in tern al
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width of the measuring jaws is added to the reading on

the scale for internal measurements. Usually the width
is marked on the jaws of the vernier caliper.
Type C
Kn ife Edge F aces F or

Ma rking P urp ose
F ixed
Ja w C lam p ing
Screw M ain
B eam
Scale
0
E xternal
M ea suring
Faces
G u idin g Surfac e
S liding Jaw F in e A djustm ent C lam p
Fine Ad justm ent
Intern al S cre w
M easuring
Fa ces
F ig. 2.13 Type C Vernier Caliper
This is provided with jaws on both sides. The lower

jaws are used for measurements and upper jaws are used
for marking purposes. It is shown in Fig. 2.13.
2.3.4.2 Limitations of Vernier Calipers
 It is difficult to obtain the correct feel of the
part . As both the part and caliper are always
to some extent elastic, the amount of force used
by the operator affects the indication.
 The scales are difficult to read.
 The accuracy is about 0.02 mm
 The caliper must be properly used in order to
take the desired measurement.
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2.3.4.3 Errors in Measurement with Vernier Caliper

 Errors occur due to manipulation of vernier
caliper and its jaws on the workpiece i.e Care
should be taken to properly align the workpiece
between the measuring faces of the jaws.
 Vernier caliper is tilted during use especially
when measuring depth.
 Dirty measuring surfaces.
 The improper conditions of the jaws of the
caliper, like natural wear and warping, so the
caliper jaws must be tested frequently by setting
the 0.0 point of the main and vernier scales. The
caliper is held against a light source in this
position. The conditions as shown in the
Fig.2.14 may be observed.
A knock - kneed condition, as illustrated in Fig
2.14(a) will be observed, if there is wear, spring or warp.
A condition like in Fig. 2.14(b) occurs, if the
movable jaw frame has worn or warped and so, it will
not slide properly on the main beam. When the
instrument is mostly used for measuring inside
diameters, the outside edges at the measuring points of
the jaws may get worn down as shown in Fig. 2.14(c)
or the jaws may become bowlegged as shown in Fig.
2.14(d)
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Fig. 2.14 Jaw cond itio ns resulting in m easu rem en t errors in vernier calipers
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2.3.4.4 Precautions in using a Vernier Caliper

 The fixed jaw of the vernier caliper should be
used as the reference point and the measured
point is obtained by advancing or with drawing
the sliding jaw. For this purpose, the sliding jaw
is provided with a fine adjustment nut in all
vernier calipers.
 If play exists between the movable jaw and the
frame, the accuracy of the vernier will be lost.
So, any play should be removed by adjusting the
gib at the back of the jaw assembly.
 On repeated use, the tips of the measuring jaws
get worn out and that must be taken into
account. Before lifting the caliper from the
workpiece, release the slide otherwise the
measuring surfaces will get worn.
 Always ensure that the vernier caliper is not
tilted or twisted.
 The vernier caliper should be gripped near or
opposite the jaws, one hand for the stationary
jaw and the other hand for supporting the
movable jaw.
 The sense of touch is an important factor in
measurement. When measuring, gentle pressure
must be applied.
 The measuring surfaces should be clean.
 When taking a reading, our view point should
be vertical to the scale.
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2.3.4.5 Applications of Vernier caliper
Fig. 2.15 (a)

Fig 2.15 (b)
(a) M easuring
w o rkpiece thickness (b) M easuring sha fts
Fig: 2.15 (d)

c) M easuring slot d) M easuring Step
of a sha ft
Fig: 2.15 (e)

Fig: 2.15 (f)
M easuring intern al dia of f) M ea su rin g depths of holes
hole
R ig ht W ro ng
M easuring Jaw
b lade
Fig: 2.15 (g)
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Fig 2.15
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(g) M easuring g roo ve
2.3.4.6 Care in use of Vernier Calipers

 The vernier caliper should not be dropped or
tossed aside after measurement, but should be
set down gently or placed in the box.
 Vernier calipers are not rugged instrument,
hence should not be treated or used as wrench
or hammer.
 Grit, Chips and oil must be wiped off from the
instrument, before and after measurements.
 The component should not be clamped in the
vernier caliper jaws and waived in the air.
2.3.5 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE
The vernier height gauge is a self-supporting
measuring instrument which consists of a heavy base
with a vertical vernier scale similar to that of vernier
caliper, which makes the instrument suitable for height
measurements. Along with the movable jaw assembly,
provision is made to carry a removable clamp.
The vernier height gauge is easily adjustable over
a large range. Reading the measured value is the same
as that of a vernier caliper. It is mainly used in
conjunction with a surface plate for marking or key-out
the workpiece when the scriber is attached. A dial gauge
may be attached to the height gauge to provide greater
accuracy in measurement by means of comparative
method with the help of a master height gauge. The
difference between a height gauge and surface gauge is
that a height gauge has a measuring head (like vernier,
etc) whereas a surface gauge has only a scriber point.
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Vernier height gauges are specified by mentioning

the range of measurement, the type of scales required,
and the type of vernier desired.
Construction
The different parts of a vernier height gauge are

(a) Base (b) Beam (c) Measuring jaw and scriber
(d) Graduations (e) Slider
Vernier height gauges have a large steel base for

stability and a engraved steel column (beam) with mm
units. The moving slide (slider) is engraved with vernier
calibrations. Attached to the moving slide is a wedge
shaped steel scribe (scirber), the height of which can be
finely adjusted with a thumbscrew. The slider should
have a good sliding fit along the full working length of
the beam. For all positions of the slider, the upper and
lower gauging surfaces of the measuring jaw should be
flat and parallel to the base within 0.008 mm.
All the parts of the height gauges are made up of

good quality steel. The blanks of all height gauges are
suitably heat treated while fabrication to remove any
stresses resulting from possible cold working. The faces
of the measuring jaw and scriber and the underside of
the base are hardened to about 700 HV (58 RHC) for
good quality steel and upto 650 HV (56 RHC) for stainless
steel. A balance should be drawn between hardening
qualities and resistance to staining while selecting a
suitable high carbon stainless steel because steel with
high hardness number is likely to have low acid resisting
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properties.
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Fine a djustm ent screw
Ve rnie r sca le
Th um b screw C la m ping
S crew s
cla mp
Scribe r
Slid er
M easuring jaw
M ain Sca le
Ba se Be am
A vernier height gauge is illustrated in the Fig.

2.16.
Working
 The work to be marked out with a vernier
height gauge must be set vertically on a surface
plate, using a angle plate.
 The height of the scribe is set with the moving
slide’s fine adjusting screw.
 The marking outlines are then scribed on to the
work’s surface by steadily moving the height
gauge along the surface plate.
 The height of the main scale can also be finely
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adjusted on some vernier height gauges which
enables measurements to start from a

convenient reading. This is useful if the shape
of the workpiece is such that it needs to be
mounted on a parallel strip.
2.3.5.1 Important Tests on Vernier Height Gauge

They are
(a) Hardness of working faces.
(b) Flatness of base.
(c) Rigidity of beam.
(d) Flatness of the working surface of the

measuring jaw and scriber.
(e) Parallelism of the measuring jaw and scriber

with the base.
(f) Thickness of graduations.
(g) Accuracy of scale readings.
2.3.5.2 Sources of Errors in Vernier Height Gauges

Errors occur due to
 Slide arm not parallel with the base

 Unclean and damaged base which causes
inaccuracy.
 Worn-out scriber.
 Improper calibration. The zero mark of the
vernier and main scale should coincide when the
base of the scriber makes flat contact with the
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surface plate.
 Parallax errors. The measured value should be

read by looking vertically at the scale.
2.3.5.3 Precautions While Using A vernier Height

Gauge
 The base should be held firmly to the surface
plate to avoid tipping.
 The height gauge and surface plate should be
cleaned properly before use.
 Care should be taken to avoid heating by
warmth from the hands, especially in the case
of long height gauges.
 The height gauge should be moved slowly and
gently over the surface plate.
 The scriber should be clamped as near as
possible to the beam to reduce vibration and
increase accuracy.
 They should be kept in their cases when not in
use.
2.3.5.4 Applications of Vernier Height Gauges

It is used for various applications in the workshop
and inspection department.
(i) Used in conjunction with a surface place and it

can be used for marking the workpiece with a
scriber attached to it.
Refer Fig. 2.17
(ii) Used to check the height of a surface. Refer Fig.

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2.18 (a)
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Fig: 2.17
S urfa ce p la te
Fig:2.18(a)
To provide better accuracy, a dial gauge is attached

to the vernier height gauge to be used as a fiducial
indicator i.e., it removes errors due to feel by ensuring
constant measuring pressure. Refer Fig. 2.18 (b)
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Ve rn ie r he ig h t
g au ge
D ia l te st
in d ic ato r
P a ralle l pa ckin g
Fig. 2.18(b)
2.3.5.5 Master dial indicator vernier caliper
This greatly reduces the operators reuse of feel by

combining the vernier caliper and dial comparator gauge
in one instrument. It is used for both internal and
external measurements.
2.3.6 VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE

As the name implies, the vernier depth gauge is
used to measure the depth of holes, slots, recesses and
the distances from a plane surface to a projection used
for precise measurements.
Construction
Unlike a height gauge, the vernier depth gauge does

not have a heavy base. The main scale can slide through
the base of the gauge body. The vernier depth gauge is
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made in such a way that the beam is perpendicular to
the base in both directions. The end of the beam is square

and flat and the base is flat and true, free from curves.
The base and the measuring surfaces are hardened
carbon steel and lapped.
These differ from the vernier caliper and vernier
height gauge in that the vernier slide assembly remains
fixed while the main scale is moved to obtain the reading.
The advantage of the vernier depth gauge over the
micrometer depth gauge is of having a large measuring
range without having to use extension rods.
Working
These also operate on the vernier principle but
differ in the design application of the basic concept,
resulting in the reversal of the usual process.
 The slide is connected with the cross beam of
the instrument, which by contacting a reference
plane on the object surface, establishes the
datum of measurement.
 The end face of the beam (main scale), functions
as the movable jaw, in contacting the object
element whose distance from the datum is to be
measured.
The use of a vernier depth gauge is illustrated in
Fig. 2.19.
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Fine M ain S ca le
a dju stm en t
scre w
L ocking S cre w s
Vernie r S cale
M ea suring fa ce
Fig: 2.19 Use of vernier d epth g auge
2.3.6.1 Errors in Vernier Depth Gauge.

It is easier to make errors with a vernier depth
gauge due to manipulation. Errors occur due to
 the reference surface, on which the vernier
depth gauge is rested, is not satisfactorily true,
flat and square. Though the gauge, be true and
square, it can be imperceptibly tipped or canted
as illustrated in the Fig. 2.20 (a).
 The base or anvil of the vernier depth gauge not
firmly rested on the reference surface. This
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occurs due to the high pressure applied in

sliding the beam against the measured point
which lifts the base of the gauge from its
position on the reference surface as illustrated
in the Fig. 2.20 (b).
(a ) (b ) (c )
Fig. 2.20 M eth ods cau sin g error m easurem ents
Also, Fig 2.20 (c) shows the condition where the

measuring pressure cants the base a little. Hence, it is
advisable to keep several kilograms of hand pressure on
the base or anvil rested on the reference surface and then
manipulating the beam, to measure the depth, by
applying light measuring pressure.
2.3.7 MICROMETER (SCREW GAUGE)
A micrometer is a widely used precision measuring
instrument. It is also called as micrometer screw gauge
(as it uses a calibrated screw) and micrometer caliper
(because they are usually in the form of calipers). It gives
a direct reading and is made in various patterns to suit
particular applications. It is a very precise instrument
with a reading error of 0.005 mm.
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Principle
The operation of a micrometer is based on the

following principles.
 The amount of rotation of an accurately made

screw can be directly and precisely corelated to
a certain amount of axial movement (and vice
versa) through a constant known as the screw’s
lead. A screw lead (pitch) is the distance it
moves forward axially with one complete
revolution.
 With an appropriate lead and major diameter of
the screw, a given amount of axial movement
will be amplified in the resulting circumferential
movement.
So, a micrometer uses a screw to amplify distances
that are too small to measure directly into large rotations
of the screw that are big enough to be read from a scale.
(or) A micrometer is based on the principle that the

distance moved by the nut along the screw is proportional
to the number of revolutions made by the nut.
Construction
A micrometer caliper is illustrated in the Fig. 2.21.
A micrometer consists of a very accurately machined

screw called the spindle which revolves in a fixed nut.
The spindle is moved by turning the rachet knob or
thimble. The end of the screw forms one measuring tip
and the other measuring tip is the stationary anvil on
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the other end of the C-shaped steel frame. The screw
An vil Lock N ut Th im ble scale

Sp indle
R atchet
Ba rrel Th im ble
Screw
Ba rrel scale
Fra m e Fig:2.21
R a tche t stop
K nurling
Thim b le
B arrel
clam p ring
(knu rle d lo cknut)
Sp indle
Anvil
F ram e
Fig. 2.21 (a)
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is threaded for certain length and is plain afterwards.

The plain portion is called the sleeve.
The spindle has a slide fit with the barrel attached
to the frame. The barrel is graduated in the unit of
0.5 mm, which is the lead of the screw. The barrel
divisions are placed on alternate sides of the datum line
for clarity (see Fig. 2.22). At txhe thimble has 50
graduations, around its periphery on circular portion each
being 0.01 mm.
0 1 2
15
10
Barrel divisions 5
Fig.2.22:Barrel divisions on either side of datum line
For preventing the motion of spindle while

observing a reading, a lock nut is provided. At the end
of the thimble cap a ratchet stop is provided to maintain
uniform measuring pressure. It consists of an overriding
clutch held by a weak spring so that the clutch starts
slipping, when the spindle is brought into contact with
the work at the correct measuring pressure and no
further movement of the spindle takes place by rotation
of the ratchet. (The backward movement takes place due
to the shape of the rachet.)
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Parts: The different parts of an external micrometer are

illustrated in the Fig. 2.23. They are described below.
R atchet
H ole For
Ad justing S panner
Sp indle
An vil
Th im ble
Ba rrel
Ad justing S panner
Fra m e
Fig.2.23 The external m icrom eter
Frame: The frame is C-shaped and holds the anvil and

barrel in constant relation to each other. It is generally
made up of steel, malleable cast iron or an alloy. The
frame is heavy and so has a high thermal mass, to
prevent heating up by the holding hand. It is usually
covered by insulating plastic plates to further reduce heat
transference.
Anvil: The anvil should protrude atleast 3 mm from the
frame to enable the attachment of measuring wire
support. The measuring faces are suitably hardened or
tipped with tungsten carbide. Its measuring face should
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be flat and parallel to the measuring face of the spindle,

so it is accurately ground and lapped.
Spindle: The movable measuring face is the spindle. It
should be a free-turning fit in its bush, without
perceptible shake. The spindle should run freely and
smoothly throughout the length of its travel, so it is
lubricated with a light non-corrosive oil. There should be
no perceptible backlash between the spindle screw and
nut. The axes of the spindle and anvil should be in exact
alignment.
Lock-nut: A knurled lock nut is provided to hold the

spindle stationary, when taking measurement.
Ratchet stop: It limits the applied pressure by slipping

at a calibrated torque. It is diamond knurled to enable
satisfactory operation.
Thimble and barrel: The graduation lines of the

thimble and barrel should be clearly engraved. The
surfaces should have a dull finish and the graduation
lines are blackened for ease of reading.
Adjusting nut: This is provided to compensate for wear

between screw and nut and wear on the measuring faces.
It is also used for adjusting the zero setting. For this
purpose, spanners and keys are provided with the
micrometer. The adjustment should be made in such a
way that the original accuracy is not affected.
Working
The object to be measured is placed between the
spindle face and anvil face as shown in Fig. 2.24. The
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rachet is turned clockwise until the object is lightly held
w ork P iece
0 5 10 5
0
45
Fig.2.24
between these two surfaces and the rachet makes a

clicking noise. This means that the rachet should not be
tightened any more and the measurement can be read.
To obtain the reading

Each revolution of the thimble moves the spindle
face 0.5 mm towards the anvil face. There are 50
graduations on the thimble, one thimble division equals.
0.5
 0.01 mm  Least count of the micrometer.
50
An example of how to read the measurement is

shown below.
 The top side of Sleeve S ca le R e ad ing = 7+ 0.50 =3 .5m m
Thim ble scale R ead in g = 0.2 6m m
the scale on Tota l M e a surem e nt = 7 .7 6m m
the sleeve
clearly shows 30
0 5
7 divisions, i.e
25
7 mm.
 Further 1/2 20
mm division
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Fig.2.25
can be seen on the bottom half of the scale. So,

the measurement now reads 7.5 mm.
 Now, observing the thimble scale it shows 26
full divisions, i.e 26  0.01  0.26 mm (so, the
final measurement is)
7.5 mm  0.26 mm  7.76 mm
If a vernier scale is also included, the measurements

upto an accuracy of 0.001 mm can be achieved.
2.3.7.1 Terminology
Backlash: It is the lack of motion of the spindle when
the rotating direction of the thimble is changed.
Measuring range: The total travel of the spindle for a

given micrometer is known as its measuring range.
Cumulative Error: The deviation of the measurement

from the nominal dimension determined at any optimal
point of the measuring range is known as cumulative
error. It includes the effect of errors of thread, errors of
measuring faces, etc. Slip gauges can be used to
determine the errors.
Total Error: The maximum difference of ordinates of

the cumulative error corresponds to the total error.
2.3.7.2 Specifications for External Micrometers

According to Indian Standard, IS: 2967-1964:
 Screw size should be M 10  1.5

 Diameter of graduated surface of barrel should
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be  10 mm
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Th im ble 
D =b evel a ngle
D - d ista nce of g rad ua ted

th im ble end fro m
barre l surface
Ba rrel
Fig. 2.26 Details of Barrel and thim ble o f Screw G auge
 The bevel angle at the graduated end of the

thimble should be  20 from the barrel.
 The distance from the barrel surface to the
graduated end of thimble  0.5 mm
 bevel angle
D distance of graduated thimble end from barrel
surface
 Graduations on thimble should be in steps of

0.01 mm with 50 divisions.
 The barrel is graduated at 1 mm intervals both
above and below the reference line. The lower
graduations are placed in the middle of two
successive upper graduations to enable 0.5 mm
reading.
 Thickness of graduation should be between 0.15
mm to 0.20 mm.
 The cumulative error at the lower and upper
limits of the micrometer measuring range should
not exceed half of the total error.
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2.3.7.3 Errors In Micrometers
Errors occur due to
 Lack of flatness and parallelism of the

measuring surfaces.
 Deflection of the frame caused by the applied
measuring force.
 Inaccurate setting of the zero reading.
 Dust and grit on measuring surfaces.
 Wear of measuring surfaces and threaded
members over use.
 Improper alignment between the object and the
micrometer.
 Reading errors
Note: If certain pattern of errors are repeated for each
revolution of the thimble and spindle, then it is known
as cyclic or periodic error.
2.3.7.4 Precautions
 The micrometer should be cleaned of any oil,

dirt, dust or grit. The measuring surfaces must
be cleaned everytime before use.
Note: To clean the measuring surfaces, a clean piece of
paper is held between the anvil and spindle and pulled
out. Then the spindle is unscrewed a few turns to blow
out any particles of paper slinging on to the sharp edges
of anvil or spindle.
 The proper method of taking measurement

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should be followed.
 Uniform measuring force should be applied with

the help of the rachet stop.
 Suitable range of micrometer should be used
depending upon the dimensions.
 The micrometer should be periodically checked
for setting of zero reading, etc.
 Plastic insulating grips are employed if
necessary to prevent the transfer of heat from
the operators hand.
2.3.7.5 Types of Micrometer
The common types of micrometer, based on their

applications are:
(a) Outside micrometer (micrometer caliper) to

measure wires, spheres, shafts and blocks.
(b) Inside micrometer - to measure the internal
dimensions of an object.
(c) Depth micrometers - to measure the depth of slots
and steps.
(a) Outside micrometer
Outside micrometer has been already discussed in

the previous sections.
(b) Inside Micrometer
These are used to measure the internal dimensions

of an object. According to design, they can be classified
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as caliper - type and tubular type micrometers.
(i) Inside Micrometer (Caliper)

In this type of micrometer, the C-shaped frame and
spindle are absent but instead, has measuring jaws
similar to that of a vernier caliper. The contact surfaces
are hardened and ground to radius.
The movement of the thimble moves the movable
jaw while the other jaw is held stationary.
This is used to measure small inside dimensions.
Its measurement range is from 5 to 50 mm. An inside
micrometer caliper is shown in Fig. 2.27
0
20
15
Fig. 2.27 Inside m icrom eter (caliper)
(ii) Inside micrometer (Tubular)

This micrometer is used to measure large internal
dimensions like the diameter of a hole or distance
between two parallel surfaces with high accuracy. These
micrometers have a rigid lightweight and tubular design.
The various parts of a inside micrometer are:
 Measuring head or micrometer unit
 Extension rods
 Spacing collars, and
 Handle
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Lock S crew
M icrom eter
An vil Extension R od
5
0
45
H andle Scre w
H andle
The length of the head (measuring head (or)

micrometer unit) itself is what is measured, since it is
placed within the diameter being measured. When the
maximum length of the head is too small extension rods
are used. The measuring points are at the extreme ends
and can be adjusted by rotating the thimble. The
measuring tip on the thimble can also be adjusted to
compensate for the wear taking place. Usually the
measuring tips are made up of tungsten carbide or
suitable hard material. In cases, where the dimensions
cannot be measured by the use of extension rod and
micrometer unit, spacing collars are used. The ends of
the spacing collars are flat, parallel and square to the
axis. When the measurement is to be taken at
inaccessible places, a handle is used which can be
screwed into a radial hole in the barrel. A series of
extension rods of different length are provided to obtain
a wide measuring range. By assembling measuring rods
and spacing collars to the micrometer, the desired range
of measurement is obtained.
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Working (Method of Measurement)

The diameter bore is first measured approximately
by using a scale. Then an extension rod is chosen to the
nearest one and attached to the micrometer unit. Then
the instrument is checked for zero error with the help of
a standard size specimen. Now the micrometer is adjusted
at a dimension lesser than the bore diameter and
introduced into the bore. One measuring point is held
firmly against the bore surface and the other is adjusted
by rotating the thimble till the correct feel is sensed. To
ensure that the diameter being measured is not a chord,
one contact point is moved sideways, up and down and
accordingly adjusted. The micrometer is then taken out
and the readings noted. The method of obtaining the
reading is the same as that of a outside calliper. To this
micrometer reading, the length of extension rod and collar
are added to obtain the final reading.
(iii) Self centering inside micrometer
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An vil
0 5
Fig:2.29: S elf Centering Inside M icrom eter
This is used to measure through holes, blind holes

and registers. In this micrometer, a rachet stop is
integrated with a coupler and a self centering measuring
head with three anvils on one side being placed at 120
intervals. The measuring heads are interchangeable.
(iv) Stick Micrometer
Fixe d Insulating Slee ve s Fixe d Insulating Slee ve s Fixe d

Screw ed Insulating
Loose Insulating
Joint sleeves Sleeve s
Screw ed Sleeve
Joint
Term inal Term inal F ace

Fa ce Ab utm e nt Faces Ab utm e nt Faces
End piece Exten sion Rod M easuring Unit
Fig. 2.30 Stick M icrom eter
This micrometer is designed for the measurement

of long internal lengths.
A stick micrometer consists of
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 a 150 mm or 300 mm (or 6 inches or 12 inches)

micrometer units fitted with a micrometer of 25
mm (or 1 inch) range, and having rounded
terminal faces.
 a series of extension rods which permit a
continuous range of measurement along with the
micrometer unit upto the maximum length
required.
Stick micrometers have an accuracy of the order of
 0.005 mm throughout the measuring range.
Testing of Internal Micrometers

The internal micrometer reading accuracy is
checked by
 checking the accuracy of the traverse of the

measuring head.
 checking the accuracy of the overall lengths
when the measuring head set to zero, is
attached with the various extension rods.
(c) Depth micrometers

These are used for precise measurements of depth,
groove spacing and groove widths. Its measuring spindle
head is hardened throughout and ground. Perpendicular
to the spindle is a hardened, ground and lapped
cross-beam which acts as a reference surface while taking
measurements. Depth micrometer is shown in Fig. 2.31.
While measuring the depth of a hole, the reference

surface is held firmly and perpendicular to the centre line
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of the hole. The rachet is turned clockwise until the
Cap
Th im b le
Ba rre l
L ock N ut
C ro ss beam
R e feren ce Su rfa ce
Rod
Fig. 2.31 Dep th M icrom eter
spindle face touches the bottom of the blind hole. (Each

revolution of the rachet moves the spindle face 0.5 mm
towards the bottom of the blind hole). The readings are
noted down from the scales. Care is taken to ensure that
the edge of the hole is free from burrs, before
measurement. The depth gauge micrometer screw has a
range of 20 mm or 25 mm and the length varies from 20
mm to 25 mm. There are fixed rod and interchangeable
rod depth micrometers. The latter are used for larger
ranges of measurements.
2.3.7.6 Special Function Micrometers

These micrometers are designed to serve a specific
purpose. They are similar in their operating principle to
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other micrometers but vary only in their design with the

introduction of a special feature suitable for a particular
purpose.
(i) Thread Micrometer Caliper
0 5 10 5
0
45
Fig 2.32 (a) Thread M icrom eter
The thread micrometer is similar to the ordinary

outside micrometer but differs only with respect to the
spindle and anvil. It is used for measuring the pitch
diameter of external screw threads accurately.
Th read to be m e asured
Sp indle
tip w ith In ternal
con ical shape Ve e A nvil
Fig: 2.32. (b) Thread M icrom eter

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The spindle has a ground conical shape and the

anvil has a internal vee. Both are correctly shaped to
correspond to the included angle of the profile of the
workpiece thread being measured. The anvil is free to
rotate in the micrometer frame to accommodate itself to
the helix angle of the thread. The conical point of the
spindle is rounded so that it will not bear on the root
diameter of the thread. Also in order that the v-groove
in the anvil will not bear on the thread crest, a clearance
is provided. The same spindle can be used for any pitch
of a thread, provided the form or included angle is the
same, but different anvils are necessary to cover a full
range. Different set of anvils are provided for different
types of threads.
The micrometer reads zero, when the conical spindle
is brought into contact with the vee of anvil.
Therefore reading observed on the scale directly
corresponds to the pitch diameter of the screw thread.
The accuracy of the thread micrometer is influenced
by the helix angle of the thread.
(ii) V-Anvil Micrometer

In this type of micrometer, the frame is designed in
such a way that the anvil is in the form of a 60 degree
vee. The apex of the vee coincides with the axis of the
conical spindle. So, for a round piece of diameter d, the
micrometer will measure a distance of 3d/2. From this,
the value of diameter d is obtained. The V-anvil
micrometer caliper is shown in the Fig. 2.33
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Fig: 2.3 3 V- A n vil M ic ro m ete r
These type of micrometers are used to measure the

outside diameter of cutting tools such as taps, reams, end
mills, etc with an odd number of flutes.
(iii) Thickness Micrometer

This type of micrometer is used to measure the wall
thickness of a tube, sleeve or bush. An ordinary
micrometer is not suitable for this purpose because of the
concavity of the internal surface. In the thickness
micrometer, the anvil has a spherical (or cylindrical)
measuring surface and the frame is cut away to permit
the anvil to be introduced into tubes having diameters as
small as 5 mm.
Fig. 2.34 M icro m eter for thickn es s of C yliner Walls
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The Fig 2.34 shows a thickness micrometer with

the anvil made of cylindrical form and its axis
perpendicular to the axis of the spindle.
(iv) Blade Type Micrometer
R ake r
Fig 2.35: Blade Micro meter
A blade type micrometer is shown in the Fig. 2.35.

Here the measuring faces of spindle and anvil are of
blade type. The anvil is fixed and the spindle is also of
non rotating type which on rotation of the thimble
advances to contact the work without rotation. It is used
for measurement of circular formed tools, groove diameter
of shaft, keyways, etc.
(v) Groove Micrometer
These micrometers are designed for quick and easy

measurement of both internal and external grooves and
lands. The measuring faces are in the form of discs of
0
no.250m
star nett
Fig: 2 .36. G roo ve M icrom eter

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standard diameter (usually 12.7 mm) and thickness (0.75

mm). The discs are hardened, ground and lapped to
achieve high accuracy. A groove micrometer is shown in
the Fig. 2.36
2.3.7.7 Special (Advanced) Micrometer Instruments
(i) Vernier Micrometer

As the name suggests, in this micrometer in
addition to the regular scales, a vernier scale is provided
on the sleeve in order to increase the accuracy of
measurement. The vernier metric micrometer is capable
of measuring to an accuracy of 0.001 mm. A vernier
micrometer is shown in Fig. 2.37 with a reading
5.5  0.28  0.003  5.783 mm
45
40
co in cid in g
ve rn ie r 35
3 rd d ivisio n
30
25
5
0
20
Fig. 2.3 7: Micro me ter Sleeve

(w ith Vernier) R ea ding 5.7 83 m m
(5 .5+ 0.28 +0 .0 03 = 5 .7 83 m m )
The additional digit (3rd digit) of this micrometer

is obtained by finding the line on the vernier scale which
exactly coincides with the line on the thimble. The
corresponding vernier line number represents the
additional digit.
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(ii) Bench Micrometer

This micrometer enables highly precise and accurate
measurements particularly for small objects and where
the workpiece has to be brought to the gauge. Unlike
other micrometers which are hand held, this micrometer
has a heavy cast iron base with an adjustable work-table
A bench micrometer is shown in the Fig. 2.38
M icrom eter
12 50 92
Th im ble readin g

Fidu cial
In dica tor Ad justable
W ork Table
31
Ba se
98x60
Fig.2.38 Fiducial Ben ch M icrom eter
The adjustable work-table is centered beneath the

anvil and spindle. The work can be accurately aligned
between the anvil and spindle by placing it on the
adjustable work table, which can be raised to a selected
height and locked in position by turning a knurled thumb
screw on the base. The stable position of the instrument
during measurement permit a more precise locating of
the work and the heavy base adds to the rigidity of the
instrument.
This micrometer incorporates a dial indicator which
is actuated by the movable anvil. Linear friction-free
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motion transfer mechanism between the anvil and the

indicator ensures high accuracy.
The large diameter of the thimble makes possible
widely spaced graduations that are easy to read. A lock
nut holds the spindle at any setting without any
distortion.
This micrometer can be used for both direct

measurement and as a comparator. For direct
measurement, the micrometer head is set to zero and the
dial indicator is also set to zero by an adjustment. Now
the workpiece is aligned between the anvil and spindle,
and the direct reading from the scales is noted down. The
dial indicator must be set zero for each measurement.
For use as a comparator, the micrometer head and

dial indicator are set to zero. The micrometer head is
then adjusted to the desired dimension to be checked. The
work is now aligned for measurement and the anvil is
released so that the anvil and spindle contact the work.
The plus or minus deviation from the nominal work size
is then read from the dial indicator.
(iii) Digital Micrometers
These micrometers display the result of

measurement on a digital screen thereby eliminating
reading errors and saving time. A reading accuracy of
0.001 mm is shown directly on the display which operates
on a alkaline manganese or silver oxide battery. A digital
outside micrometer is shown in the Fig. 2.39.
In addition to the parts in a ordinary micrometer,

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a digital micrometer includes a LCD display, data output
5
0
15
D ig ita l
R e a d o u t (L C D d is p la y )
m m /in ch B u tto n
O N /O F F B u tto n
F ig : 2 .39: D igital M icro m eter
port, mm/in conversion key and the ON/OFF zero key. A

wide range of digital micrometers are available.
In order to obtain the measurement using a digital
micrometer.
 First of all, the micrometer and its measuring
surfaces are wiped clean.
 The thimble is rotated to align its zero line with
the reference line on the sleeve.
 The ON/OFF button is turned on. If the display
shows zero reading, measurement can be taken
otherwise the thimble and rachet stop are
adjusted until the micrometer reads zero.
 Now the desired unit system is chosen by using
the mm/in button
 The same method of measurement as in the case
of a ordinary micrometer is followed except that
the reading is obtained on the digital display.
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Maintenance for a digital micrometer
 The instrument should be switched off after

finishing the measurements to ensure long life.
 It should be wiped clean.
 If not used for a long time, the battery should
be taken out and stored in a dry environment.
2.3.8 SLIP GAUGES

Slip gauges are the most accurate form of
representing size by means of its two parallel surfaces
which are very flat. They permit a comparison between
the working measuring instruments and recognized
international standards of measurement.
Slip gauges are developed by swedish inventor Carl

Edward Johansson. They are also known as gage blocks
or Johansson gauges and are made up of metal or
ceramic. Each individual block precisely ground and
lapped to a specific thickness to very high standards of
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Fig 2.40:Rectan gular S lip G auge
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accuracy and surface finish. They come in sets of blocks

with a range of standard lengths and can be stacked up
to a desired length. They come in three standard shapes
of round, square and rectangular slip gauges which are
most commonly used. (Fig. 2.40).
The important feature of slip gauges is that they
can be joined together by a process called wringing with
very little dimensional uncertainty. When two faces of
perfectly clean slip gauges are brought into contact by a
proper method, they “wring” together without the
necessity of any external pressure.
Wringing in slip gauges occurs due to the molecular
adhesion between the liquid film and the mating surfaces
and partly due to atmospheric pressure.
Wringing is defined as the property of the
measuring faces of a slip gauge to adhere to the
measuring faces of other slip gauges by sliding or
pressing without the use of any external means.
In wringing, there is no magnetism involved. So the
block do not attract each other across any visible gap,
like magnets would. The process of wringing involves the
following steps.
 The slip gauges are cleaned by an oiled pad and
then wiped off using a dry pad.
 One gauge is then slid perpendicularly across
the other gauge applying moderate pressure.
 Then the gauge is rotated until it is inline with
the other gauge.
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The process is shown in Fig. 2.41.
R o tate
S lid e W ith
P re ssu re
Tw o slip ga ug es
b ec om e on e after
Fig.2 .41:W rin gin g o f Slip G aug es
w ring in g
2.3.8.1 Classification of Slip Gauges

Slip gauges are classified into the following types
according to their accuracy
AA – used to calibrate inspection blocks and very

high precision gauging. The tolerances are
between  0.10  m to  0.05  m .
A – used as tool room standards for setting other
gauging tools. Here tolerances are from
 0.15  m to  0.05  m .
B – used as workshop standards for precision
measurement. These have large tolerances
from  0.25  m to  0.15  m
The different grade designations are:

Grade 2: This is the workshop grade usually used for
setting up machine tools, positioning milling cutters and
checking mechanical widths.
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Fig 2.42 G aug e B lock S et
Grade 1: This is used in good tool rooms for precision

work like setting up of sine bars and sine tables, setting
dial test indicators to zero and for checking gap gauges.
Grade 0: This is used for setting or calibrating
measuring instruments or gauges.
Grade 00: This is used in standard laboratories as a
master set for calibration.
Calibration grade: In this grade, the actual sizes of the
slip gauges are stated or calibrated on a chart provided
with the set.
Slip gauges sets are available in both inch and
metric units.
81, 49, 41, 35 and 25 pieces inch units sets are
usually available.
Metric units sets of 103, 76, 56, 48 and 31 pieces
are available. A 56 piece set is made up of the following
blocks.
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Slip gauges Graduation No. of

Range (mm) (mm) pieces
1.001-1.009 0.001 9
1.01-1.09 0.01 9
1.0-1.9 0.1 9
1-25 1.0 25
25-75 25 3
100 – 1
Total 56 pieces
In the Indian Standard, a normal set of 45 pieces

and special set of 85 pieces are available. A normal set
consists of the following blocks.
Slip gauges Graduation or No. of

(mm) step (mm) pieces
1.001-1.009 0.001 9
1.01-1.09 0.01 9
1.1-1.9 0.1 9
1.0-9.0 1 9
10-90 10 9
Total 45 pieces
Note: To reduce wear of workshop grade slip gauges, a

pair of protector blocks (1 mm - 2 mm length) with a
letter ‘P ’ marked on one measuring face are provided.
These are made up of tungsten carbide or other wear
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resisting material and wrung at the ends of the slip gauge

combination to protect the other slip gauges from wear.
The Bureau of Indian Standards for slip gauges
specifies three grades. Grade 0, Grade I and Grade II.
2.3.8.2 Method to determine the gauge block

combination
Slip gauges are used to provide end standards of

specific length by temporarily combining several
individual elements, each representing a standard
dimension, into a single gauge bar, When combining the
individual blocks, the required dimension is built up, by
eliminating the last decimal place first. Then the
dimension is built up from the right hand side. Minimum
number of individual blocks should be used to obtain the
desired dimension.
For example, let us say 30.255 mm is the required
dimension. Then the slip gauges are selected as follows
from a normal set of slip gauges.
Required dimension  30.255 mm
Remaining length
1st slip gauge  1.005 29.250

nd
2 slip gauge  1.050 28.200
rd
3 slip gauge  1.200 27.000
th
4 slip gauge  7.000 20.000
th
5 slip gauge  20.000 00.000
30.255 mm
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2.3.8.3 To check surface flatness of slip gauges

The checking of
surface flatness of a slip O ptic al
Flat
gauge 10 done by using
R -R e fe ren ce
an optical flat. An optical S u rfa ce S lip G au ge
flat is an extremely flat
piece of quartz. The
principle of light
R R R
interferometer is used to
make measurements. S u rfa ce S u rfa ce S u rfa ce
flat con ve x C o nc ave
When the slip gauge is
slide across an optical
flat with the application
R
of moderate pressure, a R
series of interference R R
bands are produced. D iffere nt fringe p atterns with
re spect to the gaug e
These bands determine Su rfac e.
Fig. 2.43
whether the surfaces are
flat or not. Straight and parallel lines indicate flat
surfaces whereas curved bands indicate that the surfaces
are not flat.
2.3.8.4 Applications of Slip Gauges

 Slip gauges are used as reference standards to
set or calibrate the measuring instruments and
gauges.
 They are used to set up length dimensions in
comparative measurements.
 Used for setting up sine bars for angle
measurements.
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 Used for setting up tool height at required

length in milling cutters.
2.3.8.5 Care in using Slip Gauges

 The slip gauges are kept in a special case where
there is a separate compartment for each gauge.
 The gauges should be protected against climatic
conditions using a suitable anti-corrosive
preparation.
 The slip gauges are wiped clean using a
suitable solvent using a linen cloth both before
and after use and are handled using chamois
leather or perspex tongs.
 The combination of slip gauges should not be
wrung together for a long time because cold
welding on the measuring surfaces will be
formed.
 The surfaces should be checked for any burrs,
which would prevent a proper wring and
possibly damage the surfaces. Deburring is done
by a special deburring stone.
 The gauges should always be engaged or
disengaged by sliding and the wringing joint
should never be broken.
2.3.8.6 Advantages of Ceramic Slip Gauges

 These are corrosion resistant.
 These have superior wringability.
 These are resistant to wear and impact.
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These have low thermal conductivity.
2.3.8.7 Slip Gauge Accessories

Accessories are provided to extend the usefulness of
the gauge block set.
The various accessories are
 Holders and base
 Measuring jaws
 Scribers and centre points
 Gauge block stone
 Wringing pads.
Holders and base are used for securely clamping a

large combination of slip gauges together.
Measuring jaws are provided in pairs, These are
held in holders, so that they act like caliper jaws and
used for both external and internal measurements. The
nominal size of a measuring jaw is engraved on its front
face.
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A stack of slip gauges with the external caliper jaw

accessories all clamped together, can act as a custom size
go or nogo-gauge.
Scribers with slip gauges and holder make up an
accurate device for marking purposes.
A gauge block stone is used to remove nicks and
burrs to maintain wringability.
Fig 2.45 G auge B lock Stone
There are two Light O il on P ad

wringing pads: 1. oil
pad, 2. dry pad. They O iled Pad Dry P ad
are used to prepare a

gauge block for wringing. Fig:2.46 Wring Pads
Oil pad is used first to
apply a light layer of oil to the gauge. Then a dry pad
is used to remove any excess oil from the gauge.
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2.4 TOOL MAKERS MICROSCOPE

Engineering Microscopes designed to satisfy the
various needs of tool makers are known as tool maker’s
microscopes. Tool maker’s microscope is an optical
measuring instrument used for precise three dimensional
measurements of components. The optically assisted tool
makers microscope presents an enlarged view of the
observed object area, either in its contours, or as a surface
image. A plain tool makers’s microscope is intented for a
particular application whereas an universal toolmaker’s
microscope can be used for a wide range of measuring
tasks. It is used for measurements of complex forms like
profile of external threads, tools, templates, gauges and
for measurement of center to centre distance of holes in
any planes.
Principle of operation: Tool maker’s microscope is a

precision Optical Microscope having single or multiple
objective lens which magnifies the object under
observation and by the help of eyepiece lens the object is
focused and viewed. A high precision micrometric X-Y and
the Z-axis travel is used to measure the three dimensions
[Length (X), Width (Y), Depth (Z)]. The angle is measured
with the help of a rotating stage and eyepiece graduation.
Construction
The tool Maker’s microscope is shown in Fig. 2.47.

It consists of a heavy hollow base, the illuminating unit,
an upright column with a carrying arm and the
microscope unit and various interchangeable eyepieces.
The base rests on three foot screws by which the
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equipment can be levelled with reference to the built in
spirit level. On the top surface of the base is the work

table carriage supported on precision balls in hardened
guideways and controlled by micrometer screws having a
measuring range of 25 mm. The table carriage is held
against the ends of the micrometers spindle by light
spring pressure. So, the range of movements of the
carriage greater than the micrometer travel can be
achieved by interposing slip gauges of the required
dimension between the spindle and the point where it
bears against the carriage.
Ve rtical
C o lum n
Eye P iece
O ptical H ead
Tab le
C ro ss S lide
M icro me ter
Fro nt Slide
M icro me ter
Ba se
Fig 2.47 To olm aker’s M icroscope
A rotary circular table with 360 rotation and 60

minute vernier, is provided with a glass disc upon which
work can be placed and clamped by means of a clamping
attachment. This is to adapt the instrument to deal with
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a variety of works. A knurled knob is used to initiate the

rotary motion.
A column projects up from the rear of the base
which carries the microscope unit and various inter
changeable eyepieces. The underneath of the base
accommodates the illuminating unit. A tube connects the
lamp to the centre of the instrument. Light from the lamp
is collimated in the tube and is reflected as a parallel
beam by the prism at the end of the tube. This beam,
on its way up, collects the image of the object being
inspected and enters the microscope, there being turned
by another prism into the inclined eyepiece. Now the
inspection is made by eyes in the usual way or a
projection attachment may be fitted which turns the beam
by mirrors to bring up the image on the back of the
translucent screen. The magnification obtained depends
upon the microscope objective. However, additional
magnifying attachments are usually supplied which
facilitate the magnification from 10 X to 100 X on the
projection screen.
Working
In order to view screws along the helix angle of the

thread, the whole of the column unit with the underside
illuminating arrangement attached may be swung into
the helix angle of the thread.
Usually, these instruments are used on work

where the shape of a profile is projected from below, but
surface shapes occur such as the edge of recess, where
surrounding metal prevents light passing across the
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profile. These may be illuminated from above by a special
attachment, which then allows the profile to be received

in the normal manner, except that the intensity of light
will be reduced from that received directly.
2.3.9.1 Applications
The application of toolmaker’s microscopes are as
follows:
1. Determination of the Relative Positions
It is used for the determination of the relative

position of various points on work by measuring the
travel necessary to bring a second point to the position
previously occupied by the first, and so on.
2. Measurement of Angles
Measurement of angles is possible in toolmaker’s

microscopes by using a protractor eyepiece.
3. Comparison Measurement
A toolmaker’s microscopes also do comparisons of

thread forms, measurement of pitch and effective
diameter. In this case, the comparison is done with
master profiles engraved in the eyepiece.
4. Comparison with a Scale
Comparisons of enlarged projected images with a

scale fixed on projection screen are also done in a
toolmaker’s microscope.
There are several detachable and interchangeable

eyepiece units. The protractor unit is prepared with radial
and cross-setting lines and protractor. A knurled screw is
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used to rotate this, to set any of the lines to a projected
line of the work image and the readings of the protractor

may be made to 1 by means of a scale which divides
each degree into 60 parts. The protractor is illuminated
and the reading is obtained by observation through the
small hole in the projecting eyepiece. Means are provided
for setting the worktable axis correctly relative to the
protractor for zero reading. The thread template unit has
selected thread forms arranged round the glass disc in
Pro je ction
Screen
Prism
O cular C olum n
O bjective
sw ingable
Lens
Test p ie ce
R otatable
Tab le
M icrom eters
Ba se
Fo ot
scre w s
Fig: 2.48: Side view of Tool M aker's M icro Scop e
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the eyepiece, and this may be rotated to bring any desired

thread form into position for comparison with the
magnified image of the work. Means are also provided for
lining this up with the table and the work diameter so
that any thread profile brought into position will occupy
the same angular position as the thread image it is to
check. A third type of eyepiece is often available. It
contains a linear scale and sets of radii, which may be
superimposed on holes, or radii projected from the work.
2.5 ANGULAR MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Angles are formed when two lines meet, they are
commonly measured in units of degree, minute, and
second. Each part of a circle, divided into 360 parts is
called a degree. Further each degree is divided into 60
parts called minutes and each minute is divided into 60
parts called seconds. Angles are also expressed in terms
of radians. A radian is defined as the angle subtended at
the centre of a circle by an arc of length equal to its
radius. A wide variety of geometric features are described
using angular dimensions, hence angular measuring
instruments play a vital role in the field of engineering.
Factors affecting the selection of suitable angular

measuring instruments:
 Size and shape of the part

 Location and angular accessibilities of the
feature to be measured.
 Expected range of angle variations
 Required sensitivity and accuracy of
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2.5.1 Types
Angular measuring instruments can be divided into
two groups. They are:
 Line standard instruments Examples:

Protractors, Bevel gauges
 Face standard instruments Examples: Sine
bars, Angle gauges.
Line standard instruments give direct angular
measurement from the instrument scales and are not very
precise. So they can be used for the initial estimation of
the angles in measurement. Face standard instruments
are more precise where measurements are done with
respect to two faces.
Angular measurement requires no absolute

standard unlike in linear measurement.
2.5.1.1 Bevel Protractor
This is a simple instrument used for measurement

of angles between two faces of a component. It consists
of two arms, one fixed and the other adjustable. The body
of the instrument is extended to form the fixed arm,
known as the stock or base plate. The adjustable arm is
attached to an engraved circular scale with a vernier
scale. It is free to rotate about the centre of the
instrument in a turret mounted on the body and can be
locked at any position. This protractor is capable of
measuring angles from 0 to 360. The ordinary
protractor measures angles only in degrees but with the
use of the angular vernier scale a precision of upto 5
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can be achieved. An acute angle attachment is provided
on the top for the measurement of acute angles. The Fig.

2.49 shows the diagram of a bevel protractor.
D ial O f M ain S cale

70 80 90
60 80
50 70
Ve rn ie r S cale
40 60 A cute
A ng le B lad e
30
50
40
60
30
30
0
20
30
10
60
B lad e
0
Lo ckin g S tock
10
N ut
30 20
40
A dju sta ble 60

50
B lad e 80 70
Fig. 2.49 B evel Protractor W ith Vernier Sc ale A nd Ac ute Angle A ttac hm ent
The various components of a bevel protractor are:
Body: The back of the body is flat without any

projections. So,when placed on a surface plate, there is
no perceptible work.
Stock: The flatness of the working edge of the stock is

tested by setting the blade at 90 with respect to the
stock and checking the squareness. If at all departure is
there, a concavity of the order of 0.01 mm maximum over
the whole span is accepted. The working edge of the stock
is about 90 mm long and 7 mm thick.
Blade: The blade is about 150 or 300 mm long, 3mm

wide and 2 mm thick and ends bevelled at angles of
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45 and 60. The working edge should be straight upto
0.02 mm and parallel upto 0.03 mm over the entire

length. It can be moved along the turret throughout its
length and can also be reversed. It can also be clamped
at any position.
Acute angle attachment: It is fitted into the body
parallel to the working edge of the stock with 0.015 mm
over its entire length. It can be clamped at any positions
and its working edge should be flat within 0.005 mm.
Types
There are two types of Bevel protractors. They are:
(i) Mechanical bevel protractor.
(ii) Optical bevel protractor.
(i) Mechanical bevel protractors
These are further divided into four types:
A, B, C and D
Type A
Here the vernier has a least count of 5. It is
provided with fine adjustment device or acute angle
attachment.
Type B
Here also the vernier is graduated to read 5
minutes of arc whereas the fine adjustment device or
acute angle attachment is not provided.
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Blad e
Blad e Lo ckin g
Nut W orking Ed ge
Ac ute A ng le
Attach m e nt
Tu rret
L ocking
n ut
M otio n
D e vice
Stock
Sc ale
Ve rn ie r
Sc ale
Bo dy
W orking Ed ge
Fig. 2.5 0. Type A- M echanical Be vel P rotractor w ith Vernier
and ac ute a ngle Attachm en t
Type C
This protractor does not have a vernier or fine
adjustment device or acute angle attachment and the
scale is graduated only to read in degrees.
B o dy S low M o tion D e vice
Tu rret
B lad e Lo ckin g
S cale
Nut
B lad e
S toc k
W orking E d ge
Fig. 2.51. Typ e C - M echanical B evel Protractor w ithou t Vernier
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and acute angle A ttachm ent.
In all the above protractor types, the scales are

graduated as full circle marked 0-90-0-90 with one vernier
or as semicircle marked 0-90-0 with two verniers 180
apart.
(ii) Optical Bevel Protractor
In an optical bevel protractor, a glass circular scale
divided at 10 minute intervals throughout the whole
360 is fitted inside the main body. A rotating member
carries small microscope through which the circle
graduations can be viewed. The adjustable blade is
clamped to the rotating member. The scale is graduated
as a full circle marked 0-90-0-90. The condition when the
blade is parallel to the stock corresponds to the zero
positions. It is possible to take readings upto 2 minutes
of arc, with the aid of the microscope. The focus of the
system can be adjusted to accommodate normal variations
in eye-sight. The scale and vernier are arranged in such
a way that they are always in focus.
Blade
W orking E dge Locking N ut

Bo dy
Blade
C la m p
Acute A ng le
Attachm ent
Tu rret
Ba se Eyep iece
M ain clam p
Fig. 2.52. Optical Bevel Protractor
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2.5.1.2 Universal Bevel Protractor

The universal bevel protractor is an angular
measuring instrument capable of measuring and laying
out of angles accurately and precisely to within 5
minutes. The term universal suggests the capacity of the
instrument to be adaptable to a great variety of work
configurations and angular interrelations. It consists of a
base to which a vernier scale is attached. A protractor
dial graduated in degrees is mounted on the circular
section of the base. The protractor dial is slotted to hold
a blade which can be rotated with the dial to the required
angle as a unit. The blade can be independently adjusted
to any desired length and locked in any position with the
help of a dial clamp nut. A small knurled headed pinion
is provided for fine adjustment. A universal bevel
protractor is shown in the Fig. 2.53
C lam p Blad e o
45
Blad e clam p
Acute
ang le
o
a tta chm en t
60
o
90
o
30
Fine a djusting kno b

M ag nifyin g glass
Fig. 2.53 Universal Bevel P rotracto r
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An angle greater than 90 but less than 180 is

measured by the vernier protractor. To measure angles
less than 90, an acute angle attachment is fastened to
the vernier protractor. The main scale is divided into two
arcs of 180 with each arc divided into two quadrants of
90.
The vernier scale has 24 divisions (with 12 divisions

on each side of its zero) coinciding with 23 divisions of
main scale. Thus the least count of the instrument is
1/12th of a degree or 5 minutes (Refer Fig. 2.54)
M ain Sca le
o
S m a lle s t D iv ision =1
0 10 20
10 30
20 40
30 50
6 0 30 0 30 60
Th e Ve rnier Ve rn ie r S c ale
S cale Ze ro
S m a lle s t D ivision =5 ’
Fig. 2.54. Vernier scale on bevel p rotracto r.
To obtain the reading, the number of whole degrees

between the zero on the main scale and zero of the
vernier scale is first read. Then in the same direction,
the number of spaces from the zero on the vernier scale
to a line that coincides with a line on the main scale is
counted. This number multiplied by 5 (least count) gives
the number of minutes to be added to the whole number
of degrees.
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2.5.1.3 Applications of Bevel Protractor

Bevel protractors can be used for a number of
applications. Some of them are given below
(i) For checking the inside bevelled face of a
ground surface.
Fig. 2.55.
(ii) For Checking of Vee

block
Fig. 2.56
(iii) For measuring

acute angle
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Fig.2.57
2.5.1.4 SPIRIT LEVEL

Spirit level is an instrument commonly used for
inspecting the horizontal positions of surfaces and for
finding the direction and magnitude of minor deviation
from that nominal condition. It is a simple closed glass
tube of accurate form, the bore of which is ground to a
large radius and is called the vial filled almost entirely
with a liquid, leaving a small space for the formation of
a air or gas bubble. The bubble will move from its
position along the radius of the tube through a certain
distance depending upon the angle of tilt. Low viscosity
fluids like ether, alcohol or benzol are preferred for filling
the vial. The liquid tends to fill the lower portion of the
closed space due to its greater specific weight.
Apart from static levelling, a calibrated spirit level
is an angular measuring device of great precision. The
1
Screw
Top plate adjustm ent
G raduated
le vel vial Bu bb le
C ro ss test
le vel R adius of
curvature ,R
G ravitational
re ference
R eference
plane
Fig.2.58 (b) Relationsh ip
b etw een radius of
curvature and
Fig. 2.58 (a) Spirit level b ubb le scale readin g
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upper side of the vial is graduated in linear units. The

deviation of the bubble from its position when the spirit
level is kept in a horizontal plane indicates the
inclination of a surface. The sensitivity is usually
expressed as an angular value assigned to the vial length
covered by the distance of two adjacent graduation lines.
i.e the angle of tilt required to move the bubble by unit
distance. Thus
Angle of tilt in seconds
Sensitivity 
1 divis ion of tube
If r is the radius of the vial and l the length of one

division, then angle of tilt of corresponding to movement
of bubble by one division is   l/r
The sensitivity of the spirit level depends upon
 The radius of the vial, and

 The base length
Sensitivity is used in determining the accuracy of
the spirit level. For higher sensitivity spirit levels, the
vial is mounted kinematically in the body one end resting
on a cone which forms a part of the adjusting screw
enabling adjustment of the vial position in relation to the
base.
2.5.1.5 CLINOMETERS
A special case of application of the spirit level is a
Clinometer used for measuring in the vertical plane, the
incline or decline of a surface in relation to the basic
horizontal plane over an extended range. A Clinometer is
also known as a tilt meter or tilt indicator, slope gauge
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gradiometer, etc.
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A Clinometer consists of a spirit level mounted on

a rotatable member whose angle of inclination relative to
its base can be measured by a circular scale with its
horizontal axis supported in the housing of the
instrument. The Clinometer is usually used to find the
included angle of two adjacent faces of a workpiece. For
this, the instrument base is placed on one face of the
workpiece and the rotatable disc is adjusted till the
bubble in the vial is in its centre position.
Now the rotation of
the disc can be read on
the circular scale.
Similarly the reading is
noted down by placing the
instrument on the second
face of the workpiece. The
difference between the two
readings gives the
included angle between
the faces of the workpiece.
The diagram of a
Clinometer is shown in
the Fig.2.59
Clinometers are available commercially in various
designs. They differ in their sensitivity and measuring
accuracy. Clinometers are also used for checking angular
faces, gauges, relief angles on large cutting tools, levels
of machine ways and bedways and for setting of inclinable
tables for jig boring machines.
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The commonly used Hilger Watts type Clinometer

(Fig. 2.59) is a precession Clinometer. It utilises a bubble
level mounted on a shaft to an internal circular glass
scale. When the bubble is exactly centered, the operator
locks the circle and reads the angle through the eyepiece.
Inside the eyepiece are 2-windows. The main scale which
reads out in degrees with vernier markings every 10
minutes and a micrometer scale which has vernier
markings every 10 seconds. With interpolation, the
operator can easily estimate angular measurement to 5
seconds.
A precision microptic clinometer has the following

features.
 Direct reading over the full 360 measurement

range.
 Estimation to within 2 arc seconds.
 Circular and sub-division micrometer scales for
sensitive reading.
 Slow motion screw for fine setting
 Eyepiece rotatable to most convenient viewing
 Hardened ground steel base.
2.5.1.6 ANGLE GAUGES

Like slip gauges which are built up to use for linear
dimensions, angle gauges are built up to give a required
angle. A series of fixed angles are used for comparative
assessment of the angle between two surfaces. These
gauges were first developed by Dr. Tomlinson in 1939.
An angle gauge is a hardened steel block, seasoned to
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ensure permanence of angular accuracy with its
measuring faces lapped

and polished to a high M
ea
s
fa u ri
degree of accuracy and ce ng
flatness.
These are supplied
in sets and can be

wrung together to form
the required angle. M
ea
s
fa u r i n
The sets are ce g
designed in such a way Fig: 2.60 A n gle G auges
that angles in steps of 3

seconds can be obtained. Together with the square block,
angles between 0 and 360 degrees can be obtained
through a suitable combination of gauges and the way in
which the gauges are wrung. There are thirteen gauges
available in three series of degrees
1, 3, 9, 27 and 41), minutes 1, 3 , 9 and 27) and
fractions of minute (or) seconds 0.5 , 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5 ).
There are two standard sets of gauges A and B available.
A contains all the thirteen gauges whereas B contains
only 12 gauges with the exclusion of the 0.5 angle gauge.
By direct combination of gauges, angles upto 81 40 9  can
be obtained and with an additional gauge of 9 supplied
with either set, a full 90 degree angle can be constructed
without the use of a square block. Nowadays, a 16 block
gauge set is commonly used in tool rooms. It is shown in
Fig. 2.61
Each angle gauge is engraved with a V, which
indicates the direction of included angle. When addition
of the angle gauges to be done, all V’s of the combination
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Fig2.61 Angle G auge Set
should be in line and when an angle is to be subtracted,

its V should be in the other direction. (Fig. 2.62)
o
<
9
o
50 32
o
< <
9
o >
o
o
41 41
Fig. 2.62 Addition and subtraction of angle gauges
The procedure for construction of various angles is

as follows. For example, let us consider an angle of
532630.
 First consider the degrees i.e 53 which could be

built up as 41  9  3
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 Secondly
minutes are ,
1
built up i.e 26
by subtracting
')
.5
1 with
(0
''
27 27  1.
30
o
2 7>
'
3
Finally 30 is
o
 o
9
5 6 2 6 '3 0 '' 4 1o
constructed
with the 0.5 F ig : 2.63
angle gauge.
The Fig. 2.63 v A n gle ga ug e(s)
illustrates the above

procedure.
Uses of angle gauges o

1
(i) Angle gauges are

used for the quick C o m p on e nt
measurement of
angles between
Fig. 2.64 U se of an gle g aug es
two surfaces. The for ch ec king of ang le
off angle tolerance toleranc e
of a component is V - ga ug e
checked as shown. S lip
g au ge s
(ii) Angle gauges in
conjunction with a O
1
9O
square plate are D C
used to measure P re cisio n
squ are
angles exceeding 90.
Slip gauges are
A B
also used to
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this Fig. 2.65 The C h ec king of included
angle o f a V- gau ge.
measurement. The Fig. 2.65 shows the checking

of the angle of a V-gauge having included angle
of 100
2.5.1.7 SINE BAR

A sine bar is a high
B
precision and accurate
angle measuring
N
instrument. It uses the J
sine principle for

measurement and hence A C
its name. S in  = B C =
J
AB N
Sine principle: It uses J
h e nce ,  = sin -1
the ratio of two sides of N
a right angle triangle in F ig : 2.66 B as ic p rin ciple of a sin e ba r
deriving a given angle.
Pe rpendicular h
Sine angle  
Hypotenuse l
Since the ratio of sides is used, any scale can be

employed.
A sine bar consists of hardened, precision ground
body made up of high carbon, high chromium, corrosion
resistant steel. The body is mounted on two precision
ground cylinders of equal diameter fixed at its ends. The
distance between the two cylinders is precisely known and
controlled. The axes of the cylinders are mutually parallel
and at equal distance and parallel to the upper surface
of the bar. The distance between the axis of the rollers
is usually 5 or 10 in inch units and 100, 200 or 300 mm
in metric system. This length is the hypotenuse used in
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calculation. Holes are

drilled in the body of the
sine bar to reduce its
weight and facilitate Fig. 2.6 7 A sim p le Fo rm of sine b ar
handling. A simple form

of sine bar is shown in Fig. 2.67.
D a tum
surfac e
E n d F a ce
con ta ct
ro lle r
R e lie f ho le s
to re du c e w e ig ht
C o nta ct
ro lle r
Fig. 2.67 (a)
The measurement using a sine bar is usually

limited to 45 as the accuracy of setting and stability
appreciably decreases with steep angles. There are
various types of sine bars required for different
applications. They are discussed below.
h h
d d
Fig. 2.68. Sine bar

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Fig. 2.68 shows a preferred form of sine bar used

and the distance between its rollers can be adjusted
exactly and can be easily set and a steep angle without
the slip gauges fouling the underside of the bar.
Fig. 2.69 shows a sine bar whose rollers outer
surfaces on one side are level with the side plane of the
top surface.
Fig: 2.69
Another form of sine bar as shown in Fig. 2.70 has

hollow rollers whose outside diameter is equal to the
width of the sine bar. This type of sine bar is used when
its width should be included to calculate the work height.
Fig 2.7 0
When the usual

sine bar cannot be placed
on the rop surface of the
component due to some
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Fig. 2.71
interruption, a special form of sine bar as shown in Fig.

2.71 is used.
The following construcitonal features should be
maintained for a sine bar to be accurate.
(i) The axes of the rollers must be parallel to each
other and to the upper surface.
(ii) The diameters of the two rollers must be equal
and round to a close tolerance.
(iii) The centre distance between the rollers must be
precisely known.
(iv) The top face of the sine bar must have a high
degree of flatness.
The sine bar in itself is not a complete measuring
instrument but requires a datum such as a surface plate,
auxiliary equipment like slip gauges or angle gauges and
indicating device to make measurements. The various
ways of using a sine bar for different applications are
discussed below.
(i) Locating any work to a given angle
When a sine bar is placed on a level surface like a
surface plate, then its top surface would be parallel to
that surface. One roller is raised by a height “h” using
slip gauges. If l be the distance between the centers of
the two rollers, then we know by the sine principle,
sin   h/l (Refer Fig 2.72) If  is the known angle, the
required height, h can be found out. So the top surface
of the sine bar is at a an angle  to the surface plate
and any work can be set at this angle. For better results,
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S lip g au ge s
S in e B ar
S u rface P la te
Fig : 2 .72
the other roller can also be placed on slip gauges and

correspondingly the height in the other side be adjusted.
(ii) Measurement of angles of small components

The method is illustrated in Fig. 2.73. The
approximate angle of the sine bar is first set with the
slip gauges. Then the workpiece is placed on the top
D ia l Ang le Plat e
Indicato r
W ork P iece
clam p
Bar
S in e
clam p
S lip G auge s
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surface of the sine bar and clamped to an angle plate. A

dial gauge is mounted upon a suitable stand like a
scribing block or vernier height gauge. The dial gauge is
set to zero at one end moved over the surface to the other
end. The deviation is noted and the height of the slip
gauges is adjusted until the dial gauge reads zero at both
ends of the component. Now the angle is calculated using
the sine principle.
(iii) Measurement of angle of heavy components

When the components are large and heavy such
that they cannot be mounted on the sine bar, the sine
bar is mounted on the component as shown in Fig. 2.74.
A vernier height gauge with a dial test gauge to be used
as the fiducial indicator is provided. Using the height
gauge, the height over both the rollers is measured.
R eading
R1
D ia l test
in dicato r as
R eading R 1 fidu cial
in dicato r
L
Sine bar

C om p onent Ve rnier
height gauge
D atum S urface
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The anvil of the height gauge is adjusted till the

dial test gauge shows the same reading over the topmost
position of the rollers to ensure constant measuring
pressure. Also, if greater accuracy is required a pile of
slip gauges is constructed till the dial indicator shows
same reading over the roller of the sine bar and the slip
gauges. The difference of the two readings of the height
gauge divided by the length of the sine bar (i.e centre
distance between the rollers) gives the sine of the angle
of the component and hence the angle can be measured.
(iv) Checking angles greater than 45
Usually sine bars are used for measuring and
setting up of angles upto 45 beyond which they are not
suitable (as the angle increases the accuracy decreases).
But in practical cases, the angles greater than 45 to be
measured are encountered. In such cases the complement
of the angle to be measured 90    and hence the
Fig. 2.75 Setting of sine bar
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at complement angle
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required angle, can be determined. The method is shown

in Fig. 2.75.
Sources of Errors in sine bar

The dimensional or geometrical variations caused
due to manufacturing tolerances cause small errors in
angle measurement as follows.
 If the working surface and rollers axes are not
parallel, it gives rise to a constant angle error.
 It is a complex problem to measure the centre
distance between rollers to a certainity of a
fraction of a m such an error introduces a
progressive increase of error with increase of
angle.
 The tolerance accumulation of slip gauges also
gives rise to progressive error.
Precautions while using sine bars

 Longer sine bars are used for measurement as
many errors are reduced by using them.
 The sine bar should be checked for accuracy.
 For angles greater than 60, the sine bar should
not be used as possible errors in workpiece are
accentuated at this limit
 A compound angle should not be formed by
mis-aligning of workpiece with the sine bar. This
can be avoided by the clamping of sine bar and
work against an angle plate.
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2.5.1.8 SINE TABLE

Sine table is an improvement of the sine bar
designed for convenient and accurate measurement of
angles for heavy workpieces. They are precise for
measurements yet rugged enough for machining
operations. It is well supported with the workpiece also
given safe and complete support. The table is hinged at
one end enabling it to be swung from 0 to 90. The top,
side and end faces are all ground flat, parallel and square
to within 0.005 mm. There are two fine adjustment
screws provided for raising or lowering the table.
Another form of sine table is the compound sine
table in which two tables have their axes of tilt set at
right angles to each other. The base is provided with a
slip gauge platform and an intermediate table with a
setting roller at one end and a hinge roller at the other
end. Both the rollers could be used for setting, thereby
enabling the intermediate table to tilt in both ways. The
slip gauge platform of the intermediate table is
W ork table Side Stop

En d Sto p
Se tting H ing e
R o lle r R o lle r
Se tting Slip
G aug e N o t Le ss In te rm ed ia te
Th an 5 m m ta ble
Ba se
l
Fig 2.76 Com pound Sine Table

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perpendicular to that of the base. A work table positioned

perpendicular to the intermediate table is also provided
with a setting roller, hinge roller and atleast one end stop
and one side stop. T slots or a magnetic face for clamping
of workpieces are provided on the worktable. These tables
are used as clamping fixtures for precise machining
operations.
2.5.1.9 SINE CENTRE

Sine centers are used for mounting conical work
which are difficult to inspect on a conventional sine bar.
It is basically a sine bar with block holding centers which
can be adjusted and rigidly clamped in any position. The
sine centre is hinged at one roller and mounted on its
own datum surface. The principle of setting is the same
as of sine table. Sine centers are used upto an inclination
of 60. Since the work is held axially between the centers,
the angle of inclination will be half the included angle of
the work. A sine centre is shown in Fig. 2.77
D ial
in dicate r
C o nica l W o rk

Slip
R o lle r
G aug es
Pivo t
Fig. 2.77. Sine Cen ter.

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2.5.2 OPTICAL ANGULAR MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS
2.5.2.1 AUTOCOLLIMATOR
An autocollimator is an optical instrument for
non-contact measurement of small angles with very high
sensitivity. It is an angle comparator based on the
principle of reflection of light. It combines the function of
a collimator and infinity telescope. So, it has a wide
variety of applications like precision alignment, detection
of angular movement, verification of angular standards
and angular monitoring over long periods.
Principle of Autocollimator
An optical setup where a collimated beam leaves an
optical system and is reflected back into the same system
by a plane mirror is called as autocolimation.
C o llim ating Plan e

L en s R e fle ctor
90 o
So urce
O
Fig 2.78 (a)
Fo cal
Im a ge Plan e
2
’
O'
d
2
O
2

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Fig.2.78 (b)
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Light from the origin point O is collimated (made

parallel) by a high quality objective lens which falls
perpendicularly on a plane reflecting surface (plane
mirror). The light is reflected back along its original path
and is brought to focus at a point coincident with the
origin point. If the reflector is tilted through an angle ,
then the reflected beam is tilted through an angle 2 and
the image is displaced from the origin O to O. The
amount of displacement is given by d  2  f.
Where  is in radians, and

f the focal length of the lens
Thus by measuring the displacement d , the

inclination of the reflecting surface  can be determined.
For high sensitivity instrument, i.e for a large value of
d and small angular deviation , a long focal length is
required.
The position of the final image does not depend

upon the distance of the reflector from the lens. But if
the reflector is moved back too long, then the reflected
ray will completely miss the lens and no image will be
formed.
Because the autocollimator uses light to measure

angles, it never comes into contact with the test surface.
Construction
The main components of autocollimator are:
 Tube mounted objective lens.

 Engineering
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Beam splitter mount containing two reticles.
Illu mina tion
Filter
C o nd en sor
C o llim ator
R e ticle
Eyep ie ce Eyep ie ce Be am splitter O bjective

R e ticle Len s
Fig: 2.79. Auto Collim ator
 Eyepiece.
 Illumination device.
The reticle (or graticule) placed in the focus of the
eyepiece is the eyepiece reticle. It is usually a double
cross line or an angular graduated scale which can be
observed through the eyepiece even with the illumination
switched off. The other is the illuminated reticle projected
over the beam splitter towards the lens known as the
collimator reticle single cross line. The eyepiece, beam
splitter mount and the illumination device together form
the main unit called the Autocollimator Head. The
autocollimator head is mounted on a draw out tube for
focussing adjustment.
Working
The illuminated target reticle (collimator reticle)

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placed in the focal plane of the objective is projected to
infinity along the axis of the telescope by means the

objective via of the beam splitter. In this mode, the
system functions as a collimator. A target mirror (of high
grade flatness of 0.05 microns) located in the beams path
returns the projected image into the autocollimator and
creates an image of the collimator reticle via the beam
splitter in the eyepiece reticle plane (autocollimation
image). Thus the reflected image of the collimator reticle
and the eyepiece reticle can be simultaneously observed
through the eyepiece. In this mode, the system functions
as a telescope.
If the mirror is perpendicular to the beam axis, then
the beam is reflected back along the same path. So, the
reflected image and the eyepiece reticle are seen
superimposed, i.e no displacement occurs between them.
If the mirror is tilted through an angle , the reflected
beam is titled at an angle (2). The reflected image (auto
collimation image) is now laterally displaced with respect
to the eyepiece reticle. The displacement of the
autocollimation image provides a measure of the angular
displacement of the mirror as discussed before. Since the
focal length, is a constant of the auto collimator, the
eyepiece reticle can be graduated in angle units and the
tilt angle can be directly read off. Angles as small as 0.5
arc second can be measured.
Also measurement can be taken by means of an
electronic detector which can be 100 times more accurate
than a visual auto collimator. Autocollimators with
adjustable distance between the reticle and objective are
also available which allows objective focus at distances
other than infinity.
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Note: Electronic or digital autocollimators have no

eyepiece but are provided with an internal photo detector
that can sense the angular error by comparing to
predetermined results that are fed into the device.
Factors Governing the specification of an

Autocollimator
(i) Focal Length
The focal length determines the basic sensitivity

and angular measuring range of the instrument. A longer
focal length gives a greater measuring sensitivity and
measurement accuracy (due to larger linear displacement
for a given reflector tilt). But as the focal length increases
the measuring range decreases proportionally. Also a
longer focal length affects the mechanical extension of the
tube.
(ii) Objective aperture size
When large apertures are used, light conditions are

more favorable and the evaluation of results is easier and
more accurate. A long distance between the mirror and
autocollimator demands a relatively large aperture and
larger reflector for satisfactory image contrast.
(iii) Type of Beam Splitter
A geometrical beam splitter results in smaller image

angles but greater image brightness. These are used
mainly with small targets and due to their internal layout
cannot be used for measurement of corner cubes. A
physical beam splitter is recommended in most cases due
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to the larger measuring range.
(iv) Fixed or variable distance setting
When the distance between the autocollimator and

target mirror remain fixed, extremely close readings can
be taken and repeatability is excellent. For variable focal
length, an objective tube with focus adjustment is used.
Applications
Autocollimators have a wide range of applications.
The applications with respect to mechanical engineering
are as follows:
 Measurement of parallelism or perpendicularity

of two surfaces.
 Measurement of straightness and flatness.
 Measurement of roll angle.
 Pitch and jaw measurement of slides.
 Assessment of squareness and parallelism of
components.
 Testing of accuracy of rotary tables and index
tables.
 Monitoring of angular movements over prolonged
periods of time.
2.5.2.2 Angle Dekkor

Angle dekkor works on the principle of an
autocollimator designed for use in conjunction with a
setting master like a sine bar or a combination of angle
gauges. It is the vertical arrangement of an
autocollimator. The optical arrangement is shown in Fig.
2.80 Engineering
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M icro scop e
e yep iece
Prism
Lam p
G la ss scale
Illu mina te d
sca le
D a tum scale
C o nvertin g rays
from re flecte d
im a ge o f scale
on scree n
W orkpiece
C o llim ating
len s
Fig.2.80 O p tical system of an gle dekkor
The instrument consists of a microscope eyepiece, a

ground glass screen and a collimating lens, all enclosed
in a tube mounted on an adjustable bracket which is
attached to a flat, lapped reflective base.
The glass screen lies at the focal plane of the
collimating lens and contains two scales at right angles
to each other. Each scale has an angular range of 60
minutes and can read directly to 0.5 minute of arc. One
scale is the illuminated scale outside the view of the
microscope eyepiece. The other scale is fixed across the
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centre of the screen in the R e fle cted

field of view of the Im a ge of
Illu m ina te d scale
microscope. The
illuminated scale is
projected as a parallel
beam by the collimating
lens onto a reflector
(workpiece) placed below.
The reflected beam is
refocussed by the
collimating lens, forming
an image of the
illuminated scale at right angles to the fixed datum scale
as shown.
Now both the scales are in the field of view of the
microscope. Rotation of the reflecting surface through an
angle displaces the image of the illuminated scale,
horizontally or vertically, against the fixed scale. Thus
50
Erro r
40
30
0 10 20 30
20 20
10 10
Zero-reading with
angle gauge build-up
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the changes in the angular position of the reflector in two

planes are indicated by changes in the point. If
intersection of the two scales.
Usually an angle dekkor is used as an angle
comparator. First the instrument is adjusted and reading
from the setting master is obtained. Then the master is
removed and replaced by the workpiece to be measured.
The displacement of the illuminated scale as compared to
the zero reading gives the difference in angle between the
master and the workpiece.
Applications of Angle Dekkor
Angle dekkor, though, less sensitive than a

autocollemator has wide applications in short angular
measurements. Some of the applications are discussed
below.
(i) Measuring the angle of a component
For this, the angle dekkor is used in combination

with the angle gauges which are set up on the base of
the instrument to the nearest known angle of the
component as shown in Fig. 2.83. Now the angle dekkor
is set to obtain the zero reading on the illuminated scale.
Now the angle gauges are removed and replaced by the
component. A straight edge is used to ensure that there
is no change in the lateral positions. In case the
component surface is not sufficiently reflective, a slip
gauge can be placed on it to form the reflecting surface.
Now the displacement of the image of the illuminated
scale from the set angle gives the angular tilt of the
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component.
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Eye-piece
Lam p
housing
An gle dekko r
Ad justable Po lish ed
link R efle ctor
(slip g auge)
An gle
gauges C om p onent
to be tested
Su rface
pla te
Fig. 2.83. Measuring angle of a component
(ii) Checking the slope

angle of a V-block
A n gle
First, zero reading is P o lish ed D e kkor
A n gle R e fle ctor
obtained by using angle G ua g es
gauges. Then, a reading is V - B lo ck
obtained by placing a 
polished reflector or slip
S u rfa ce
gauge in close contact p late
with the work surface.

a ng le of V - block
Thus the slope angle is  =9 0 _ o
2
calculated by comparing Fig,2.84 C h ec king V -blo ck a ngle.
the readings obtained. The
arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.84
(iii) Angle measurement of a cone or taper gauge

The angle dekkor is initially set for the nominal
angle of cone by using the angle gauge or sine bar. Then,
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C o nica l or tap ere d

surface w ho se tap ere d A n gle de kke r
a ng le is to b e m e a su red
A n gle ga ug es
Tab le
S lip ga u ge
Fig.2.8 5 M easuring ang le of co ne
the cone gauge is placed in position, either with its base

(for measurement of semi angle) or side (for measurement
of included angle) resting on the surface plate. A slip
gauge or other parallel reflector is attached on the cone
since no reflection can be obtained from the curved
surface. The shift of image of illuminated scale indicates
the deviation from the set angle. The set-up is shown in
Fig. 2.85
2.5.2.3 Angle Alignment Telescope
Alignment telescopes are primarily used to establish

and maintain principal optical reference lines. These
reference lines are used as measurement references or
used by other instrument for a variety of alignment
functions.
When both lateral and angular alignment is

required, an alignment telescope in combination with a
collimator is used. An important type is the Taylor -
Hobson alignment telescope.
The telescope is made of special alloy steel tubing

and concentrically ground to extremely fine tolerances. It
has an internal focussing optical system installed
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precisely into the robust unit and provided with a
focussing knob on the outside. The collimating unit

consists of an illuminating unit, two reticles and a
collimating lens contained in another steel tube with the
same diameter acts as the telescope. One reticle say R2,
is graduated with central cross lines, surrounded with
scales and concentric circles land lies exactly at the
principal focus of the collimating lens. The other reticle,
R 1, contains a central pattern of converging V and several
graduated scales lying in two direction at right angles.
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.86.
When the telescope is aligned with the collimator
and sighted on it, its focus is adjusted to infinity. The
target reticle, R2, will appear in the field of view, as rays
from this target will emerge as parallel beams from the
C R1
R2 O
C ollim ato r Telescope
R3 O R1
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Fig: 2.86. Alignm ent Telescope
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Telescope
collimating lens. So, any angular misalignment will result

in a displacement of the image of the target whereas
purely lateral displacement will not be indicated. Now, if
the telescope is refocussed until the target R 3 appears in
the field of view, only lateral displacement of the
collimator will be indicated. (Parallel beams from the
target R 2 being out of focus). By means of the scales on
the reticle R 1, the lateral displacements can be measured.
Accurate optical alignment of the telescope is ensured by
careful centering of the lenses and accuracy of the draw
table of the focusing lens.
Alignment telescope is used for aligning of bores
(such as bearings of large engines), surfaces and to check
squareness, straightness, flatness, parallelism and
vertical level.
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2.6 GAUGES
Gauges are one of the most commonly used
inspection tools in production shops for quick checking
and validation of the dimensions of manufactured parts.
Gauging has become an integral part of any machining
process as they help in ensuring the required degree of
interchangeability among the millions of parts
manufactured all over the world. The type and design of
the gauges depend on the application, production volume
and level of precision required. The prime consideration
of gauge design include part tolerances, gauge material,
simplicity of use, manufacturability, etc. Gauges are
manufactured and checked with reference to standard of
length, which in turn is related to a fundamental length
standard. The standard of length is then transferred
through the gauge to the component.
2.6.1 Gauge classification
Gauges are classified as follows:
1. Plain gauges
(i) According to type
(a) Standard gauges
(b) Limit gauges
(ii) According to purpose
(a) Workshop gauges
(b) Inspection gauges
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gauges
(iii) According to the geometry of the tested surface

(a) Plug gauges for checking holes
(b) Snap and ring gauges for checking shafts

(iv) According to design
(a) Single circuit and double limit gauges
(b) Single ended and double ended gauges
(c) Fixed and adjustable gauges
2. Adjustable-type gap gauges.
3. Miscellaneous Gauges
(a) Combined - limit gauges
(b) Position gauges
(c) Contour gauges
(d) Receiver gauges
(e) Taper gauges
(f) Feeler gauges
2.6.2 LIMIT GAUGES

Limit gauges are inspection tools of rigid design,
without a scale, which serve to check the dimensions of
manufactured parts. Limit gauges do not determine the
actual value of the inspected dimensions of a part but
indicate whether the part dimensions are manufactured
within the limits specified.
These gauges are used in the inspection of
interchangeable parts. Usually two gauges of hardened
steel are provided for each dimension to be tested. They
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are the ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ gauges. For example to check an
external dimension one gauge is of such size that the part

will not pass within it (‘No Go’ gauge) and the other of
such size that the part just passes through it (‘Go’ gauge).
In such a condition, the part is accepted as within the
limit of accuracy but if other wise, the part is rejected
as “off-size”.
A ‘Go’ gauge should pass over or through a correct
feature. It checks the maximum material condition of the
part.
A ‘No Go’ gauge should not pass over or through
a correct feature. It checks the minimum material
condition of the part.
The general types of limit gauges are
 Plug Gauges – For checking internal dimensions.

 Snap Gauges  – For checking external dimensions.

and Ring 

Gauges 
The gauges in which the handle is an integral part

of the gauging portion or if the whole gauge is machined
from a single piece of metal, they are called as solid
gauges.
If the handle is manufactured separately and
engaged with the gauging portion by means of a suitable
locking device, then such gauges are called renewable
end gauges.
If only a single gauge (either Go or ‘No Go’ gauge)
is on one handle, then it is called single ended gauge.
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If both ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ are combined on one handle on

either side, it is called double ended gauge.
A single ended plain plug gauge with one gauging
member having two diameters of the ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’
respectively is called the progressive gauge.
The No-Go gauge is usually marked in red colour

for ease of identification.
2.6.2.1 PLUG GAUGE

Plug gauges are of cylindrical form used in the
manner of a plug for inspecting internal dimensions.
Plain plug gauge is used to check the size of a hole.

The gauging portion is made of suitable wear resisting
steel and hardened, ground and lapped. For heavy plug
gauges, handle may be madeup of light metal alloys and
for smaller plug gauges, suitable non metallic handles
may be provided.
For sizes upto 63 mm, plain plug gauges of double

ended type are used and for sizes above 63 mm, single
ended type plug gauges are used.
If the hole size is correct within tolerable limits, the

‘Go’ end will enter the hole while the ‘No Go’ end will
not.
If the ‘Go’ gauge does not pass, the hole is under

size and if the ‘No Go’ gauge passes, the hole is over size.
Various types of plain plug gauges like solid type,

taper inserted type, fastened type, flat type and
segmental type are available for holes ranging from
smaller to bigger sizes. A solid type double ended plain
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plug gauge is shown in Fig.2.87
0 10 H 7 0.01 5
Solid type gauges

are becoming obsolete and
gauges with renewable
ends are used now due to
their advantages like
 Worn out or
damaged gauges
can be replaced
and the handle
can be used for Fig: 2.88 U se of Plu g G a ug e
other gauges.
 Handles can be made of other materials like
plastic to reduce weight, cost and minimise the
risk of heat transfer.
To save time (usually for smaller through holes)
another type of plain plug gauge called progressive plug
M AX LIM IT
O F H O LE
GO
H exa go nal
H andle
Fig. 2.88 (a) Renew able end type plug gau ge-sin gle ended
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gauge is used where both G o D ia N o G o D ia

‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ are
provided on the same
side separated by a small
distance. Here, first the
‘Go’ portion is inserted in Fig .2.89 Prog ressive plug gau ge
the hole and on further
insertion would be obstructed by the ‘No Go’ portion, if
the hole is of correct tolerable size. Refer Fig.2.89
The method of designating plain plug gauges is by
‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ as applicable, the nominal size, the
tolerance and the standard followed. For example, a
double ended plain plug gauge for gauging a bore of 20
mm with tolerance H7, according to Indian Standard (IS:
3484) is designated as
‘Go and No Go plain plug 20 H7, IS:3484’
The Fig.2.90 shows how a plain plug gauge is
marked on its handle for identification.
M arke d a s red
o 0 .01 6
Fron t vie w
Go O JIYA S +, G o
R ear view
M an ufactu rers
n am e or tra de m ark
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Fig: 2.90 Marking on Plug G auge Handle for Identification
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2.6.2.2 RING GAUGE

Plain ring gauge is a couple of gauges (‘Go’ gauge
and ‘No Go’ gauge) having measurement side with the
maximum and minimum limit deviation of shaft to assure
the interchangeability of the shaft. The gauges are made
up of suitable wear resisting steel and the gauging
surfaces are first stabilized, then ground and lapped. The
other surfaces are finished smooth and a suitable
anti-corrosive coating is applied to protect against climatic
conditions. The periphery of the ring gauge is knurled to
provide grip while handling. They are designated by the
‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ as applicable, the nominal size, the
N o m ina l size
cla ss o f
Tolera nce
21 h7 21 h7
N O G o sid e Ind icatio n

(a ) “ G o ” G a u ge (b ) “ N o G o ” G a ug e
21 h7 21 h7
0 0 .02 8
K 1 00 1 K 1 00 2
“G o “ G a uge “N o G o “ G a ug e
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Fig: 2.91 Plain Ring G auge
tolerance of the workpiece to be gauged and the number

of the standard followed.
2.6.2.3 SNAP GAUGE

A snap gauge is a limit gauge, having a C-shaped
frame with hardened, adjustable anvils at opposite ends,
used to check diameters, lengths, and thicknesses. The
anvils are made up of hard materials such as tungsten
carbide for wear resistance. (Fig. 2.92 to Fig. 2.95)
(a) Rib type snap gauge

(i) Double ended snap gauge: This gauge is also
called as solid snap gauge. Solid snap gauge is machined
and ground out of a single block of metal in the form of
a ‘C ’ on either side. On one side is the ‘Go’ gauge made
G au ge bo dy
R ed colour m arkin g
C la ss of tole rance
anvils
14 H7
anvils
‘G o ’ E nd
(m axim um size) N om ina l size
‘N o G o’ E nd
(m in im um size)
FIG: 2.92 RIB TYP E SN AP G AUG E
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to the upper limit and the other side in the ‘No Go’ gauge
made to the lower limit of the dimension. These gauges
are conveniently used for inspecting sizes in the range of
3 mm to 100 mm.
(ii) Single ended progressive type: In this type of
snap gauge, both the apertures i.e ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ are
on the same side and are arranged such that the part
being measured can pass through them in sequence. The
part, if within tolerance, will pass through the ‘Go’
aperture (upper limit) (lower end) but will not pass
through the ‘No Go’ aperture (lower or minimum size
limit) (upper end). These gauges are suitable for sizes
ranging from 100 to 250 mm.
H a nd grip of
N o n-con ductin g
M aterial
No minal size and

C la ss of to lerance a re
m ention ed here
`N o G o'
`G o '
Fig: 2.93 Progressive snap gauge
(b) Plate Snap Gauges

These gauges are made up of suitable quality wear
resistant steel plates. The gauging surfaces are hardened,
stabilised, ground and lapped. The other surfaces are
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finished smooth and all

sharp corners and edges
are removed.
(i) Double ended type:
N o go
In this type both ‘Go’ and
‘No Go’ gauges are on M ARKED
either side of the same RED
plate. These are used for

sizes ranging from 2 mm
to 100 mm. A double
ended type plate snap
GO
gauge is shown in
Fig.2.94. Fig: 2 .9 4 D o ub le end ed
Plate s nap G uage
(ii) Single ended
progressive type: Here both ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ are on
the same side of the plate. On the other side is provided
a pad of suitable non conducting material for convenient
handling. These gauges are used for sizes ranging from
IN S U LATIN G
PA D
NO GO
GO
Fig: 2.95 Prog res sive pla te sn ap gaug e
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100 mm to 250 mm. A single ended progressive type plate

snap gauge is shown in Fig.2.95.
2.6.3 ADJUSTABLE TYPE GAP GAUGES

The adjustable type gap (or) snap gauges are in the
form of a horse-shoe frame with their gauging anvils
adjustable. The anvils are adjusted by means of
independent and fixedly threaded screws. The aperture
gap is set to the required limit by means of slip gauges
and the screws are locked in position.
Adjustable snap gauges can be reset to compensate
for wear or re-tasked for
measuring a different
dimension. They offer the
flexibility of building up
our own gauge within any
size in the specified range.
It is preferred where the
number of components to
FIXE D AD JU STA B LE
be inspected is less but AN V IL AN V IL
the variety of sizes to be Fig: 2.96 Ad justable G ap G auge
inspected is more.
2.6.4 MISCELLANEOUS GAUGES
2.6.4.1 Combined Limit Gauge
A single plug gauge used for inspecting both the

upper and lower limits of cylindrical holes is called a
combined limit gauge. This spherically ended gauge
(Fig.2.97) is of same diameter as the minimum (lower)
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limit size of the hole. So, the gauge, when inserted with
its handle parallel to the

axis of hole, acts as the
P ro je ctio n
‘Go’ gauge. Now, for the NO GO
D IM E N S IO N
‘No Go’ gauge, a projection
is provided on the outer
edge of the spherical
member whose distance GO
from a diametrically D IM E N S IO N
opposite point is equal to

the maximum (upper)
limit size of the hole. So
the gauge when inserted Fig. 2 .97 C om bin ed Lim it G aug e
in a tilted position will not
enter the hole, if it is within the specified limits.
2.6.4.2 Position Gauge

A position gauge is used to check the position of a
feature on the part in relation to another reference point
or surface. The shape and design of a position gauge
depends upon the feature to be checked. Position gauge
design can be based either on the feel of operator or on
L O C AT IO N GO NO GO
O F R E C E S S TO
BE CHECKED
REFERENCE
S U R FA C E
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Fig: 2.98 Positio n g au ge for location of R ec ess
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GO NO GO
LO C AT IO N
O F SU R FAC E TO
BE C H EC K E D
R EF ER EN C E
S U R FA C E
Fig. 2.99 Position gauge fo r location of su rface parallel to reference su rface
the principle of sighting. When in contact with the ‘Go’

side, no light will pass between the reference surface
and gauge surface and when in contact with the ‘No Go’
side, light will pass.
2.6.4.3 Contour Gauges

Contour gauges are also called as profile gauges
used for checking the dimensional accuracy and
O bject
C o nto ur (or)
P ro file to be
che cke d
P ins
Fra m e
Fig: 2.100 Contour G auge

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1 .7
1 .5
1 .7
1.
1 .5
2
5
25
2.25
2. 1 .2 5
5
25 1
2 .5
1
2.
5
2 .7
2 .7
5 R 1 -1m m
5
3 3
3. 5
5
5.
3.
6.5
5
4
4
4 .5
4 .5 5 5
6
5 .5
Fig: 2.101 Radiu s Gaug e
cross-sectional shape of a surface. These gauges are made

of similar profile as that of the work.
A contour gauge consists of a set of pins (made of
steel or plastic) held together tightly in a frame such
that they are parallel to each other and in the same
plane. So, when the gauge is pressed against an object,
the pins which are free to move independently conform
to the shape of the object. Now, the gauge can be used
to draw the profile or copy it onto another surface.
Examples of simple contour gauges are radius
gauges for gear tooth profiles, form tool profiles, thread
pitches, etc.
2.6.4.4 Receiver gauges

Gauges designed to check a number of features
simultaneously are receiver gauges. These are used for
checking components before assembly.
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2.6.4.5 Taper Gauges

Taper plug gauge is in the shape of the frustum of
a cone for checking tapered holes and taper ring gauges
are used for checking tapered shafts. Taper gauges do not
measure angles but are used to check the diameter at
the bigger end and the change in diameter per unit
length. The gauging surfaces are ground, lapped and
covered with suitable rust proof coating. The gauges
should be demagnetized.
S p ace fo r
M arkin g
Fig. 2.102 (a) Taper Plug gauge
Two lines are provided on the taper plug gauge

denoting the upper (red) and lower (blue) limits.
The taper plug gauge is inserted as far it goes with
light pressure. At the extreme point, the face of the large
end of internal taper shall lie within the two lines if
within tolerable limits. Taper plug gauges may be plain
or tanged.
The taper ring gauge
shall be inserted into the
taper shank under test, as
far as it goes with light
pressure. In the case of
plain taper ring gauge at
the extreme position, the
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small end of the taper shank shall be flush or short of

face of the ring gauge on the small end. This is verified
with the help of straight edge as shown in Fig.2.103.
S o cke t u nd er
in spe ctio n
Tap er plug Fa c e o f larg e en d

G au g e o f in te rna l tap e r
Fig. 2.103 (a) In sp ectio n b y taper plug gauge p lain
S ocke t u nd er
inspe ctio n
Tap er plug Fa ce o f large en d

G au g e Ta ng ed o f in ternal ta pe r
Fig. 2.103 (b ) In sp ection b y taper p lug gauge,tanged
S traigh ted ge R in g ga ug e S hank un der

inspection
G au gin g
surface
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Fig: 2.104 In sp ection by taper rin g g au ge, plain
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E n d of
ta pe r G au g in g s u rface A
Tan ge d en d sh an k
C u nd er in sp ection
Fig. 2.105 Insp ection by taper rin g gau ge, ta nged
In the case of tanged taper ring gauge, no part of

the tanged end shaft shall extend beyond the surfaces
A, B, and C as shown in Fig.2.105. However, the shank
surfaces may be flush with these gauge surfaces.
2.6.4.6 Feeler Gauges

Feeler gauges are used for checking the clearances
between mating surfaces eg. clearance between piston and
cylinder. These are a bunch of narrow strips of steel
sheet, each made to a given thickness. Each strip has an
indication of its thickness and grade. The Indian standard
establishes seven sets of feeler gauges which differ by the
number of blades in them and the range of thickness.
2.6.5 GAUGE DESIGN

A gauge is usually a copy of the mating part of the
component being checked as far as its form and size is
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concerned. It quickly ensures whether the size of the
close to geth er to su ppo rt

thin ner b lade s befo re
closing into case
0.51
0.25
0 .1 8
3
0 .1
10
0. 0.
15
0
0 .2
0 .3 8
0 .64
Fig: 2.106 Feeler Gaug e
component being inspected is within the specified limits

or not and hence suitable for assembly. The gauges
should be simple in design to enable faster but accurate
measurements.
2.6.5.1 Taylor’s Principle
William Taylor developed a concept relating to the

gauging of components i.e to check the specific dimensions
and geometric feature of a component. His concept, known
as Taylor’s Principle is used in the design of limit gauges.
‘Go Limit’: It refers to that limit of the two limits of

size which corresponds to the maximum material
condition i.e presence of the greatest amount of material
permitted at a prescribed surface.
‘No Go’ Limit: It refers to that limit of the two limits

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of size which corresponds to the minimum material
condition i.e presence of the least amount of material

permitted at a prescribed surface.
Taylor’s principle states that the ‘Go’ gauge should
check all the dimensions (roundness, size, location, etc) of
the workpiece at a time, for the maximum metal condition
and the ‘No Go’ gauge should check only one dimension
of the workpiece at a time, for the minimum metal
condition.
The maximum metal condition results at the upper

limit of a shaft and at the lower limit of a hole.
The minimum metal condition results at the lower

limit of a shaft and at the upper limit of a hole.
In a plug gauge, the ‘Go’ side is the size of the

minimum limit of the hole, while the ‘No Go’ side
corresponds to the maximum limit of the hole. The ‘Go’
plug gauge should have full circular section. It must be
equal to the length of the hole so that the straightness
of the hole can also be checked. Then the ‘Go’ plug gauge
not only controls the diameter in any given section but
also ensures bore alignability. However, the degree of
ovality cannot be checked using the ‘Go’ gauge. The ‘No
Tolera nce
N ot
H igh
lim it
lim it
L ow
Go Go
H ole
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Fig: 2.107 D esign of plug gaug e
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Go’ plug gauge checks the upper limit of the hole (it
should not pass through the hole) and is shorter than the
‘Go’ gauge. In the case of slightly elliptical holes, to check
the circularity, the ‘No Go’ gauge can be made in the
form of a pin. By placing the pin at different cross-section
of the hole, any error in circularity can be easily detected.
Thus, the variation of hole shape can also be measured
by making some modifications.
In the case of snap
Tolera nce
gauges, the ‘Go’ snap gauge is
of a size corresponding to the N
o
maximum limit of the shaft,
High
g
lim it
lim it
Low
o g
while the ‘No Go’ snap gauge o
corresponds to the minimum

limit. Snap gauges should be Fig. 2.108
rigid and robust so that they

function adequately and maintain size.
The difference in size between the ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’
gauges is approximately equal to the tolerance of the
tested ‘hole’ or ‘shaft’.
2.6.5.2 Points to be remembered for Gauge Design
 The form of the ‘Go’ gauges should be a replica

of the form of the mating parts.
 ‘Go’ gauges should enable several related
dimensions to be checked simultaneously.
 During inspection, Go gauges must always be
put into conditions of maximum impassibility.
 ‘No Go’ gauges are for checking a single element
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of feature at a time.
 ‘No Go’ gauges must always be put into

conditions of maximum passibility during
inspection.
2.6.5.3 Material for gauges

The materials used for manufacture of gauges
should be
 Hard and wear resistant.

 Corrosion resistant.
 Capable of maintaining dimensional stability
and form.
 Easily machinable.
 Having low coefficient of expansion to avoid
temperature effects.
2.6.5.4 Gauge Maker’s Tolerance and Wear

Allowance
It is economically impractical to manufacture gauges
to their exact size or dimensions. Dimensional variations
arise due to limitations of the manufacturing process,
skill of operator, etc, so some permissible deviation in
accuracy must be assigned for gauge manufacture. This
tolerance that is allowed in the manufacture of gauges is
termed as gauge maker’s tolerance (or) manufacturing
tolerance (or) gauge tolerance. Limit gauges are usually
made 10 times more accurate than the tolerance they are
going to control.
During inspection, the measuring faces of the ‘Go’

gauges constantly rub against the surfaces of parts in
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inspection, thereby suffer wear and lose their initial
dimension. Due to this wear, the size of ‘Go’ plug gauges

decrease while that of snap gauge or ring gauge increases.
Some wear allowance is added in a direction opposite to
the wear to increase the service life of gauges. A wear
allowance of 10% of gauge tolerance is widely accepted in
industries.
The ‘No Go’ gauge does not undergo any wear as it
seldom engages with the workpiece. Hence, there is no
need to provide wear allowance in the case of ‘No Go’
gauges.
2.6.6 TERMS
Shaft and hole: These terms are used to designate all
external and internal features respectively of any shape
and not necessarily cylindrical.
Tolerance zone: The tolerance that is bound by

the two limits of size of the part is called the tolerance
zone. It refers to the relationship of tolerance to basic
size.
Feature of size (FOS): It refers to any surface or set

of parallel surfaces associated with a size dimension. Eg.
a hole diameter.
Maximum Material Condition (MMC): It refers to a

feature of size that contains the greatest amount of
material, yet remains within its tolerance zone. Examples:
smallest hole size, largest shaft diameter.
Least Material Condition: If refers to a feature of size

that contains the least amount of material, yet remains
within its tolerance zone. Examples: largest hole size,
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smallest shaft diameter.
2.7 INTERCHANGEABILITY
Interchangeability means making the different parts

of a product so uniform in size such that each part of a
certain model will fit any mating part of the same
regardless of the lot to which it belongs to or when or
where it was made i.e a component selected randomly
should assemble correctly with any other mating
component, also selected randomly.
 Here, parts are produced with specified limits of

accuracy following certain international
standards.
 The permitted variation (tolerance) of each
dimension must be fixed. In addition to this, the
mating condition (clearance, interference or
transition) of each pair of part assembled must
be decided.
 This method is suitable for mass production. It
ensures increased output with reduced
manufacturing cost.
 Concepts of interchangeability are fundamental
for design and manufacturing.
2.7.1 Parameters of Interchangeability

 Geometric (dimension, shape, relative position of
surfaces and others).
 Physical and mechanical (Specific gravity,
hardness, strength and others)
 Chemical (composition, mixtures)
 Engineering
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2.7.2 Types of Interchangeability

(i) Universal or Full Interchangeability
(ii) Selective assembly
In Full Interchangeability all types of parameters
are ensured with the accuracy that allows to perform
assembling (or replacement at repair) of any
independently produced parts to obtain finished items, i.e
parts can be manufactured independently in several shops
(factories, towns, countries) and be assembled in other
factories. Some advantages under conditions of full
interchangeability are
 Development works for creation of new items are
easier, faster and cheaper because basic
elements are standardized (Threads, splines,
toothed gearing, etc.)
 Manufacture of items is easier and cheaper
(improved inspection methods, easier assembling
and others)
 Shorterning of repair period and high quality.
In selective assembly, parts are selected for
mating, rather than being mated at random. That is,
parts are graded according to size and only matched
grades of mating parts are assembled. As the parts are
inspected, they are graded out into separate bins based
on what end of the range they fall in (or violate). Falling
within the high or low end of a range is usually called
‘light’ or ‘heavy’ for violating. The high or low end of a
range is called being oversize or undersize.
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A doubt may arise us to what is the difference

between selective assembly and older methods? In older
methods each mated set of parts is specifically fitted to
fit each part with a unique counterpart. Whereas, in
selective assembly, the parts are graded into several
ranges and within each range, there is still random
interchangeability.
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Advances in Metrology 3.1
Chapter 3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Light is considered as an electro magnetic wave of
sinusoidal form. The high point of wave is called the crest
and the low point is called trough. The distance between
two crests or two troughs is called the wavelength. The
time taken by light in covering one wavelength is called
the time period.
Fig. 3.1
The amplitude of a wave is the distance from the

still position (equilibrium portion) to the top of a crest or
to the bottom of a trough. The greater the amplitude
greater the intensity of light. The frequency of a wave
is the number of waves passing a point in a certain time
ie the velocity of transmission.
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Light is produced by any of the two methods
 Incandescence is the emission of light from hot

matter (Temperature >= 800 K).
 Luminescence is the emission of light when
excited electrons fall to lower energy levels.
Visible light is defined by properties like intensity,
wavelength, propagation direction and polarisation. It is
the combination of various primary colours: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet each consisting of a
group of similar wavelengths.
Monochromatic light is a narrow band of

spectrum of visible light having the same wavelength or
colour.
3.2 LASER
The term ‘Laser’ stands for ‘(L)ight (A)mplification
by (S)timulated (E)mission of (R)adiation’. It usually
denotes a device for this purpose or the light beam
produced by it. The light beam produced is intensely
monochromatic, collimated and highly coherent. In a
coherent beam, all the waves have the same frequency
and phase. Lasers have greater coherent length than
lamps. Coherence length of a light beam refers to the
distance over which the beam stays in phase with itself.
3.2.1 Basic Concept

An electromagnetic radiation is emitted whenever a
charged particle such as an electron drops from a higher
energy state, E 2 to a lower energy state E 1. [Refer Fig.
3.2] Engineering
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E 2 -H ig he r
e ne rgy scale
h =E 2-E 1
E 1 -Lo w er
e ne rgy scale
Fig. 3.2
The difference in energy levels across which an

excited electron drops determines the wavelength of
emitted light. The wavelength or frequency of light
determines its colour.
According to quantum mechanics, light is made up
of particles called photons which exhibit both particle like
and wave like properties. Each photon has intrinsic
energy given by the equation.
Eh
where,  is the frequency of light and h, the planck’s

constant.
we know,
c
where  is the wavelength of light and c the speed

of light in vacuum. So, we have from the above equations,
hc
E

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From the above equation we see that longer the

wavelength of light lower the energy of photon. So,
ultraviolet light is more energetic that infrared light.
When an electron is an excited energy state, it must
eventually decay to a lower level giving off a photon of
radiation. This event is called spontaneous emission
and the photon is emitted in a random direction and
phase. On the other hand, if an electron in the excited
+ E1 E2 + E1 E2
S p on ta ne ou s em issio n
+ E1 E2 + E1 E2
S tim ulate d em issio n
Fig. 3.3
e xcited atom first photon

p ho ton
N e w pho ton
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Fig. 3.4
Befo re D urin g After

em ission em ission em ission
Exited
E2
le vel
hv
hv hv
E
Incident p hoto n hv
G round
le vel E1
Atom in Atom in
excited state ground state
E 2 -E 1= E= hv
Fig: 3.5 Stimulated em ission
state E 2 before spontaneously decaying to E 1, it interacts

with a passing photon whose energy is approximately
E 2  E 1, Then there is a probability that the passing
photon will cause the electron to decay in such a manner
that a photon is emitted at exactly the same wavelength,
in exactly the same direction and with exactly the same
phase as the passing photon. This process is called as
‘stimulated emission’.
The normal thermal population in any material will
have most of the electrons in the steady state ground
level. But, it is preferred to have most of the electrons
in the excited state (unstable condition) so that we can
get more photons through stimulated emission. Thus a
‘population inversion’ is created where most of the
electrons are in the excited state. This is achieved by a
process called pumping where external energy is added
to the material (medium) usually from an electrical
discharge or optical source.
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Thus, the condition of having enough excited or high

energy states distributed in a material, that a chain -
reaction of stimulated emission can occur is called
population inversion.
Now, in a basic laser a chamber called cavity is
designed to internally reflect light leaves (infrared, visible
or ultraviolet) so they reinforce each other. The cavity can
contain gases, liquids or solids. The cavity material
chosen determined the wavelength of the output beam.
There is a mirror at each end of the cavity : one totally
reflective and another partially reflective.
When external energy is introduced into the cavity,
an electromagnetic field appears at the natural frequency
of the atoms of the material that fills the cavity. The
waves reflect back & forth between the mirrors. The
length of the cavity is such that the waves reinforce each
other in phase at the natural frequency of the cavity
substance. The light energy is amplified in this manner
until sufficient energy is built up for a burst of laser light
to be transmitted through the partially reflecting mirror.
P u m p so urc e
(e xc itation m e ch an ism )
Tota l P a rtial
re fle ctor re fle ctor
O ptical
cavity
L aser ligh t(c oh ere n t ra diation )

Fig. 3.6
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3.2.2 Comparison between Laser light and light

from an incandescent lamp
Laser light Ordinary light

Has single wavelength ie Has a mixture of various
spectrally pure or wavelengths ie
monochromatic polychromatic
Coherent radiation ie all Incoherent radiation
photons are in phase
High directionality No directionality
(unidirectional)
Prevails over long distance Does not prevail long
3.2.3 Types of Lasers

There are various kinds of lasers like solid state,
gas, liquid and semiconductor lasers. The different lasers
and their applications are listed below.
Type of Typical Wavelength

Applications
laser example (nm)
Solid-state Ruby laser 694 Machining
laser YAG laser 1060 Laser knives
Liquid laser Dye laser 320 ~ 1200 Measurement
He-Ne laser 632 Measurement,
printers, optical
disks
Argon ion 488, 515 Printers,
Gas laser
laser and others machining,
medical
CO2 gas 1060 Machining,
laser laser knives
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Type of Typical Wavelength

Applications
laser example (nm)
GaAIAs 750 ~ 880 Printers, optical
laser disks
Semiconduc InGaAsP 1300, 1500 Optical
tor laser laser communication
(laser diode) InGaAIP 670 Measurement,
laser printers,bar-
code readers
3.2.4 Advantages of laser

 Lasers are more intensive than any other
monochromatic source.
 Metrology lasers are low power instruments.
 Lasers have wide dynamic range, low optical
cross talk and high contrast.
 Lasers are highly precise, accurate and can
prevail over long distances.
 Lasers facilitate rapid non-contact gauging of
soft, delicate or hot moving parts.
 They allow fabrication of fine structures with
high quality avoiding mechanical stress.
3.2.5 Applications of Laser

Lasers have various applications in different fields.
They are
 Manufacturing: For high quality cutting,
drilling, welding, surface treatment, etc.
 Metrology: For non-contact measurement of
parts, for long distance range finding and
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navigation, for scanning bar codes and other
graphics, for scanning three dimensional

objects and in fibre-optic sensors.
 Medical: For surgery, kidney stone
treatment, eye treatment, in dentistry, for
diagnosis like laser microscopy, for cosmetic
skin treatments
 Data Storage: For optical data storage (eg.
compact disks, CD, DVD, etc) for
holography.
 Communication: For optical fiber
communication, for free space
communication, (eg Inter satellite
communications)
 Military: For use as target designation, for
missile defence, for blinding trops, etc.
 Displays: Laser projection displays can be
used for cinimas, flight simulators, etc, and
for laser light shows.
 Scientific applications: For biological and
medical research, laser cooling to bring
clouds of atoms or ions to low temperatures,
laser guide stars used for atmospheric
correction.
3.2.6 LASER INSPECTION

Laser, as we know is a monochromatic
electromagnetic signal (or photons) in infrared, visible or
ultraviolet spectrum which when focussed travels with
the speed of light. It can be reflected thoroughly with
mirrors and can be divided into two beams with prism
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and beam splitters. It can be modulated by amplitude (or)
phase. Due to the properties of laser light ie bright,

unidirectional, collimated and with a high degree of
temporal and spatial coherence, it finds applications in
dimensional measurements and surface inspection
Helium-neon laser is most commonly used for such
applications. The various techniques for dimensional
measurements are discussed here.
(i) SCANNING LASER GAUGE

A scanning laser gauge is used for non-contact
dimensional measurements. A schematic diagram is
shown in Fig. 3.7.
Pa rallel
beam
O bject
Light
The main components in a scanning laser gauge are

 Transmitting unit
 Photo cell (receiver)
 Microprocessor & control unit
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Working
 Light from a laser source falls on a rotating
mirror placed at the focus of a linear scanner
lens which renders a parallel beam. The object
is placed in the path of the parallel beam and
so carts a time dependent shadow. The time
between the leading edge of the beam being
extinguished by the object when it emerges from
the other side is a measure of the cross section
of the object.
 Signal from the light entering the photocell is
processed by a microprocessor to provide display
of the dimension.
 The scanning laser gauge is used to measure the
roundness and diameter of hot steel bars. It
provides an accuracy of 0.025 mm for 5 - 25 mm
diameter objects and offers a repeatability of
0.1 m.
(ii) Laser Telemetric system

Laser telemetric system is used for high speed,
non-contact dimensional and positional measurement and
control. The system measures outside diameters, multiple
dimensions or part position of either opaque or
transparent objects. It is rugged and can be used on-line
and in harsh industrial environments.
A schematic of a laser telemetric system is shown
in Fig. 3.8.
The laser telemetric system consists of three
components: transmitter, receiver and processor
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electronics.
Books
H ysters is
syn chro no us
m otor
L aser O bjec t to be
M ea sure m e n t m ea sure d
P h oto
re gion d eflec to r
M otor W ind ow s E d ge
O scilla to r G ate
d rive sen sing
S c an n er
C o un ter O utpu t (d ig ital
d isplay sys te m )
Fig. 3.8 Laser telem e tric s ystem
The transmitter consists of a HeNe laser,

collimating leans, synchronous motor, a multifaced,
reflector prism, a synchronous pulse photodetector and a
protective replaceable window.
The transmitter produces a scanning laser beam

moving at a high, constant linear speed which appears
as a red line.
The object to be measured is placed in the path of

the laser beam. The laser light transmitted past the
object is collected and photoelectrically sensed by the
receiver. The received signals are then converted by
processor electronics to a convenient form and the
dimensions are displayed.
(iii) Photo Diode Array Imaging
This system consists of a laser source, imaging

optics, photodiode array, signal processor and display
unit. Here, the shadow of a stationary part is projected
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on a solid state diode array image sensor. This system
can achieve accuracies upto  0.05 m. For large parts,

two arrays, one for each edge, are used.
C ollim ating lens C ollecting lens
Lase r
Ligh t
source
Product
Fig: 3.9 Photo diode array system
(iv) Diffraction pattern technique

In this technique, a parallel coherent laser beam is
diffracted by the part to be measured and the resultant
pattern is focussed by a lens on a linear diode array. The
distance between the alternating light and dark bonds in
the diffraction pattern is a direct function of the diameter
of the part, wavelength of the laser beam and focal length
of the lens. Since diffraction is not suitable for diameters
greater than a few millimeters, this system is used for
measuring small diameter parts like wires, etc.
P lan e of
m ea s ure m en t
L as er
sou rc e
w ire D e fle ctors
C o llim eto r D iffractio n

p attern
Fig. 3.10 D iffra ction pattern te ch niq ue
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3.2.7 Laser Triangular sensors

Here a finely focussed laser spot of light is directed
at the part surface. The sensor containing a lens images
thus bright spot onto a digital solid state, position
sensitive photo detector. The spot location is directly
related to the stand off distance ie distance from the
sensor to the object surface. A charge in the stand off
distance, results in a lateral shift of the spot along the
sensor array. So, this technique provides quick
measurement of deviations due to changes in surface.
L aser so urce
Pro jectio n Se nso r

lens
C o llectio n
lens
O bject
Ba seline
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Fig. 3.11 Laser Triangular S en sor
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Thus, this technique is used to perform quick

automatic calculations on sheet metal stampings, hole
diameters, edge locations, etc.
(vi) Two frequency laser interferometer

This system is based on the principle of
superposition. It provides high sensitivity, as it is
independent of noise due to air turbulence, electrical noise
and light noise. Also sensitivity to optical alignment is
less. Linear resolution of 1 nm, straightness resolution of
40 nm and angular resolution of 0.03 arc seconds can be
achieved by this technique. The principle and operation
are discussed later in this chapter.
3.3 INTERFERENCE
The pluexomenon in which two waves suppose to
form a resultant wave of greater or lower amplitude is
called interference.
3.3.1 Principle of superposition

When two or more waves of the same type are
incident at the same point, then the total displacement
at that point is equal to the vector sum of the
displacement of the individual waves.
If the two light waves are of the same wavelength

and are exactly in phase with each other, then the
amplitude of the resultant wave is the sum of the
individual amplitudes which produces increased
brightness (because intensity of light depends an
amplitude.) This is known as constructive interference.
On the other hand, if they are out of phase, the

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resultant wave amplitude is the difference of the
R esu ltant
w ave
W ave1
W ave2
C onstructive in terference D estructive ine rferen ce

Fig. 3.12
individual amplitudes which results in decreased

brightness.
If the amplitudes of both the waves are same, then
they nullify each other and will result in darkness.
Interference of light can be explained by a simple
experiment demonstrated by Thomas Young. Here a
single monochromatic light source is projected onto two
pinholes. The two waves evaluating from the pinholes will
C o nstru ctive
inte rfe ren ce
(b rig ht)
D e structive
inte rfe ren ce
M on och rom a tic (d ark)
ligh t source
C o nstru ctive
inte rfe ren ce
(b rig ht)
Tw o slits D e structive
inte rfe ren ce
(d ark)
S cre en
Fig: 3.13 A tw o-poin t source interference pattern creates an alternating
pattern o f bright an d d ark lin es w hen it is projected onto a screen
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be in phase with each other as the source is same. The

diffracted light from the pinholes when projected on a
screen results in a pattern of alternating bright and dark
bands indicating interference of light waves. [Refer Fig.
3.13]
The conditions necessary for the interference of light
waves at a place are
 The sources should continuously emit waves of

the same wavelength or frequency.
 The amplitudes of the two interfering waves
should be equal or nearly equal for obtaining
interference fringes.
 The two waves should have the same phase or
a constant difference in phase.
The sources satisfying the above conditions are
known as coherent sources.
 The sources emitting the waves should be close

to each other.
 The surface must be reflective.
 The sources should be narrow.
3.4 INTERFEROMETRY
Metre was defined as the distance between two
finely scribed lines on the Platinum Iridium bar. In order
to reduce the dependence on the physical standard, the
process which was prone to errors, the wavelength of pure
monochromatic light is used as the natural standard of
length. Now, metre is defined as the distance travelled
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by light in vacuum during a specific interval of time.
Interferometry is a method for the accurate

measurement of linear dimensions using a pure
monochromatic light source.
It makes use of the principle of superposition to
combine waves in a way that will cause their combination
to have some meaningful property that is diagnostic to
the original state of the waves.
Interferometry is fundamental in establishing the
calibration chain in length measurement. It is used for
testing of optical components, calibration of slip gauges
and in co-ordinate measuring machines.
3.4.1 Interferometer
It is an instrument which generates and compares
the difference between two light waves which are
reflected off two different surfaces. It utilizes the effect
of interference.
3.4.2 Applications of Interferometers
 Measurements of lengths and small changes in
lengths.
 Optical testing.
 Studies of surface structure.
 Measurement of pressure and temperature
difference in gas flows and plasmas.
 Measurements of particle velocities and
vibration amplitudes.
 Wavelength measurements.
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3.5 LASER INTEREFOMETRY

Conventional light sources emit waves of differing
frequencies and at different times from different points
in the source. Hence they are not suitable for obtaining
interference fringes. Laser devices produce intense beams
of light which are monochromatic, coherent and highly
collimated - properties which are highly valuable for
interference measurements. Lasers have greater
coherence length (i.e the distance over which the beam
stays on phase) than lamps, so they increase the
distances that can be measured by interference. For
example frequency stabilized by HeNe laser has a
coherence length of more than a kilometer. Thus laser
interference allows distances of hundreds of meters to be
measured to a fraction of the wavelength of light.
3.6.1 Types of Laser Interferometer
Laser interferometers can be generally classified as
 Homodyne or Single - frequency or DC laser
interferometers.
 Heterodyne or Dual - frequency or AC laser
interferometers.
Homodyne Hetrodyne
Interferometry Interferometry
Here interference occurs Here two beams of slightly
between two beams at the different frequencies are
same frequency. combined to produce a beat.
This is based on Doppler
shift.
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Homodyne Hetrodyne
Interferometry Interferometry
Displacement information is Displacement information is
carried on a dc signal. carried on a ac signal.
A single frequency laser Here, highly stablized
source is required. two-frequency laser source
and more intricate detector
electronics are required.
Laser source intensity level This system is less sensitive
changes, ambient light and to all such problems.
various other noises affect
measurements.
3.5.2 The Michelson Interferometer

The Michelson Interferometer was invented by
Albert Abraham Michelson in the 1880s. The primary
objective of Michelson was to determine the wavelengths
of light derived from certain sources by comparison to the
meter bar (length standard). But now wavelength of light
provides the standard and is used to measure lengths
accurately, such as gauge-block dimensions. The first
Michelson interferometer used white light as a source but
was later replaced by a Helium-Neon (HeNe) laser by
which resolutions as small as 0.001 micron can be
achieved. This interferometer is based on the principle of
constructive & destructive interference.
The basic elements of a Michelson interferometer
are laser source, a beam splitter (to divide and recombine
the beams), a fixed reflector and a movable reflector
(cube-corner or retro-reflectors are used).
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A schematic of the Michelson interferometer is

shown in Fig. 3.14. A light beam passes through a beam
splitter, which splits the light into two beams of equal
intensity at right angles. One beam is transmitted to the
movable mirror and the other is reflected to the fixed
mirror.
Fixe d
retro reflecto r,M 1
M ova ble
B eam retro refle ctor,M 2
splitter
L aser

A perture
P hotod etecto r
Fig: 3.14 Michelson-type interferom eter
The rays are reflected back to the beam splitter

from where they are transmitted to a photodetector
through an aperture. At the photo detector, the two
beams will interfere constructively (to produce brightness)
or destructively (to produce darkness). Whether
constructive or destructive interference occurs depends on
the number of wavelengths by which the paths of the two
beams differ.
The movable reflector is traversed along the length
of an unknown dimension. For some distances the path
of the light beam increases by 2. During this movement,
the number of successive occurrences of dark fringes at
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the photodetector is equal to the number of

wavelengths, N
2  N 
N is obtained by counting the passing fringes,  is

known and hence the distance  is measured. The
distance traversed by the moving reflector between
successive fringes is /2, which is called the fringe
interval.
Principle of Michelson Interferometer

 The central spot in the fringe pattern alternates
between bright and dark when Mirror M2
moves. If we can know the spacing distance of
M2 between two sequent central bright spots
and the number of central bright spots
Fig. 3.15 Interference frin ges
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pro duced b y a m ichelso n inte rfero m eter
appeared, then we can calculate how long M2

moved.
If white light is used instead of monochromatic
light, fringes can be seen only if both beam parts are
exactly equal to a few wavelengths in total length in glass
and air. So, a compensating plate of the same thickness
as the beam splitter is introduced between the movable
reflector and beam splitter to equalize the optical paths
in glass.
Since, it is difficult to count the fringes by eye,

photo detectors connected to high speed counters are
used.
3.5.3 TWYMAN-GREEN INTERFEROMETER

The Michelson interferometer modified to use
collimated light is known as the Twyman-Green
interferometer. It is used extensively in optical testing
like measuring defects in lenses, prisms, plane mirrors,
etc.
While the Michelson interferometer is used with a

extended light source (the beam describing a cone giving
rise to different types of fringe patterns which may be
hard to interpret) the Twyman-Green interferometer uses
a monochromatic point source at the principal focus of a
collimating lens.
The schematic of a Twyman-Green Interferometer is

shown in Fig. 3.16.
It consists of a point source, two collimating lenses,

beam splitter, fixed mirror and a movable mirror. Light
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from a nearly monochromatic point source passes through
Fixed m irro r
M1
First
C o llim ating Be am sp litter
len s
M ovable
S m irro r
M2
L1
Pin h ole Se co nd
source d iaph ra gm C o llim ating
L2
len s
S'
Eye
Fig: 3.16 Tw ym an -G reen interfero m eter
a pin hole diaphragm to a collimating lens where all rays

are rendered parallel to the optical axis and describe the
same path.
The light is divided into two beams of equal
intensity at the 50% reflecting at the mirrors M 1 and
M 2. (which are arranged perpendicular to the optical
axis), the beams are combined and brought to a focus at
s by the second collimating lens L 2. To properly align
the interferometer, the mirrors are adjusted with
micrometer screws until the images from the two mirrors
coincide with the light source at s. Also the two images
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will coincide at the plane containing image s. So, the

superimposed plane waves from each mirror are exactly
parallel and a constant phase difference between the
recombined beams exists across the entire field of view.
In this case, the observer at the focus of the lens L 2 will
see uniform illumination. The intensity of illumination
depends on the path difference. When the path difference
is zero or differs by an integral number of wavelengths
(0, 1, 2,  ) the intensity is maximum otherwise (if
12, 32, 52, the field of view is dark.
So, when both the mirrors are flat and properly
aligned, the field of view is uniformly illuminated and no
fringes are observed but if one mirror (ie M 2) has a small
surface irregularity, it would lead to a localised fringe
pattern that looks like a contour map. The fringes are
the contour lines of the distorted wave front (due to the
irregular surface of M 2). So the imperfections of the
mirror M 2 is found at once in terms of its wavefront
observations.
3.5.3.1 Counting of fringes

In the Michelson setup (displacement
interferometers), the moving mirror’s relative
displacement will show periodic changes in the intensity
of the field being viewed from bright to dark for every
 movement of the mirror. ( - wave length of the light
source used). The intensity variation is found to be
sinusoidal. Also if one mirror is slightly inclined to the
optical axis then parallel fringes will be seen moving
parallel to themselves by one fringe for every /2 motion
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of the mirror. It is difficult to count such fringes by eye,

so photodetectors connected to high speed counters are
used by which accuracy of one part in million can be
obtained.
A fringe counting system based on koster’s prism is
shown in Fig. 3.17. Here the two interfering paths are
arranged parallel instead of at right angles.
Ph otodetecto r
M on ochrom atic
ligh t source
Ko ster ’s
prism
Be am
splitting
surface
Fixe d M ovable
m irro r M 1 m irro r M 2
Fig: 3.17 Fringe co unting interferom eter
based on Koster’s prism
The following must be taken care of to count the

fringes.
 The mirror should travel exactly parallel to itself
to maintain uniform fringe fields which is not
possible due to limitations in the straightness of
machine ways. So cube-corner (or)
retro-reflectors are used which are not sensitive
to their own orientation and return the reflected
ray exactly parallel to the incident ray.
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 The wavelength of light source is affected by the

refractive index of air (wavelength of light is
constant only in vacuum). So, the system must
be shielded with insulating and radiation
reflecting enclosures.
 If the path difference between the two rays is
high, then the signal strength becomes poor. So,
the range of movement of the movable mirror is
limited. To overcome this problem, an AC laser
source is used or a Fabry-Perot etalon coupled
with a Twyman - Green Interferometer is used.
 The presence of vibration remove the fringes
completely or may be disturbing to the observer.
The use of a Koster’s prism tends to reduce this
problem, as here the vibration tends to affect
both the arms equally.
 Two photodetectors, one focussing the dark
fringe and the other focussing the bright fringe
are arranged at 90 phase degree with respect to
each other, to count the fringes corresponding to
both forward & backward movements. Also
another photodetector is needed to detect fringe
position to less then 1/4 fringe. Then three
photodetectors, 120 out of phase with each
other have to be arranged.
3.5.4 Single frequency DC Interferometer
For two beams of light to interfere, the beams must
have the same polarization state. A polariser transmits
only a single polarisation state. The orientation of the
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transmitted polarisation state is based on the angle of

the polariser in the optical path.
Wave plates (or) retarders change the polarisation
state of light. A quarter waveplate will convert linearly
polarised light to a circular polarisation state and a half
waveplate will rotate the plane of polarisation eg. from
horizontal to vertical.
A polarisation beam splitter separates the source
into two beams with opposite polarisation states referred
to as the reference and measurement legs.
The homodyne or single frequency DC
Interferometer is an improved version of the Michelson
interferometer. It consists of laser source, polarisation
optics, retro reflectors, photo detector(s) and measurement
electronics. The laser source is usually He Ne laser which
outputs a single frequency beam consisting of two
opposing circularly polarised components. This beam, on
reaching the polarising beam splitter, is split into two
Fix e d
R etro re fle c to r
R efere nce A rm
P o la rize d M o vab le
L ase r b ea m R eco m bin ed re tro refle cto r
b ea m R efle cte d be a m
L ase r
s o urc e
Tra ns m itted b e am
M o vem e nt
D etector B e am
Q u a rte r s p litter M e as u rem e n t a rm
w ave p la te
D etector
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Fig: 3.18 S ing le freq uency D C inte rferom ete r
components. One the reflected beam (reference arm) being

vertically polarised light and other, the transmitted beam
(measurement arm) being horizontally polarised light.
These two beams, upon reflection from their
retroreflectors, recombine at the beam splitter but being
differently polarised, do not interfere. So, the recombined
beam is passed through quarter waveplate which causes
the two beams to interfere with one another to produce
a plane polarised beam. This beam is split into three
polarisation sensitive detectors, the outputs of which can
be used to distinguish the direction of movement and also
the distance moved by the moving retroreflector attached
to the surface whose displacement is to be measured. As
A n gu lar A n gu lar
in te rfe rom e te r re fle ctor
L1 6
S
S
L2 L1 - L2
A n gle 6 = sin -1 ((L 1 -L 2)/S )
Fig: Angular measurem ent w ith an interferom eter
S traightn ess
re fle ctor
S traightn ess
in te rfe rom e te r L1
6 S traightn ess erro r=
0 .5 x (L 1 -L 2)/S in 6
L2
Fig. 3.19: Straightness m easurem ent w ith an interferometer

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the refractive index of air varies with temperature,

pressure and humidity arrangement have to be made for
environmental compensation.
Using the interferometer with application specific
design, the measured optical path change can be related
to physical quantities such as linear displacement,
angular displacement, straightness, flatness, squareness
and parallelism.
DC interferometers detect changes in intensity, so

the following conditions can cause errors.
 beam intensity profile changes during

displacement
 reference and measurement beam overlap during
motion
 non - ideal characteristics of photo diodes
3.5.5 NPL Flatness Interferometer

As the name suggests, two interferometer is used
to check the flatness of surfaces. It is designed by the
National Physical Laboratory and commercially
manufactured by Hilger and Watts Ltd. In this
instrument, the flatness of any surface is judged by
comparing with an optical flat surface (usually the base
plate of the instrument). The optical arrangement is
shown in Fig. 3.20.
The system consists of
 a light source
 a condensing lens system
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suitable table to position the work part (gauge)
 projection optics comprising lenses and mirrors

 an optical flat.
M ercu ry va po u r ligh t so urce
C o nd en sing len s
G re en filte r
P in h o le
G la ss pla te re fle ctor
Eye
4 5 d eg re es
C o llim ating len s
P a ralle l rays O ptical flat
S u rfa ce u nd er te st
B a se p la te
G au g e
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Fig. 3.20 NPL Flatness Interfero meter
The light from a mercury vapour lamp is condensed

and passed through a green filter, resulting in a green
monochromatic light source. This radiation will now pass
through a pinhole giving an intense point source of
monochromatic light. The pinhole is positioned in the
focal plane of a collimating lens, hence a parallel beam
of light is projected on the face of the gauge to be tested,
which is wrung on the base plate via an optical flat. This
results in the formation of interference fringes: The
fringes can be viewed directly as the light beam carrying
the image of the fringes is reflected back and directed by
90 using a thick glass plate reflector placed at 45 to
the optical axis. The various results can be studied for
comparison.
If the gauge is flat and parallel, then the fringe
pattern from both the gauge face and the base plate will
consist of straight, parallel and equally spaced fringes
(Refer Fig. 3.21). If the gauge is flat but not parallel to
the base plate, then straight and parallel fringes of
different pitch are observed (Refer Fig. 3.22).
Fig: 3 .22 Ga ug e is flat bu t no t parallel

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Fig. 3.2 1 G au ge is flat & p arallel
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a ) R oun ding o ff at co rners
b ) G au ge S urfac e inc lin ed to th e ba se p la te
c) G aug e su rfa ce is c onv ex o r co nc ave
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Fig. 3.23 Fringe Patterns for Different Conditions
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The parallelism of surfaces can also be measured

by placing the gauge on a rotary table. The gauge is
placed in a specific position and then the first reading is
taken. The number of finges obtained is the result of the
angle that the gauge surface makes with the optical flat.
Then the table is turned to 180 and the second reading
is taken. Again the number of fringes are observed and
noted down.
Now,
The change in distance between the gauge and

optical flat  /2.
where,  is the wavelength of light used
Then,
N 2  N1  
Error in parallelism 
4
where N 1  number of fringes in the first position, and
N 2  number of fringes in the second position
The other conditions which can occur are shown in

the Fig.3.23.
3.5.6 AC Laser Interferometry

A d.c interferometer system mixes out of phase light
beams of the same frequency whereas the a.c system
mixes beams of two slightly different frequencies,
permitting the distance information to be carried on a.c.
waveform. The a.c system uses a source containing two
frequency components located close to each other creating
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a beat phenomenon whose amplitude variation can be
Fig: 3.24 B eat ph en om en on ca used by the superpo sition of tw o

m ono ch rom atic w aves ha vin g tw o sligh tly different freq uen cy c om pon en ts
made much slower than the radiation frequency itself as

shown in Fig 3.24. The envelope frequency is given by
the difference of the two frequency components (f1  f2) of
the source radiation.
So, an a.c laser interferometer measures mirror
displacement by measuring the phase change due to the
doppler effect. It gives a much improved signal to noise
ratio over amplitude modulation, as the noise sources that
affect signal amplitude have little effect on phase.
3.5.6.1 Description of component in A.C Laser

Interferometer
1. Two frequency laser source

2. Optical Elements
(i) Beam splitters
(ii) Beam Benders
(iii) Retro-reflectors
3. Laser lead’s measurement receiver.
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4. Measurement display.
Two frequency laser source

This is usually a HeNe laser that generates stable
coherent light beams of two slightly different frequencies.
The two frequency components are distinguishable by
their opposite circular polarizations. The beam passes
through a quarter wave plate and half waveplate which
change the circular polarisation to linear perpendicular
polarisation, one vertical and other horizontal.
2. Optical Elements
(i) Beam splitters: Beam splitters divide the laser
beam into separate beams along different axes. The
commonly used form of beam splitter is a partially
reflecting metal or dielectric film on a transparent
substrate. Other forms are polarizing prisms and
diffraction gratings.
The splitted laser’s output intensity can be adjusted

by having a choice of beam splitter reflectivities.
C le a r transparent glass-ligh t S ilvere d m irro r g lass-ligh t

g oe s straight thro ug h refle cts off
P artially silve red m irror - P artially silve red m irror -

som e ligh t go es throug h, o ne incom ing be am
som e refle cts g oe s throu gh , other reflects
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An “image combiner” is just a beam splitter in

reverse.
Beam benders: These are usually flat mirrors having

very high reflectivity. They are used to deflect the light
beam around corners on it path from the laser source to
each one’s.
Retro-reflectors: A retro-reflector is a device or surface

that reflects light back to its source with minimum
scattering i.e the reflected beam is parallel to the
incidental beam but opposite in direction. They can be
plane mirrors, roof prisms or cube-corners. A plane mirror
acts as a retroreflector only when it is exactly
perpendicular to the wavefront. Cube corners are a set of
three perpendicular plane mirrors, placed to form the
corner of a cube.
3. Laser head’s Measurement receiver

Laser head’s measurement receiver will detect part
of the returning laser beam and a doppler shifted
frequency components ( f).
4. Measurement display
The signals from reference receiver and
measurement receiver are counted in two separate pulse
counters and subtracted. Necessary calculations are made
using a micro computer. The computed value and other
corrected input signals like temperature, coefficient of
expansions, air velocity, etc are displayed.
3.5.7 AC Laser Interferometer (ACLI)
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The schematic of a ACLI is shown in the Fig. 3.26.
Using a AC laser light source maintains the quality

of interference fringes over longer distances. Here a two
frequency zeeman laser is used which outputs light of two
slightly different frequencies with opposite circular
polarisation. (zeeman technique applies a magnetic field
to a laser to create two frequency states).
At the beam splitter B 1, the light splits into two,

one part of which travels to the Beam splitter B 2 and
another to the photo detector P 1. At B 2, the frequencies
f1 & f2 are optically separated.
f1 is transmitted to the movable retro reflector

where displacement is to be measured and f2 to the fixed
retroreflector. After reflection, both the beams recombine
Fixed in terna l
cube co rner
B1 f2
Beam splitte rs
Tw o B2
fre que ncy f1
zeem an
la ser f2 & f1
f1 + f
P1 P2 f 2 &(f 1 + f)
R eference b eam Externa l
cube co rner
Photo D opple r
D etecto rs signal
f 2(f 1+ f) Am plifier, A 2
UP
Pulse
R eference C onvertor
signal f 2 -f1 DOW N
Am plifier, A 1
Fig.3.26 AC Laser Interferometer
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at the beam splitter B 2 to produce alternate light and

dark interference. Now, if the movable retroreflector is
displaced, then the returning beam frequency will be
Doppler-shifted up or down by  f. So, the beam having
frequencies f2 and f1   f travel to the photo detector P 2,
where they are converted into electrical signals.
Also, the beam (reference beam) which travelled to
P 1 is converted into electrical signal. Now the frequency
difference signal f2  f1 is separated by the AC amplifier
A 1 and f2  f1   f1 is separated by amplifier A 2. The
pulse converter extracts  f, one cycle per half wavelength
of motion. (In dc systems the output is in the form of
sinusoidal waves whereas the ACLI, it is in the form of
pulses). the up and down pulses from the converter are
counted electronically and displayed in analog or digital
form on the indicator. From the value of  f, the distance
moved by the moving cube corner can be determined.
3.5.7.1 Advantages of ACLI

 It is more tolerant to environmental factors like
dust, smoke, air turbulence, etc that attenuate
laser beam intensity.
 It has high repeatability and resolution of
displacement measurement.
 It has high accuracy of measurement.
 If facilitates to maintain long range optical path
(60 m)
 It is easy to install.
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 There is no change in performance due to wear

and tear (or) ageing.
 It requires no warm up time or standby power
sources of errors in ACLI.
 Uncertainty in the refractive index of air
 Alignment (No cosine error) is good.
3.5.8 HETERODYNE INTERFEROMETRY
Heterodyning is a technique in which new
frequencies are created by combining or mixing two
frequencies in a signal processing device called a mixer.
The new frequencies are called heterodynes. For example,
if two signals at frequencies f1 and f2 are mixed, we get
one signal at frequency f1  f2 and the other signal at
frequency f1  f2.
In heterodyne detection, the desired outcome is the

difference frequency, which carries the information
(amplitude, phase and frequency modulation) of the
original higher frequency signal, but it is oscillating at a
lower more easily processed carrier frequency.
Heterodyne interferometer is an a.c device which

overcomes the problems of d.c interferometer like
miscounting of the fringes due to fringe contrast changes
and d.c level shifts. In the Heterodyne interferometer, the
measurement is made using two closely spaced light
frequencies.
Here, a helium-neon laser (He-Ne) with an axial

magnetic field splits its output in two opposite circularly
polarized frequencies (say f1 & f2 separated by around 1
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to 7 MHz. This is referred to as the split frequency or
F ix e d
R e f er e n c e
A rm
B eam
f2 M e a s u re m e n t A rm
s p litt er
f 1 ,f 2
Z eem an
s ta b lis h e d
f1
L aser
s o u rc e
Ta rg e t
f 1 ,f 2 f1 + f M ove m en t
D e t ec t o r P o la riz in g C ub e
D2 b e a m s p litte r c o rn e r
D e t ec t o r
D1 f 2 -f 1+ f
(D e te c te d b e a t)
R e f er e n c e
b e a t f 1 -f 2
C o u n te r 2
S u b t ra c to r D is p la y
D e v ic e
C o u n te r 1
Fig: 3.27 Working principle of Heterod yne Interferometer
zeeman split. The output beam is converted into two

linear, orthogonal polarisation using optical components.
This linearly polarized light facilitates separation in the
interferometer using a Polarisation Beam Splitter (PBS).
A beam splitter placed in front of the laser source
separates the light into two parts. One part of the signal
is mixed on detector D 1 to provide a reference beat
f1  f2. The other part travels upto the PBS where it is
split and directed to two arms: reference arm and
measurement arm. Upon reflection from the cube
corners, the two signals recombine at the PBS and are
detected by D 2. If the target is stationary, the detected
beat is f1  f2 whereas if it moves, then the detected beat
is f2  f1   f, where  f is a Doppler shift in frequency
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caused by movement of the cube-corner. Two independent

counters count the reference and measure beats which
are subtracted to give  f. Integration of the count over
time t gives 2d/ . Hence the distance is measured.
3.6 LASER ALIGNMENT

Modern Optical Metrology uses precise lines and
planes in space for which measurements are made. The
use of laser permits alignment test to be carried over a
long distance when compared to other conventional
equipments like alignment telescope. The laser equipment
produces straight line that can be seen in space but the
telescope provides only imaginary line. Laser testing is
particularly suitable in aircraft production, ship building
etc., where a number of components, spaced long distance
apart, have to be checked to predetermined straight line.
Other uses of laser equipment are testing of flatness of
mechanical surfaces and checking squareness with the
help of optical square etc.,
3.6.1 Laser equipment

Laser equipment for alignment testing basically
consists of laser tube which produces a cylindrical beam
of laser of 10 mm diameter and an auto reflector is used
to locate the centre of the cylindrical laser beam with a
high degree of accuracy at any distance. Laser tube
consists of a helium-neon plasma tube in a heavy
aluminium co -axial cylindrical housing. The housing is
supported on a stand to reduce transmission loss.
Sophisticated arrangements are carried out inside the
tube and to provide high frequency, flat mirror is used.
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The laser beam comes out from the housing, exactly from
its centre (within 0.02 mm) and parallel to the housing

within 10 miniutes of arc. The alignment stability of such
devices is of the order of 0.2 minutes of arc per hour.
Auto reflectors consist of detector head and a read
out unit. Number of photocells are arranged to compare
laser beam in each half horizontally and vertically. This
is housed on a stand which has two adjustments to
translate the detector in its two orthogonal measuring
direction perpendicular to the laser beam. This device
detect the alignment of flat surfaces perpendicular to a
reference line of sight. So a reference line of sight can be
established first, then by using second centering head and
any number of intermediate parts can be aligned.
To measure squareness of surface, an optical square
(or) penta prism can be used which reflects a laser beam
exactly by 90 within 1 min of arc. The direction of
surface plate from two planes can be checked by moving
lenses to a number of position and establishing the
required number of intersecting lines. Also by using a
levelling mirror, the surface level can be checked.
3.6.2 Straightness
In aligning several points, a tight wire is often used
as a reference line. This technique has several drawbacks.
For example, wire has weight, which causes it to sag;
over long distances, this sag become considerable. In laser
alignment, the line of sight is established by a beam
instead of tightwire. The invisible line of sight reference
has no weight, cannot sag, kink etc., determining
straightness to within thousands of an inch.
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3.7 COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE (CMM)
A coordinate measuring machine is a sophisticated

measuring device used to determine the geometrical
characteristics of an object operating in a three
dimensional space. CMMs are mechanical systems
designed to move a measuring probe to determine
coordinates of points on an object’s surface. These
machines can do 100% dimensional assessment and are
versatile in their capability to record measurement of
complex profiles with high sensitivity and speed.
3.7.1 NEED for CMMs

The automation of machine tools triggered the need
for a faster and more flexible means of measuring. This
resulted in the introduction of three dimensional
measuring machines. Industrial quality assurance
required increased universality, flexibility and automation
from measuring technology. Also, emphasis on statistical
process control for quality improvement has accelerated
the demand for faster and more accurate measurements.
These growing requirements were fulfilled by the
coordinate measuring machines. The CMM was first
developed by the company Ferranti in Scotland.
CMMs play a important role in the mechanisation

of the inspection process. These machines provide precise
measurements of objects for design, testing, profiling and
reverse engineering of parts. Some are used as layout
machines before machining and for checking feature
locations after machining. The machines may be manually
controlled by an operator or computer controlled. CMMs
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can be placed close to machine tools for efficient
inspection and rapid feed back for correction of processing

parameter before the next part is made. Also, a single
measuring setup and single workpiece clamping is enough
to provide data on deviations in dimensions, form and
position as against three different setups and three
workpiece clampings in conventional methods. CMMs are
programmable to measure identical parts repeatedly, thus
making them a specialized form of industrial robots.
These machines are available in a wide range of sizes
and designs and use a variety of different interfaces and
modeling software.
A typical CMM is composed of three-orthogonal
axes, x, y, z operating in a three dimensional coordinate
system. Each axis has a scale system that indicates the
position of that axis. After placing a workpiece on the
machine table, a suspended touch probe (operated either
manually via an operator or automatically via a control
system) is used to measure different points on the
workpiece. Each point on the workpiece is unique to the
machine coordinate system. The machine now utilises the
x, y, z coordinates of each of these discrete points to
determine the size and position with micrometer
precision.
Also the points generated can be unloaded to a
computer interface where they can be analysed using
modeling software like CAD and regression algorithms for
further development.
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3.7.2 Coordinate Measuring Machine –

Construction and Operation
Precision M ach ine con trol

m ach ine CMM unit a nd com pute r
structure hardw are
Probing Application
system softw are
Fig. 3.28 Diagram of coordinate measuring system
A coordinate measuring machine consists mainly of

four elements. They are
(a) The main structure including the three axes of

motion
(b) The probing system,
(c) The machine controller and computer hardware
(d) Suitable Application software
(a) Main Structure

The main structure includes
 The axes
 Length measuring system
 The machine base with work table
All CMM designs, incorporate the basic concept of
three co-ordinate axes. The movement of the x, y and z
axes fully describes the measuring envelope. Each axis is
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fitted with a linear measurement transducer for positional
feedback and displayed digitally. The movement along the

three planes is through precision guideways. The most
widely used guideways are air bearing granite guideways.
They are free of any sticking effect, can carry large loads,
have long term stability, and can damp vibrations
effectively due to their weight. The air bearing when
compared to mechanical bearings provide frictionless and
no-contact axis movement.
Nowadays CMM frames are built from aluminium
alloys or new-materials like ceramic and silicon carbide
where increased stiffness of the measuring axis is
required like for scanning applications.
The length measuring systems consist of

measurement scales and scale readers. The position of the
stylus system is reported by the length measuring system
to the controller. Commonly used are stainless steel and
glass scale systems. They utilize non-contact, electro
optical reader heads for determining the exact position of
the machine.
Z Y -a xis
Y b ea rin g
D isp la y
X
Coordinate system
X -a xis P ro be h ea d C o ntrol
P re cis io n P ro be e le ctron ic s
sca le
Joy stick
con tro ls
W ork tab le
M ac h in e
fo un da tion
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Fig: 3 .2 9 C om pon en ts of a conv entio nal C M M
The machine base carries the worktable, and all

fixed and mobile components. Only in gantry style
machines (discussed later) the work table is separate from
the machine base. The worktable is usually made of
granite and provided with grooves or tapped holes to
facilitate the clamping and locating of parts. Granite is
used because of its stability in various environments.
There are no special requirements concerning the flatness
of the table since the precision of measurement is
determined by the straightness of the guideways in the
axes of the co-ordinate measuring machine.
(b) Probing System

Probe is the sensory part of a coordinate measuring
machine responsible for gathering data from the
workpiece. Probes are inserted into the probe arm, which
is supported by the moving frame that allows movement
of the probe relative to the workpiece. There are different
probes of contact and non-contact type. In contact probing
system, the acquisition of the measuring points take place
by probing the surface using a stylus and simultaneously
reading the length measuring system in that position. The
probe contains one or more styli and are interchangeable.
A stylus is a hard ball (Steel or Ruby) soldered at the
end of a small shaft. Different tipped stylus are also
available for different applications. Optical and laser
probes are of the non-contact type.
(c) Machine Controller and Computer

A controller of a CMM fulfills many functions like
axis control, object probing, programming, control of
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measuring run, data acquisition and evaluation.
Coordinate measuring machines are controlled either

manually or by a computer. In terms of control technology
equipment, two types are in use.
 Manually operated CMM with computer -
assisted data evaluation and reporting.
 CNC - CMM with offline programming capability
and measurement data feedback.
As high degree of automation and high flexibility
are desired, CNC-CMMs are widely used. Here, the
control of the CMM and processing of the obtained data
are performed by computers. The computer analyzes the
measuring results obtained, to arrive at a comprehensive
conclusion regarding the dimensional, form and position
tolerances of the probed form elements.
(d) Software
The computer and the software together represent
one system. The software is a set of coded instructions,
formulae and operations that structure the actions of the
computer. It is the most important element of any CMM
because its power determines the number of part features
that can be measured and its ease of use and
sophistication is the key to productivity of all
computer-assisted CMMs. The functional capabilities of a
CMM software should include.
 Correction of all systematic effects such as

guideway deviations, rectangularity deviations,
temperature effects or stylus bending.
 Conversion of measured values from the
machine co-ordinate system to any desired part
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coordinate system.
 Programs to define geometric elements, for

evaluating geometric tolerance conditions and to
optimize machining - allowance distribution
 Programs to handle special shapes like gears,
cams and also for automatic part scanning for
digitizing profiles.
 Interface to CAD software.
 Digital input and output commands for process
integration.
3.7.3 Operation
The part is placed on the worktable of the CMM at
a suitable location, usually central to the machine axes
to access all the part surfaces to be inspected with the
probe. It may be necessary to clamp the part to the
worktable depending upon the size of the part and the
type of probes used. If many similar parts are to be
inspected, a reference location point is established with a
reference precision cube (or) sphere. The probe is moved
to make contact with the surface of the part and
instantaneously the coordinate positions of the probe are
accurately measured by displacement transducers
associated with each of the three linear axis and recorded
by the CMM controller. Compensation is made for the
radius of the probe tip and any limited over travel of the
probe quill due to momentum is neglected. After the prob
is separated from the contact surface it returns to its
neutral position. The dimensional and geometric elements
are calculated, compared and evaluated.
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3.8 TYPES OF CMM

CMMs are classified as follows
1. According to control system
(i) Manual CMMs or Free Floating CMMs (operator

controlled)
(ii) Computer Numerical Control (CNC) (or) Direct

Computer Control (DCC) CMMs
2. According to design of main structure or orientation

of probe arm (s).
(i) Bridge type
(ii) Cantilever type
(iii) Column type
(iv) Gantry type
(v) Horizontal type
3. According to mounting style
(i) Benchtop
(ii) Free standing
(iii) Portable and Hand held
3.8.1 Manual CMMs

These CMMs are operator controlled devices where
an operator physically moves the probe along the axis to
make contact and record measurements. Manual CMMs
are used for small and medium size component inspection
and are best suited for prototype workshops with small
quantities of measurements. These are less costly than
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computer controlled CMMs of the same size.
3.8.2 CNC or DCC CMMs

In these type of CMMs, the probe movement is
controlled by a computer system. While both manual and
CNC-CMMs can be programmed, the latter are driven by
motors instead of the operator. This results in huge
savings in time for inspection. CNC-CMMs are most
suitable for production environments requiring a higher
volume of measurements and for applications where
complex and small measurements with fine features are
involved.
3.8.3 Bridge Type CMMs
The bridge type CMMs are the most widely used
coordinate measuring machines. They consist of an arm
suspended vertically from a horizontal beam that is
supported by two vertical posts in a bridge arrangement.
The bridge type construction provides better accuracy and
high rigidity. The disadvantage of this type is the limited
accessibility caused by the bridge. The machine axis
Z
Y Y
X
Z
(a) S tatio nary table , m oving b ridg e (b ) S tation ary b ridg e , m o vin g table ,
F ig. 3.30 Bridg e C M M
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carries the bridge, which spans the object to be measured.

The bridge supports the machine y-axis (guide rail), the
bearings and the machine’s z-axis bar. Two different
designs of the bridge type are
 Stationary table and moving bridge
This design allows high table loads and has large
clamping surface.
 Stationary bridge and moving table.

In this design table load is restricted due to
acceleration but high rigidity of the overall structure
leads to small measuring uncertainty.
3.8.4 Cantilever type CMM

In this type, a cantilever support structure carries
a vertical arm, to which the probe is attached. The
cantilever part of the column must have short length to
enable high rigidity which makes the cantilever type
X
Y
Y
Z z
(a ) Fixe d ta ble
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Fig. 3.31 C an tilever C M M (b ) M ovin g ta ble
suitable only for small measuring ranges. These CMMs

allow high accelerations and speeds to be achieved due
to large supporting base of the column and its low weight.
The cantilever CMMs, due to their construction
enable easy access and require relatively small floor
space. Part larger than the machine table can be inserted
into the open side without restraining full machine travel.
The cantilever CMMs have small measuring uncertainties
and so are used predominantly for precision
measurements on gauges and master parts. They can
come in two configurations: fixed table and moving table.
3.8.5 Column Type CMMs
Y
x
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Fig. 3.32 Column type CM M
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The column type CMM is usually called as universal

measuring machine. Here, the column moves in the z (ie
vertical) direction only and a two-axis saddle permits
movement in the x and y (ie horizontal) direction. The
difference between column type and cantilever type is
with the x-axis and y-axis movements. These machines
are used in the gauge room rather than on the production
floor.
3.8.6 Gantry Type CMMs

These CMMs have a frame structure so as to span
over the object to be measured or scanned. They employ
three movable components moving along mutually
perpendicular guideways. Columns attached to the floor
carry two rails parallel to each other. The cross beam is
supported and moves in the x-direction along these two
elevated rails. The probe quill is mounted in a carriage
that moves in the y-direction (ie horizontally) along the
cross-beam. The probe attached to the probe quill moves
in the z direction (ie vertically) relative to the cross-beam.
Y
X
Z
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Fig: 3.33 G antry CM M
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Gantry measuring machines are large and are built

very solidly. They are used for measurements of very
large parts in system manufacturing and heavy machine
construction. They are also used in measuring car body
and wind tunnel models.
3.8.7 Horizontal Arm CMM

Horizontal CMMs carry the probe horizontally
cantilevered from a vertical support. Different types of
CMMs are available like
(a) Moving arm
(b) Moving table and
(c) Fixed-table.
In the moving-arm design, the arm is encased in a

carriage supported on a column. The column moves
Fig. 3.34 Moving arm h orizon tal CM M

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Z
Y
X
Fig. 3.35 M o ving tab le

ho rizontal C M M
horizontally (x-direction) relative to the base and the

carriage moves in the vertical z direction. The probe is
attached to the horizontal arm, which moves in the
y -direction.
In the moving table CMM, the horizontal arm is

fixed at one end to the carriage. The movement in the
y -direction (horizontally) is provided by the moving-table.
In fixed table design, the horizontal arm is attached

to the column, like a cantilever and moves in the
z (vertical) direction. The column moves horizontally, in
both x and y directions, relative to the machine base. The
Fig. 3.36 shows a horizontal CMM with fixed table.
Four axis capability is obtainable in a horizontal
CMM by incorporating a rotary table. In some horizontal
machines, the probe arm can rotate like a spindle to
perform trimming operations. Trimming referred to the
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accurate mechanical
adjustment of the
machine with the help of z
a tram.
Horizontal CMMs x
Y
have very large

measuring range and are
known for their robust
construction and low
power consumption. Fig. 3.36 Fixed table h orizon tal C M M
Maximum accessibility
has been achieved in these machines. The open structure
of these machines provide optimum accessibility for large
objects. They are predominantly used for checking sheet
metal, large gear cases and engine blocks. Some CMMs
are equipped with dual arms so that independent
measurements can be taken on both sides of large objects
like car body simultaneously. They are also used in
aircraft construction and ship building. Some horizontal
arm machines are referred to as layout machines.
3.8.8 Benchtop CMMs

These machines are mounted on a bench or desk.
Most CMMs are of this type.
3.8.9 Free Standing CMMs

These machines can support themselves and do not
require mounting.
Portable CMMs
These machines usually take the form of an

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articulated arm and can be moved freely and used almost
anywhere. They consist of rotary axes with rotary

encoders instead of linear axes. Unlike CNC-CMMs, these
machines are generally operated by hand.
Handheld CMMs are a subset of portable machines
which are arm-free, beam-free, cable-free and operated by
hand. They are highly suitable and advantageous over
the conventional CMMs for use on the shop floor.
Some advantages of portable CMM

 Increased reliability and speed
 Total freedom of movement resulting in
increased productivity and quality
 Insensitive to vibrations or other changes in the
environment.
 Highly efficient for measuring parts that cannot
be moved to a table.
 Highly suitable for geometric and surface quality
control.
Portable CMMs have applications in automotive,
aviation, maritime and manufacturing industries, reverse
engineering and other fields.
3.9 ADVANTAGES OF CMM

The advantages of using CMMs over conventional
inspection techniques are given here.
(a) Reduced inspection cycle time

Due to automated techniques used in the operation
of a CMM, the inspection procedures are greatly speeded
up. Software allows the operator to define the part’s
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orientation on the CMM and all subsequent coordinate
data are automatically corrected for any misalignment

between the parts reference system and the machine
coordinates.
Also conventional inspection techniques required
multiple setups to measure multiple part features and
dimensions whereas a CMM with sophisticated software
can inspect parts in a single setup without the need to
reorient the part for access to all features even when a
fourth axis (rotary table) is used.
(b) Flexibility
A CMM is a universal measuring machine that can
be used to inspect a variety of different part
configurations with minimal change over time. Also
special fixtures or jigs are required and most of the parts
can be inspected without being clamped to the table since
the probe contact is light.
(c) Reduced operator errors

Human errors in measurements and setups are
reduced in a CMM due to automation of the inspection
procedure. Digital readouts eliminate the subjective
interpretation of readings. Modern electronic probe
systems eliminate operator ‘feel’. In computer assisted
CMM, the machine is under the control of a program that
eliminates operator choice. Errors in transcribing readings
to the inspection report are prevented by the use of
automatic data recording available on most machines.
(d) Improved accuracy and precisions

A CMM is inherently more accurate and precise
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than manual inspection methods. In a CMM,
measurements are taken from a common geometrically

fixed measuring system, eliminating the introduction and
accumulation of errors. Also, single setup measurements
of all significant parts prevents the introduction of errors
due to setup changes.
(c) Improved productivity

As discussed above, the advantages of a CMM like
reduced cycle time, lesser operator influence, avoidance of
multiple setups, etc translate into higher throughput and
measurement accuracy. The computational and analytical
capabilities of associated data handling systems further
increase productivity.
3.10 PROBES
CMMs measure work place dimensions by moving
a sensing device, called a probe, in the machine’s is 3-D
envelope.
The probes convert physical measurements into

electrical signals by using various measuring systems
within the probe structure. The versatility of a CMM
depends largely on the nature of the probing device used.
So, CMM probes as have evolved as a broad category of
instruments that use diverse technologies for direct and
comparative measurements. CMM probes fall into two
general categories:
 Tactile or contact probes

 Non-contact probes
3.10.1 Contact Probes
Contact probes, as the name suggests, gather data
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by physically touching the workpiece ie the acquisition of
the measuring points takes place by probing with a

stylus. Contact probes are classified.
 Hard or fixed probes
 Touch trigger probes
 Measuring type or displacement probes
3.10.2 Hard (or) Fixed Probes

These probes consist of a shaft and a probe tip
mounted in various ways to the probe arm. These require
manual manipulation ie the CMM operator manually
establishes contact between the probe and the workpiece
and signals the CMM to record the probes position. The
readings are automatically adjusted to compensate for the
diameter of the probe tip by the CMM software.
A variety of probe tip configurations are available

which enable a broad range of applications when used in
conjunction with manual CMMs. Conical tips are used for
locating holes, ball probes for surface locations, cylindrical
probes for checking slots and holes in sheet metal parts,
etc. Hard probes are simple to use and rugged but the
repeatability of measurement results depends upon
operator touch. These are used for low and medium
accuracy requirements.
3.10.3 Touch trigger type Probes

The touch - trigger probe was invented by Sir David
Mc. Murty, the co-founder of Renishaw. These probes are
precision built touch sensitive devices that generate an
electronic signal each time the probe contacts on the
workpiece. These probes are the most commonly used
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probes on CMMs nowadays.
A touch trigger probe consists of spherical sopphire

unit elastically connected to a rigid measuring unit. The
trigger is an omni directional switch capable of detecting
deflections and hence are also called as switching probes,
in any direction. The schematic representation of a trigger
probe is shown in Fig. 3.37.
S p rin g to return p rob e

to sea te d po sitio n
E lectrica l
circuit
E lectrica l
circuit
P o in ts o f
sup po rt
S tylus
W orkp ie ce
Fig 3.37 S chem atic of Touch Trigger Probe
The triggering probe is pretensioned in a three point

bearing, which fixes the styli, allowing them to move
flexibly in the six degrees of freedom of space. The
bearings are so designed that electrical contacts are
opened upon contacting the part. During opening of an
electrical contact, a pulse is generated and the positions
of the machine axes are read and stored. Then, the
machine backs off and the prestressed spring ensures the
seating position of the three point bearing. Since the
probe tip is spherical, its contact with the workpiece is a
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point contact and the controller automatically

compensates for the radius of the probe.
Touch trigger probes eliminate the influence of the
operator touch on measuring results and can be fitted on
DCC and manual CMMs. These probes are used
whenever fast recording of the measuring point or point
to point probing of the part is desired.
These probes suffer from lobbing due to stylus
bending when high trigger forces and long stylus
extensions are used. Piezo-based sensors are incorporated
to improve the accuracy by eliminating the effect of stylus
bending and inaccuracies caused by the probe’s internal
electromechanical parts. A further improvement is the
strain gauge technology which eliminates direction
sensitivity and submicron accuracy is possible, even with
long stylus combinations.
3.10.4 Measuring Type (or) Displacement Probes
These probes are also called displacement probes or
scanning contact probes. These type of contact probes are
usually used to measure contoured surfaces such as sheet
metal assemblies. For discrete point probing, we can use
either trigger type or measuring type probe system but
whereas for scanning applications, we need the measuring
type probe system. The measuring type probe remains in
contact with the workpiece surface as it moves and
transmits a continuous flow of information to the
measurement system. They may use Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT) or opto electronic
position sensing. A schematic diagram of measuring type
is shown in Fig. 3.38.
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FX
FY
W orkp ie ce
FZ
Fig: 3.38 Sch matic of measuring typ e p robe
In this measuring type probe system, the stylus is

connected to a machine axis via three spring
parallelograms perpendicular to each other which enable
the precise determinations of the stylus in the cartesian
coordinate form. The entire segment is free from torsion,
play and friction. At the moment of probing, these
parallelograms are deflected from their initial position
which are converted into signals. As soon as they are
deflected from their original position, the measuring axis
positions are read.
The continuous scanning probes can acquire more
data than traditional touch trigger probes in a given
amount of time but demand a stiffer structure due to the
scanning acceleration forces involved. This lead to the
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introduction of materials like silicon carbide, for the z-ram

of the CMM, which is lighter and stiffer and significantly
outperforms granite.
These probes are particularly useful for gauging and
surface - mapping of complex, contoured shapes including
crankshafts and cams, turbine engine blades, etc.
 For inspection of large sheet metal assembles

like automobile bodies.
3.10.5 Non-contact Probes

Non contact probes - also called as proximity probes
are used when fast, accurate measurements are required
with no physical contact with the part. These probes
enable the measurement of flexible parts whose soft
material and geometry might be distorted with a contact
probe. Since the probe does not physically contact the
surface, there is no wear and tear of the probe.
Nowadays, there is an increased use of non-contact probes
on CMMs for less complex, smaller and higher precision
parts. Many types of non-contact probes are available for
various applications.
3.10.6 Optical Probes

Optical probes like projection microscope and a
centering microscope are used for inspecting drawings,
printed circuit boards and small fragile parts. In the
projection microscope, the image under inspection is
displayed on the screen and by moving the CMM to align
the screen reticle, the part feature measurements are
obtained. In the centering microscope, the part feature
locations are obtained in the same way but here the user
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looks through the eyepiece.
3.10.7 Acoustical probe

This probe senses contact with the workpiece by the
sound wave generated by the touch. At contact, vibration
travels up the probe and is picked up by a sensitive
acoustic microphone inside the probe head.
3.10.8 Laser probes
These probes project a
laser beam on to the surface of
the part, the position of which is
then read by optical
triangulation through a lens in
the probe receptor. Part
inspection is generally limited to
two dimensions due to the
intrinsic nature of these probes
but also can be used for
scanning three-dimensional Fig. 3.39 Laser scan ner
surfaces.
3.10.9 Vision probes

Vision probes are
another form of non-contact
probes where the part is not
measured directly. Here, a
picture of the part is
electronically digitised (using
digitizing camera), creating
accurate dimensions of the
part features that are
measured and evaluated. The
lens of a vision probe needs Fig. 3.40 M ulti sensor probe for
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to be calibrated only once unlike traditional probes that

have to be recalibrated for each work piece. Hence these
are useful for inspection operations that require frequent
workpiece change overs. These probes are also used where
very high speed inspection or measurement is required,
particularly on very small 2D parts.
3.11 CMM STYLI AND ACCESSORIES

3.11.1 Styli
A stylus is that part of the probe, that makes
contact with the workpiece. It is usually a hard ball
attached at one end of a small shaft which is threaded
at the other end.
Styli of different
materials and
configurations are
available for different M ain m e asu rin g
applications. They can h ea d u n it
have balls made from

ruby, silicon nitride,
ceramic, zirconia or
tungsten carbide. Ruby is
the most used ball
P ro be m o du le
material due to its low
specific density and high
resistance to wear. The
styli stems or shanks are
made from materials like
stainless steel, ceramic, S tylus
titanium, tungsten
carbide or carbon fibre.
Fig. 3.41 Prob e H ead U n it
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Stainless steel is durable and costs less and hence widely

used.
Tungsten carbide, ceramic and carbon fibers
non-magnetic. With tungsten carbide small diameter
shank, sub-micron deflection can be achieved. Ceramic is
light weight, easy to see and has same coefficient of
thermal expansion as that of ball. Carbon fibre is stiff,
light and does not change its length as temperature
varies. So, it is used for high speed machines and long
stylus combinations.
The types of styli available to suit different

applications are given here with figures.
 Standard or straight styli

 L -shaped styli
 Star - styli
 Pointer and scriber styli
 Disc styli
 Cylinder styli
 Ceramic half sphere styli
 Swiveling styli
 Pin styli
Apart from the above styli, there are custom styli
designed and manufactured to suit specific requirements.
3.11.2 Applications of Different Styli

(a) Straight styli are the simplest and most frequently
used. They are suitable for standard probing
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applications and the measuring of tiny bore holes.
(d) Pointer styli
scrib er styli
(b) L-Shap ed styli
(g) Swiveling
styli (i) pin styli
(a) straight styli
(c) Star styli
(e) Disc styli

(g) Ceram ic half sph ere styli
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(h) Cylinder styli
Books Fig. 3.42 Typ es of Styli

(b) Star styli are used

for different
measuring tasks in
standard
coordinate
Fig 3.43 A pplicatio n of straig ht styli
Fig. 3.44 Application of start styli
directions. This configuration gives flexibility,

enabling the tip to make contact with features
without changing the stylus. Star styli are very
useful to measure bores with under cuts and
suitable for fixed position probe heads.
(c) Pointer stylus
applications are
used in surface
measurements,
scribe lines and
thread root depth.
For more accurate
datuming and Fig. 3.45 Application of pointer styli
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probing of features, radius

end pointer styli are used.
They can be also used to
inspect the location of very
small holes.
(d) Cylinder styli are used for
probing holes and contours
of sheet metal parts
pressed components and
twin work pieces as for
such parts proper contact
with ball styli cannot be
guaranteed. Also, with
these styli various Fig 3.45 (a) C ylin der styli
threaded features
can be probed and
centres of tapped
holes can be
located.
(f) Disc styli are
sections of highly
spherical balls
used to probe
undercuts and
Fig. 3.46 A pp lic ation of d isc styli
grooves within
bores, inaccessible to star styli.
(g) Ceramic half sphere styli are ideal for probing
large, deep bores and features. Also, the effects of
very rough surfaces can be averaged by using such
large diameter ball.
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(h) Swiveling styli are held

in specially designed
holders and are used to
measure bevelled holes.
3.11.3 Stylus Extension
Stylus extensions enable
the probe to reach features
deep inside the workpiece like
holes (or) seats. These are
available in different lengths
and materials like steel, Fig. 3.47 Applicatio n o f
ceramic h alf sp here styli
titanium, aluminium, ceramic
and carbon fibre.
Weight and bending stiffness of the extensions are
aspects affecting measurement accuracy. Hence suitable
material must be chosen. Generally, longer the extension,
lighter and stiffer it must be, to maintain acceptable
measuring accuracy. Also, the thermal characteristics of
the material should be considered.
E x te nsio n
(carb o n - fib re )
S tyli
Fig: 3 .4 8 Stylus extension s
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3.11.4 Stylus tools
Fig: 3.49 Som e stylus to ols
Different tools are used for tightening set screws

and assemblies, for tightening stylus, for tightening
extensions into probes, etc. Using the proper tools for
installation extends the life of probes and components.
3.11.5 Stylus Adapters
R o tary star cross ove r knu ckle cub e

A da pto r A da pto r A da pto r A da pto r A da pto r
Ad ap to rs w ith styli
Fig 3.50 S tylus Adapto rs
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Adapters enable more measurement flexibility and

they come in many different types. Knuckle and swivel
adopters help to access inclined features without
repositioning the probe head thereby saving time.
Cross-over adapters convert styli for use on systems
designed for other threads.
Star Adapters with a combination of styli allow us

to make different star configurations.
3.11.5 Reference Spheres

Reference sphere or master ball is a very accurate
sphere of well known diameter used for determining the
probe contact tip diameter and position during probe
qualification. The data derived from measuring this
sphere is used by the CMM’s computer to correct for
P rob e
Fig: 3.51 Referen e sph eres
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(a ) B a se plate (b ) M ag ne tic ba se
Fig. 3.52
R e feren ce R e feren ce
sph ere sph ere
Ba se Scre w
Scre w plate
M ach ine M ag ne tic
ta ble Scre w base
Attach sph ere dire ct Attach sph ere to Attach sph ere to
to m ach in e tab le base plate m ag ne tic ba se
Fig. 3.53 M oun ting of Reference sph ere
R e ference
sph ere
M ag ne tic
b ase
R e ference
sph ere
M ag ne tic
Tubula r S ide surface b ase
p art o f p art
Fig: 3.54 Uses of m agnetic base
asymmetric test probe lobbing - for all elastic deflections

in the machine’s frame and for the bending of stylus
shaft. They are available in several configuration and
(straight or angled), in either ceramic or steel, and several
shanks ball diameters.
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Reference spheres can be mounted directly on the

machine table or on diverse base plate and magnetic
bases to provide modulatory and versatility.
Reference spheres with magnetic bases can be

attached to tubular parts, to base plates, to the sides of
a part or in any orientation the magnetic base will hold.
3.12 APPLICATIONS OF CMM

CMMs are used in various industries due to their
capabilities in dimensional measurement, profile
measurement, angularity or orientation measurement,
depth mapping, digitizing or imaging and shaft
measurement. Coordinate measuring machines are
characterized by high speed inspection, accuracy,
precision, reproducibility and ease of operation.
Their applications are
 To check dimensional accuracy of parts in

various steps of production and of parts supplied
by the vendor.
 To inspect test equipment, gauges and tools.
 To determine shape and position, maximum
metal condition, linkage of results, etc which
conventional machines cannot perform.
 To carryout total inspection of safety components
for aircraft and space vehicles.
 To measure features like flatness, surface
profile, roughness, thickness, parallelism,
perpendicularity, circular runout, etc.
 To achieve optimum paring of components
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within tolerance limits by sorting.
 To replace several single purpose instruments

with low degree of utilisation like gear tester,
gauge tester, measuring microscope, etc.
 To produce deviation maps from CAD and for
geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD &
T).
 To accurately reverse engineer the existing parts
when prints are no longer available.
 Inspection and reverse engineering of mobile
phones, turbine blades, tools, plastics, etc.
3.13 MACHINE VISION

Machine vision is the ability of a computer to ‘see’.
Machine vision is also called as ‘artificial vision’ or
‘computer vision’. It is defined as a technique which
allow a sensor to view a scene and derive a numerical or
logical decision without further human intervention.
Machine vision is the technology and methods used to
provide imaging based automatic inspection and analysis
for applications such as process control and robot
guidance in industry.
Machine vision is an interdisciplinary subfield of

engineering. Machine vision mimics the human eye/brain
system with electronic and electromechanical techniques.
It can provide the same function as the human eye like
distinguishing among thousands of hues, providing acuity
throughout a great range of ambient lighting and
perceiving objects in three dimensions, etc. Computer
vision uses visible and infrared cameras, imaging
scanners, ultrasonic probes and other sensors to gather
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data for processing by machines.
3.13.1 Machine Vision System - Basic Concept

Machine vision systems have the ability to acquire
data about an object, measure image features, recognise
objects and make appropriate decisions.
So, a system which electrooptically simulates the
image recognition capability of human eye/brain system
can be called as Machine Vision System.
M em ory
M on itor
C o ntroller
Processor C o nsole/
Test Ca mera keyboard
piece
Light Interface
source for o ther
devices
Im age Im age Im age

form ation form ation analysis &
im age
interpretation
Fig. 3.55 Ma chin e vision pro cess
Machine vision systems perform the functions of

image sensing, image analysis and image
interpretation. These systems are better than human
vision and control tasks that are fast, precise and
repetitive. These systems have the advantages of
consistency, high speed and reliability.
An overview of the machine vision process is shown
in Fig. 3.55.
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 The first step in the machine vision process is

the acquisition of an image typically using
cameras, lenses and lighting.
 Then the machine vision software packages
employ various digital image processing
techniques like segmentation or feature
extraction to extract the required information.
 The extracted information is analysed in the
central processing unit of the system. The
results of analysis are compared with a
prestored set of standard criteria and decisions
(such as pass/fail) are made.
3.13.2 General Operation of a Machine Vision

System
All machine vision systems for factory automation
share some common operating steps as follows:
 Positioning the part or camera such that the

camera can view the part.
 Capturing an image with the camera.

 Processing the image.
 Taking action based on the image processing
results.
 Communicating the results to operators and
other factory systems.
A typical example of factory automation is shown
in Fig. 3.56.
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Im age aquisition
N e tw ork
Se nsor
Ca mera Lighting system s CPU
+
Lens softw are
I/O
M aterial
handlin g
Fig. 3.56 Typical m achine vison system
 A pressure or optical sensor detects when the

products moves in front of the camera.
 A pulse of light is activated to illuminate the
product and the camera takes an exposure.
 The image is captured and stored in memory
and is algorithmically compared to a predefined
image or quality standard.
 An output is returned that is either acted upon
by an automatic element or displayed to human
operators.
 The classification or inspection of thousands of
products every day can be automated by this
simple process, saving millions of manhours of
tedium.
Machine vision systems do not actually have to
produce a recognizable image as part of their processing,
as all the work is done on an electronic representation
of the image. The aim of a machine vision inspection
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system is typically to check the compliance of a test piece
with certain requirements such as prescribed dimensions,

checking overall shape conformity and surface finish,
serial numbers, presence of components, etc.
3.13.3 Elements of Machine Vision System

Machine vision describes the understanding and
interpretation of technically obtained images for
controlling production processes. It is an interdisciplinary
technology that combines lighting, optics, electronics,
information technology, software and automation
technology.
The essential elements of a machine vision system

are
 The delivery system

 Light source
 Lenses
 Image sensor and digitizer
 Preprocessor
 Vision processor
 Communication Links
 Output devices
(a) Delivery system

The delivery system positions the part for
inspection. It performs the following functions.
 Ensures that the surface of the part that is to

be inspected is facing the camera.
 Holds the part still for a brief moment required
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for the camera to take a picture.
Camera and optics

Pro vide s ligh t and
elim inates shadow s in the Pro vide the vid eo im a ge
im age
Fram e grab ber

Tells the fram e grab be r to C a pture s the ima ge s
captu re the curre nt vid eo fra m e into digital fo rm at
im age
Preprocessor
En ha nces the images
Program m ing
So ftware
C o mpares th e im ag e an d
Allow s a p ro gram mer to runs the pro gram to m ake
configure the p rocessor decisions on the result o f
the com pa rison
Com m unication links I/O Interface

C o nn ects th e
Pro vide access to
processor to the I/O
processor in form ation by
devices
other device s
Outp ut D evices
C o ntrol th e m a ch ine/pro ce ss
Fig. 3.57 Elements o f M achine vision
The delivery system is usually mechanical. A part-in

place sensor (usually a simple light source and
photoelectric detector) is also included which tells the
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machine vision system when a part is in front of the

camera.
(b) Light source (Illumination)
There is no image without light. An image is

created due the interaction between an object and
photons. The parts being inspected must be properly lit
so that the machine vision system can clearly ‘see’ them.
Proper lighting makes inspection faster and more
accurate. Lighting should be selected such that it
amplifies the elements of the part that are to be inspected
and attenuates the elements that are not required to be
inspected. Lighting is provided by incandescent bulbs,
C a m e ra
B righ t fie ld
D a rk fie ld D a rk fie ld
M irro re d
o bje ct
Fig. 3.58 (a) D irectional front ligh ting

( b righ t field illum inatio n)
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high frequency fluorescent bulbs (or) arrays of light

emitting diodes (LEDs). The different types of lighting
available are:
Directional light: By high pressure sodium and quartz
halogen bulbs and it can produce sharp shadows and
does’nt provide uniform illumination.
Diffused light: Diffuser plate converts direct light into
diffuse. It gives the most uniform illumination of features
of interest.
Polarized lighting: Polarizing filters can be used to
reduce unwanted reflections.
C a m e ra
L ig ht L ig ht
sou rce sou rce
Fig. 3.5 8 (b) D iffu sed fro nt ligh tin g

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C a m e ra
O bject sh ad ow
O bject
D iffu s er
L igh t so urce
Fig. 3.58 (c) B ac k lig htin g
Back lighting: Used to reliably detect shapes and make

dimensional measurement.
Strobe lighting: A strobe light is a flashing light. This
lighting freezes the image to prevent blurring. Strobes are
used in high speed applications.
Structured lighting: This refers to the projection of
crisp lines, grids or circles and is usually accomplished
through the use of lasers.
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C am era
L aser
Fig. 3.58 (d) S tructured ligh ting
(c) Lenses (optics)

Optics are used for light gathering and determining
the location in the field of view where the part is in focus.
The lens gathers the reflected (or transmitted) light
from the part being inspected and forms an image in the
camera sensor.
To select a proper lens, it is necessary to know the
field-of-view (FOV) and the working distance.
The field-of-view is the size of the area that is
required to be captured. The working distance is the
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distance of the part being inspected from the front of the

camera.
(d) Image sensor and digitizer
The image sensor is a camera that converts light

from the lens (optical signals) into electrical signals.
These signals are digitized into an array of values called
pixels and processed to perform the inspection. Cameras
can be black and white, color or infrared depending on
process requirement.
Cameras used in machine vision applications are of

two types namely, vidicon cameras and solid state
cameras.
Vidicon cameras are similar to those used in

television systems. Here an image is formed by focussing
the incoming light through a series of lenses on to the
photo conductive surface of the vidicon tube. Different
locations on the photoconductive surface, called pixels,
have different voltage levels corresponding to the light
intensity striking those areas. An electron beam scans the
photo conductive surface and stores the status of each
pixel in memory.
Solid state cameras employ either charge coupled

device (CCD) or charge injected device (CID) image
sensors. They contain a matrix of accurately spaced
photosensitive elements fabricated on silicon chips. The
light falling on each detector, through the lens, is
converted into analog electrical signal corresponding to
the light intensity. So, the whole image is broken down
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into an array of individual picture elements called pixels.
C a m e ra
Illum ina tion
C a m e ra
CC D e le ctron ics
L en s
Au tom a tic
Fig. 3.5 9 R aw dig ital im ages im a ge a na lysis
Solid state cameras are small, rugged and exhibit less

image distortion.
The camera image formation needs to be brought
into the computer. The frame-grabber is a fast analog
to digital convertor which converts the analog camera
signal into a digital format needed by the computer.
A synchronizing sensor detects an event in the

machine or process that triggers a image to be captured.
The output of this sensor is fed to the frame grabber.
In digital cameras, the image formation from the

camera is transferred without a frame grabber to a digital
image acquisition board in digital form.
(e) Preprocessor
Sometimes the image needs preprocessing (data

compaction by removing or enhancing features, etc.)
before analysis. For applications requiring a greater
degree of image refinement, gray scale systems are used.
A gray scale system assigns upto 256 different values to
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each pixel depending on intensity. So, the data processing
requirements are very high. Therefore, various techniques

like Windowing, Image restoration, Thresholding,
Edge detection, etc. are used to reduce the amount of
data to be processed, providing high speed processing of
the input image data. In another technique called
feature extraction, the desired features are extracted
automatically by algorithms also referred to as tools or
functions.
(f) Vision Processor/Controller
The next step after the image has been captured

and preprocessed, is image analysis.
The processor can be a computer, programmable

logic controller (PLC) with a vision co-processor or an
embedded controller.
A suitable computer program is used to analyze the

digital image of the object formed. Analysis is done by
describing and measuring the properties of several image
features. The results of analysis are compared with
prestored set of data. After comparison, conclusions are
drawn and decisions made.
Note: In some cases, the elements ie camera with optical

lenses, frame grabber and processor are included in one
device, called the smart camera.
(g) Communication Links
The vision system can draw conclusions and make

decisions but cannot take actions by itself. The vision
processor (computer) has to communicate with the motion
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and process control systems to be effective. The different
ways to communicate a result is through - digital inputs

and outputs - serial bus and ethernet.
(h) Output devices

The output devices are used to control machine
functions according to the communication received from
the processor. For example in factory automation, they
enable functions like starting a motor, moving a robot
arm, controlling a rejector arm or sorting mechanism.
An example of a machine vision inspection system
to reject defective parts is shown in Fig. 3.60.
Pa rts
Synchronizin g
Se nsor
L ight
Pro cessor
Ca mera
D e cision
sensor
PL C
D e fective
R e ject
“kicker”
G ood
Fig. 3.60 A m achin e visio n inspectio n system
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3.13.4 Important Terms

Windowing is a technique in which various
mathematical operations are applied to the image data,
with a computer, in order to create an enhanced image
that is more useful. Here the processing is concentrated
in the desired area of interest ignoring other areas of the
image.
Image restoration: Here the degradation suffered

by an image during its formation is removed in the
preprocessing stage, to make it more closely resemble the
original object.
Edge detection refers to the set of mathematical

methods or computer programs which identify the
contrast in light intensity between pixels bordering the
image of the object and resolve the boundary of the object.
Here rather than storing the entire image, only the edges
are stored which reduces processing. Also the image of
the object is clearly distinguishable from its surroundings.
Thresholding is also an image processing

technique. A threshold is a limit. The comparison of an
element’s brightness or other characteristics with a set
value or threshold is called thresholding. In binary vision
system, thresholding converts each pixel value into either
white or black based on whether its value is below or
above the threshold. In gray scale system, different
shades of grey or colour information can be stored.
Laser Triangulation is a technique of acquiring

3D height data of an object by projecting a laser line onto
the object and viewing through a camera from the side.
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The height profile of the object’s cross section is obtained
C able to pc
L aser
C am era
L aser line
3 D im a ge
Y
C onveyo r
X
E nco der
p ulse s
Fig. 3.61 Laser triang ulation
and by putting together many consecutive profiles (as the

object moves under the laser line), a complete 3D image
of the object is grabbed.
3.13.5 Specifications of a vision system: Sensitivity

and Resolution
Sensitivity is the ability of a machine to see in dim
light or to detect weak impulses at invisible wavelengths.
Resolution is the extent to which a machine can

differentiate between objects.
Sensitivity and resolution are interdependent.

Increasing the sensitivity reduces the resolution and
improving the resolution reduces the sensitivity, when all
other factors are held constant.
3.13.6 Uses of Machine Vision Systems

Machine vision systems provide greater quality
control and real-time feedback for industrial processes,
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overcoming physical limitations and subjective judgement
of humans. The various tasks for which machine vision

systems can be used are:
Dimensional gauging & measurement - checking
dimensional accuracy against geometrical tolerances.
Part and Product Identification - provides

positive identification of an object for decision making
purposes. It involves reading of printed characters and
decoding symbols on products. These systems are used in
conjunction with part-handling equipment like robots.
Part Positioning - positioning tools, locators or

pattern finders are used to recognize and determine exact
position and orientation of parts. This correcting for part
movement is known as landmarking.
3.13.7 Application of Machine Vision System
Machine vision systems provide a wide range of

applications, more importantly for automatic inspection,
process control and robot guidance in industries. Apart
from these, they have other applications which include
handwriting recognition, currency inspection and medical
image analysis. Machine vision systems have applications
in various industries, some of which are listed below.
 In automotive, it is used to guide robots,

identify codes, inspect painted surfaces, welding
quality control, checking engine block and other
components.
 In semiconductor manufacturing, it is used
for inspection of silicon wafers, microchips,
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components like resistors, capacitors, etc.
 In manufacturing industries, for verifying

and tracking parts, online inspection in
machining operation and of assemblies, checking
of surface defects, etc.
 In solar panel manufacturing, to detect
minute cracks and flaws, microcrack inspection
is carried out using near infrared (NIR)
backlighting.
 In food and packaging, to check fill levels, to
verify labelling and lot codes, to check whether
food containers are free of contaminants before
filling and properly sealed afterwards. Also color
imaging is very useful in food inspection like to
check ripeness and to identify foreign materials.
 In postal and parcel inspection, for scanning
addresses and sorting parcels.
 In Non-destructive testing (NDT), for X-ray
imaging for products like circuit boards,
concrete, metal parts and assemblies.
 In Inspection of continuous webs, like
continuous rolls of paper, textiles, film, foil,
glass, etc. Line scan systems are used which
provide high processing efficiency and low cost.
NOTE: Optical character recognition (OCR) refers to the
identification of alpha numeric characters by a vision
system.
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Form Measurement 4.1
Chapter 4
FORM MEASUREMENT
Introduction
If the components of a machine have to function
property, accurate measurements of any dimension to a
specific length and other geometric features, must be
considered. Geometrical features of a measurement
include measurement of straightness, flatness,
squareness, parallelism, roundness, circularity,
cylindricity, co-axiality, etc., Various methods and
techniques are discussed here to measure these
geometrical features. The knowledge of straightness,
flatness, squareness, parallelism, roundness and
cylindricity are used to specify the quality of a product.
4.1 STRAIGHTNESS MEASUREMENT

Straightness is an important geometrical parameter
of the surfaces on the part of machine. In case of a
shaping machine, tool must move on a straight path to
perfectly cut the material by having the surfaces of
guideways being straight.
A straight line is defined by the shortest distance

between two lines. But it is very difficult to define
straightness exactly. A ray of light is straight. Also, the
liquid level is straight and flat.
Straightness is defined as the qualitative measure

of a surface in terms of variation of its geometry from a
predefined straight line or mean line. The Fig. 4.1 shows
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an exaggerated view of a particular surface. A line (or)
surface is straight if the deviation of the distance of the

points from two planes perpendicular to each other and
parallel to the general direction of the line remains within
a specific tolerance limit.
Toleran ce
D e viation from on
re fe rence line straightn ess
R e feren ce
line
Fig.4 .1 Ex aggerate d vie w of a s urfac e s how ing undula tions-ups a nd dow ns
The tolerance for the straightness of a line is

defined as maximum deviation from the reference line
joining the two extremities of the line. The Bryan’s
principle is used to measure the straightness, which
states that a straightness-measuring system should be in
line with the functional point at which straightness is
measured.
4.1.1 Methods of Straightness Measurement

1. Spirit Level: Straightness can be measured by using
spirit level. Spirit level is used in the shape of a bubble
tube mounted on a cast-iron base.
The details and techniques are explained in Chapter 2.
Also auto-collimator is used to test the straightness.

While Spirit levels are used only to measure (or) test
straightness of horizontal surfaces, the auto-collimators
are used on a surface in any plane. First of all, draw a
straight line on the surface to test the surface for
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straightness. Then divide the line into a number of
sections equal to the length of the spirit level base and

length of the reflector’s base in case of auto-collimator.
The angular variations of surface are measured by the
sensitive level on it, which gives the height difference
between two points.
2. Straight Edges: With the help of surface plates and
spirit levels, straight edges are also used for checking
straightness and flatness. Straight edge is a narrow, deep
and flat-sectioned measuring instrument. These are made
up of steels (with up to 2 m) and cast iron (with upto 3
m). Refer Fig. 4.2. Straight edges are ribbed heavily and
are built in bow shapes. Straight edges are used for
testing large areas of surfaces. The straightness of an
edge or the flatness of a surface can be estimated by
placing a standard straight edge on it and viewing
against the lightings background. A surface can also be
tested by applying a light coat of Blue Paint on the
straight edges and then by drawing them across the
surface to be tested. The irregularities on the surface are
estimated because high spots are painted more densely
and low spots are partly painted. The high spots are
L ength L
S traigh t edg e an d fla t su rfa ce
S u pp orting foo t S u pp orting foo t
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Fig. 4.2 Straight edges
rubbed and scrapped and this scraping process is

repeated until a uniform distribution of spots on the
whole surface is obtained.
3. Laser Measurement System for Straightness
Measurement: Straightness measurement using laser
highlights the bending or misalignment in the guideways
of a machine. The laser systems comprise of straightness
beam-splitter and straightness reflector. (Laser
measurement systems have been already discussed in
Chapter 3).
4.2 FLATNESS MEASUREMENT

Flatness is a minimum distance between two
planes, which will cover all irregularities of the surface
to be tested. Determining flatness means to determine
the best-fit plane between two standard reference planes
one above and one below the plane of surface to be tested.
Flatness is a qualitative term which can be quantified by
measuring the distance ‘d ’. Refer Fig. 4.3.
S ta n da rd
re feren ce
p lan e su rfa ce B e st fit p la ne
(S u rfa ce to b e teste d
d can b e co m p are d w ith
b est fit p la ne )
S ta n da rd
re feren ce p la ne surfa c e
Fig. 4.3 Flatn ess meas ureme nt
Flatness is the deviation of the surface from the

best-fitting plane, i.e., the macro-surface topography. It
can be defined as an absolute total value; for example -
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a 60 mm diameter disc is required to be flat to 0.004 mm

(i.e 4 microns). However, it is more frequently specified
as deviation per unit length; i.e., the disc is specified to
be flat to 0.0008 mm per cm. Flatness can also be defined
in terms of wavelengths of light (Measurement of flatness
in Chapter 3).
Flatness testing is done by comparing the surface
to be tested with an accurate surface. Flatness is
analyzed by quantifying deviations from a least-squares
reference plane. A least-squares reference plane is a plane
where the areas above and below the plane are equal and
are kept to a minimum separation. Flatness is calculated
as the highest peak to the deepest valley normal to a
reference palne. Geometrical tolerance of flatness is
shown in Fig. 4.4. As per Fig. 4.4, the surface must be
between two parallel planes 0.3 mm apart.
Tol.0,3 0 ,3
Tol.0,3
P o ss ible
surface
Fig. 4.4 G eom etrical to lerance of flatn ess
4.2.1 Methods of Fltness Measurement
1. Beam Comparator Used for Flatness Testing

A flat reference plane is referred as surface plate.
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Beam comparator checks the general degree of flatness
with a method of comparative measurement. By using

Beam Comparator, the flatness of a surface to be tested
is compared with a master plate.
It consists of two outer legs which will accommodate
the maximum dimension of the surface to be tested First,
it is placed on the master plate and then on the surface
under test. The readings are read from the indicator for
comparison. If any difference exists, it shows the error in
the flatness in the plate surface under test.
2. Faltness Measurement by Interferometry

Small variations less than one or two microns are
measured by using this method.
This method is explained in Chapter 3.
3. Flatness Measurement Using Laser

Measurement System
This measurement is used to check the accuracy of
CMM tables and all types of surface plates. It determines
errors and, then quantities them. If these errors are
significant, then remedial work, like further lapping will
be done.
The laser measurement system is explained in

Chapter 3.
4. Flatness Measurement Electro-mechanical

Gauges
Large variations of several microns are measured
by using conventional electromechanical gauges,
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especially with the non-contact type for polished surfaces.
4.2.2 Surface Plate

The surface plate has top plane surface with a true
and level plane. Normally the flat surface of a surface
plate is used as a reference datum plane. It acts as a
master for checking the flatness of a work surface. It is
manufactured with different materials, like cast iron,
granite, or glass block
(i) Cast-Iron Surface Plates are used after rough
machining is done and then followed by seasoning
(ageing) for a suitable period, then annealing up of
500°C for about three hours is done on the seasoned
plates to relieve the internal stresses. The rough surface
is scrapped perfectly till uniform spotting of the paint is
obtained all over the surface. Then a finishing process-
snowflaking is done.
(ii) Granite Surface Plates have more rigidity than
CI surface plates for the same depth without corrosion.
They have high modulus of rigidity and do not have
moisture content. Metallic objects can easily slide on their
surface and they are also economical.
(iii) Glass Surface Plates are also commercially
available and comparatively light in weight and free from
burr and corrosion.
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4.3 PARALLELISM
Two entities (line (or) plane (or) surface) are parallel
to each other when the perpendicular distance between
the surfaces under test does not exceed an agreed value
over a specified time. Parallelism defines the angle
between two surfaces of a sample specimen. It can be
specified as a thickness difference per unit length or as
an angular deviation.
4.3.1 Methods of Parallelism Measurement
1. Using Dial Indicator and Test Mandrel
For checking parallelism between two axes or

between two planes, dial gauges are used along with test
mandrels. The arrangement also is used to check parallel
motion between two moving bodies.
(i) Parallelism of Two Planes (or) Surfaces: The

distance between two planes (or) surfaces should not go
beyond a minimum value agreed between the
manufacturer and the customer.
S u rfa ce A to be te sted
D ia l in dica to r
S u rfa ce B
S u pp ort w ith a fla t fa ce
(R e fe ren ce P lan e S u rfa ce )
m ovin g
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BooksFig. 4.5 Parallelism of tw o plan es
(ii) Parallelism of Two Axes (or) Two Cylinder: The

maximum deviation between two axes of cylinders at any
point may be detected by moving the dial indicator.
A xis 1 o f cylinde r 1
D ia l in dica to r
A xis 2 o f cylinde r 2
Fig. 4.6 Parallelism betw een tw o axes of cylinders
(iii) Parallelism of An axis of cylinder to a

reference surface:
Dial indicator is
moved along the
surface for a distance
over which parallelism
D ia l in dica tor
A xis o f cylin de r
is to be checked. If the
readings at different
R e fere n ce
points do not exceed a P lan e S urface
limiting value, then
the axis is parallel to
the surface. (Refer Fig.4.7 Parallelism of an axis of cylinder
to a reference plane surface
Fig. 4.7)
(iv) Parallelism of an axis of cylinder to the
Intersection of two planes can be checked as shown in
Fig. 4.8.
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Axis of cylin der
Plane surface
at the in terse ction
of tw o p lanes
Tw o p la ne s
Fig.4.8 Parallelism o f an axis to
the in tersectio n of tw o planes
4.3.2 Using Electro-mechanical Gauges

The large deviations (1 micron per mm (or)
3.5 minutes of an arc.) from the parallel surfaces are
measured mechanically,
The sample surface is Probe of electro
m echanical gauge
supported on a three-ball
plane with the Sa m ple su rface
Th re e-ball plane
measuring device above
the surface as shown in Fig.4.9 Elec tro m ech anical g au ge
Fig. 4.9.
Rotation of the sample surface about the vertical
axis shows difference of height which can be measured.
4.3.3 Using an Auto collimator
Very small values of parallelism can be measured
by using the autocollimator. It allows even a few seconds
of an arc to be measured on polished surfaces. An
accurately parallel reference disc, is set precisely at right
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Au tocollim ator
tele scope
Tilt
screw
L ight path
(optical axis)
Sa m ple
m ounting
p late
Sa m ple
Three-ball p la ne
Fig. 4.10 Auto collim ator
angles to the optical axis. The reference disc is then

replaced by the sample.
If surface of the sample is not parallel, then the
reflected image from its upper surface will be displaced
when viewed in the eyepiece.
The Autocollimator is explained here in detail
4.3.3.1 Autocollimator
An autocollimator is widely used to measure small
angular deviation of a reflecting surface placed in front
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of the objective lens of the autocollimator. It is an optical
P lan e
C o llim ating re fle ctor
le n s
P a ralle l b e am
P a ralle l b e am
P o in t
S o urc e o
O O ptical a xis 90
P a ralle l b e am
P a ralle l b e am
Fig. 4.11 Prin ciple of A uto C ollim ato r
component for measuring angles without having contact

with the component surface. The working principle of an
autocollimator is explained by using Fig. 4.11.
Autocollimator is also used to align components and
measure deflection in optical or mechanical systems. It is
used mainly for the measurement of small angular
differences because it provides a very sensitive and
accurate results. Visual autocollimators are often used for
checking the face parallelism of optical windows and
edges.
4.3.3.2 Principle of autocollimator

O is a point source of light placed at the focus of
a collimating lens. The rays of light from O falling on
the lens will now travel as a parallel beam of light. When
this beam strikes on a plane reflector kept (90°) normally
to the optical axis, it will be reflected back along its
own-same path exactly and focussed at the same point
O. (Fig. 4.11)
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O bjective lens (or)

C o llim ating len s
R e flectin g m irror
p la ne R
Pa ralle l b eam
(Plane refle cto r)
2θ
So urce of light
O 9 0o
Pa ralle l b eam
2θ
x=2 fθ
Pa ralle l b eam
2θ
O'
Im a ge
f=Foca l leng th
of le ns
θ
Fig. 4.12 Princip le of autocollimator
Now Refer Fig. 4.12. If the plane reflector is tilted

through a small angle θ, then the parallel beam will be
deflected through twice the angle (2θ) and will be
focussed on the same plane of the light source but at a
distance x from O. The image O′ will not coincide with
O and the distance x = 2f θ between OO′ (f is the focal
length of the lens).
Hence
x = OO′ = 2fθ
= distance between source and image
 For high sensitivity, i.e for large value of x for

a small angular deviation θ, a long focal length
is required.
 The position of the final image will not depend
upon the distance of plane reflector from the
lens i.e separation x is independent of the
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position of plane reflector from the lens. But if
the plane reflector is moved too much back, then

reflected rays will completely miss the lens and
no image will be formed. Thus for full range of
readings of instrument, the maximum distance
of the plane reflector from lens should be
limited.
Lam p Targ et
graticule
O bjective lens
O ptical
M icrom eter
O'
Telescope
Be am splitte r R efle ctor
Se tting screw
Fig. 4.13 Constru ction of autocollim ator θ
Fig.4.13 shows the graticule placed with its axis

perpendicular to the main axis. A transparent beam
splitter reflects the light from the target graticule towards
the objective lens.
When the target graticule is illuminated by the
lamp, rays of light diverging from the intersection point
reach the objective lens through a beam splitter and are
projected as parallel beams towards reflector. In this
mode, the optical system is operating as a collimator.
As we have already seen, a flat reflector placed in
front of the objective lens and exactly normal to the
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optical axis reflects the parallel beams back along their

original paths and focus on the plane of the target
graticule and exactly coincident with its intersection. A
proportion of the returned light passes straight through
the beam splitter and the return image of the target
crossline is therefore visible through the eyepiece. In this
mode, the optical system is operating as telescope focused
at infinity.
If the reflector is tilted through a small angle, the
reflected beam will be deflected by twice the angle of tilt
as per principle of reflection and will focus on the plane
of the target graticule but linearly displaced from the
actual target crosslines by an amount equal to 2θf.
Linear displacement of the graticule image in the
plane of eyepiece is therefore directly proportional to
reflector tilt angle and can be measured by an eyepiece
graticule optical micrometer which is scaled directly in
angular units.
The autocollimator is set permanently at infinity
focus so that it responds only to reflector tilt angle. This
is independent of separation between the reflector and
the autocollimator, assuming no disturbance from
atmosphere and the use of a perfectly flat reflector.
An autocollimator can be used at a considerable
distance away from the reflector. This is normally used
for measuring the flatness and straightness of the surface
on which the reflecting mirror is kept as a reflecting
plane.
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4.3.3.3 Applications
Measuring the straightness of machine

components
The straightness of machine components like
guideways (or) the straightness of lines of motion of
machine components, can be checked with the
autocollimator and a base mirror. The base mirror is
moved step by step along the guide way which is to be
measured. When the mirror base is tilted because of
unstraightness of the guideway, the angle of tilt will be
measured by the autocollimator.
Measuring flatness
Measuring the flatness of large surfaces is usually
done by measuring the straightness in the relevant
direction of a series of lines in the surface plane in a
certain pattern. The procedure for each line is the same
as for single straightness measurements. By using an
extra deflection mirror, all the lines of the pattern can
be measured, while the autocollimator only needs to be
placed in a few different positions. By correlating the
straightness results, obtained along the lines, it is
possible to determine the errors of flatness of the plane
related to a reference plane.
Other applications
 Aircraft assembly jigs
 Rolling mills
 Retro reflector measurement
 Engineering
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4.4 THREAD MEASUREMENT

A screw thread is a helical structure used to convert
rotational movement to linear movement and also used
to convert rotational torque to lineare force. A screw
thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in
the form of helix.
A screw thread is the helical ridge produced by

forming a continuous helical groove of uniform section on
the external (or) internal surface of a cylinder or a core.
A screw thread formed on a cylinder is known as

straight (or) parallel screw thread, while the one formed
on a cone is known as tapered threads.
It is used to transmit the power and motion. The

screw thread also acts as a temporary fastener.
Note: Bolt threads will always be equal to or smaller

than the nut thread. Nut thread will always be equal to
or greater than the bolt threads.
4.4.1 Nomenclature of screw threads
The important terms used in screw threads are

shown in the Fig. 4.14 and they are defined as follows:
1. Major diameter or Nominal diameter (d)
It is defined as the diameter of an imaginary

cylinder that bounds the crest of an external thread or
root of an internal thread. It is the largest diameter of
the screw thread.
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M ajor diam eter d M ajor diam eter D

P itch diam ete r d p M inor diam eter D c
M inor diam eter d c
C rest
R oot
R oot
Th read angle P itch p
C rest P itch diam ete r D p
Term inology of Threads
Fig. 4.14
2. Minor diameter or core diameter or root

diameter (d c)
It is defined as the diameter of an imaginary

cylinder that bounds the root of an external thread or
crest of an internal thread. It is the smallest diameter of
the screw thread.
3. Pitch diameter or Effective diameter (d p)
It is defined as an imaginary cylinder diameter, the

surface of which would pass through the thread at such
points as to make equal width of the thread and width
of spaces between the threads.
4. Pitch (p)
It is an axial distance between two similar points
on adjacent threads. It is measured in millimeters.
5. Lead
It is defined as the axial distance which a screw
thread advances in one rotation of the nut.
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For single start threads, lead = pitch
For double start threads, lead = 2 × pitch
For multi start threads, lead = n × pitch
Where n = number of starts of the thread
6. Crest
It is the top surface generated by the two adjacent
flanks of the thread.
7. Root
It is the bottom surface generated by the two
adjacent flanks of the thread.
8. Depth of thread
It is defined as the perpendicular distance between
crest and root.
9. Flank
The inclined surface, which joins the crest and root.
10. Angle of thread

The included angle between two flank surfaces.
11. Slope of the thread

It is defined as the half the pitch of the thread.
12. Screw thread

A screw thread comprises a helical groove of
specified cross-sectional shape. The helix angle of thread
can be determined by,
p
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α
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tan
Books =
πd
Let
α - Helix angle
p - pitch
d - diameter
13. Flank angle (θ)

θ
It is the angle between F lan k an gle
individual flank and the

perpendicular to the axis of the
T h re ad an g le
thread which passes through
Fig:4.15
the vertex.
14. Helix angle

It is the angle made li x
He
by the helix of the thread
g le
H e lix a n
at the pitch line with
plane perpendicular to the
axis. A xis
It is the angle
between any helix & an
axial line on its right
Fig:4.16
circular cylinder or cone.
15. Thread per inch

1
Thread per inch =
pitch in inch
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16. Addendum
M ajor dia
pitch dia
M in or dia
Fig:4.17
It is radial distance between the major dia & pitch

dia.
17. Deddendum
It is the radial distance between the minor dia &
pitch dia.
18. Thread angle

The angle of the cross section which is standardized
as 60 degree in V - threads but any angle can be used.
19. Tolerance
The following are the requirement for proper
external and internal thread engagement.
1. External thread and Internal thread must have
sufficient contact at the flank.
2. External thread & Internal thread must have
enough engagement.
4.4.2 Types of threads

1. Triangle shaped threads
2. Square shaped threads
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3. Trapezoid shaped threads
These are the threads used in moving machineries

having high accuracy. Metrology threads are generally
related to metric thread because they are the world-wide
most commonly used type of general-purpose screw
threads.
1. British association thread

In 1884, the British
association introduced the 47 .5 radius = p itc h x 2 /11
0
British association
d
threads useful for small
diameter threads. The
root and crest are reduced p
but the thread angle is Fig:4 .18 Britis h a ssociation thread

made to 47.5° and the
radius is made to 2/11 times the pitch.
 Radius = Pitch × 2/11
2. Whitworth (BSW) threads

The whitworth thread was the world’s first national
screw thread introduced
o
55
by Sir Joseph
whithworth in 1841.
d
1st
r
This was the
standardized thread
form. The thread angle p
in whithworth thread is Fig .4.19 Whitworth threads
55°.
Depth of the thread = 0.64032 × pitch of the thread
Radius = 0.13732 × pitch of the thread
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3. Metric threads
The ISO metric screw threads are one of the first
international standard threads agreed when the
International organization for standardization was setup
in 1947. Each thread is distinguished by its major
diameter (d) and its pitch
(p). ISO metric thread 60
o
consists of V - shaped r
thread (at an angle of d

60°). Metric threads are
designated by the letter M
p
followed by the nominal
Fig .4.20 Metric threads
diameter of the thread
and the pitch in mm.
Depth of the thread = 0.54127 × pitch of the thread
C re st
Trun ca tion
P itc h C re st
a pe x
D ede nd um A d de nd u m
An gular D e pth
P itc h Thre ad
L in e A n gle
R o ot R o ot
P itc h D ia.
M a jo r D ia.
M ino r D ia .
Trunca tio n
Fig.4 .2 1 S cre w -thread te rm s re lating to ex tern al thre ad
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Table 4.1 Types of screw threads
S.No Name of the thread Angle of thread

1 British standard whitworth 55°
2 American standard 60°
3 British Association 47.5°
4 Knuckle 0.25 pitch
5 Acme 29°
6 Square 90°
7 Buttress 45°
4.4.3 Measurement of screw thread
It is necessary to measure following parameters of

the screw thread to ensure the accuracy of the screw
thread.
These are,
1. Major diameter
2. Minor diameter
3. Effective diameter
4. Pitch
1. Measurement of major diameter: (Fig. 4.22)
Bench micrometer
It is a device used to measure the major and minor

diameters of the screw thread. The schematic diagram of
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the bench micrometer is shown in Fig.4.22.
Fidu c ial M icro m e te r

in d icato r a nvil a nvil
F idu c ia l
in dica to r
B ox M ea s uring
a n v ils M ea s uring
m ic ro m e te r
Fig :4.22 Bench m icrom eter head
For achieving greater accuracy, the bench

micrometer is used to measure the major diameter of
thread easily.
It consists of micrometer head, measuring anvils,
fiducial indicator, box and support. The bench micrometer
reading is taken from the micrometer head. The
cylindrical plug (cylindrical specimen before thread) and
cylindrical thread (Cylindrical specimen after thread) are
placed in between the two anvils, the micrometer head is
tightened and the readings are noted separately.
For getting more accuracy of result, various places
of thread are kept in between anvils and the readings
are noted down.
The major diameter of thread can be determined by
the following formula.
D = S ± (R 1 − R 2)
Let,
S - Standard gaugs diameter
R 1 - Micrometer reading measured on the cylindrical plug
R 2 - Micrometer reading measured across the crest of the

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S cre w th rea d
ga ug e
The measurement of major diameter is shown in

Fig. 4.23 and Fig. 4.24. In this method, standard gauge
is placed between two anvils, then note the readings.
Then screw thread is placed between two anvils and note
the readings. From this we can calculate the major
diameter of screw thread.
2. Measurement of minor diameter

Similarly, the
minor diameter is also
measured by bench
micrometer. But, in this
case, the wedge shaped
pieces are touching the
root diameter and placed
in between the two anvils
and then readings are
noted down Fig. 4.25.
where,
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R 1 is taken on the cylindrical plug (standard gauge)

of minor dia
R 2 is taken across the root of the thread
The measurement of minor diameter is shown in

Fig. 4.26. In this method, standard (cylindrical plug) is
placed in between two anvils, note down the readings.
Then screw thread is placed in between the same anvils
with V piece touching the root of thread and note down
readings. From this, we can determine the minor
diameter of screw thread.
3. Measurement of effective diameter

Effective diameter measuring micrometer is also
known as floating
carriage micrometer.
This is also used for
measuring the minor
diameter. It shows high
accuracy when compared
to others. The base of the
effective measuring
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micrometer is made by cast iron Fig. 4.27.

Minor diameter = (R 1 − R 2) + Master diameter
The effective diameter can be measured by following

methods.
(i) One wire method
(ii) Two wire method
(iii) Three wire method &
(iv) The thread micrometer
(i) One wire method

In this method, only
one wire is used to
measure the effective
diameter of the screw
thread. The standard
gauge is placed in between
the micrometer anvil and
the wire surface, then the
readings are noted down.
Then screw thread is
placed in between the
micrometer anvil and wire surface and readings are noted
down. Using these readings, effective dia can be
calculated.
The drawback of this method is that the micrometer
may not remain exactly at right angles to the thread axis.
Fig. 4.28.
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θ/
W ire of
D ia.’d ’
O
D E
Q
B C
A
E ffe ctive
d iam e ter
D iam eter ’T ’
P
Fig 4.29 Tw o -w ire m eth od
This method gives high degree of accuracy. The

effective diameter of a screw thread is measured by
placing two wires or rods of identical diameter in between
the flanks of thread. This method is also used to measure
the minor diameter of the screw thread.
Here standard specimen is placed between wires

and micrometer anvil. The readings are noted. Then
screw thread is placed between wires and micrometer
anvil. The readings are tabulated.
E=T+P
Let,
E - Effective diameter
T - Dimension under the wires
where, T = M − 2 d
M - Dimension over the wires
d - Diameter of each wire
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P - Thread pitch
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(iii) Three wire method
W ire of dia ‘ d ’
Fig 4 .30 Th ree w ire m eth od
 This is an accurate method. Three wires of equal

diameter are positioned in the grooves of the
screw at opposite sides, such that one wire is on
one side and the other two on the opposite side.
 By this method, it is possible to attain proper
alignment, that is, the micrometer anvil faces
can be perfectly parallel to the thread axis.
The checking of the effective diameter when screw
is measured over three wires is given here.
P itc h (P )
r α DE
α/2 tan =
S (d ista n ce o ve r w ire s )
A 2 H
α H
h co t =
2 DE
B C
H
α/2
α
De
D p /2
E
Fig 4.3 1
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S = Distance over the wires

α
From the Fig.4.31 AD = AB cosec , here AB = r
2
α α
AD = r cosec and H = DE cot
2 2
p α
H= cot
2 2
1 p α
CD = H = cot
2 4 2
α p α
h = AD − CD = r cosec − cot
2 4 2
and S = D e + 2h + 2r
Subtitute h in this, we get

α p α
S = D e + 2r ( 1 + cosec ) − cot
2 2 2
Putting d = 2r
α p α
S = D e + d (1 + cosec ) − cot
2 2 2
B.A threads: S = D + 3.483 d − 1.736 p
White worth thread: S = D + 3.1657 d − 1.6 p
American national and metric thread:
S = D + 3d − 1.5155 p
Best size wire

P /4
The wire gets contact O P itc h
r line
with the flank of the A P
thread on the effective θ
E ffe ctive
diameter. The line passing d iam e te r
P /2
through contact point is
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known as pitch line.Books Fig .4.32 B est s ize w ire
where,
db is wire diameter
θ = Included angle
A p = P/4
2P
db = sec θ
4
p
db = sec θ
2
Effective diameter can be measured with any

diameter wire which makes contact on the true flank of
the thread, but the value so obtained will differ from
those obtained with “best size” wire if there is any error
in angle or form of thread.
(iv) Thread micrometer
The effective diameter of screw thread can also be

measured by thread micrometer. It is shown in Fig. 4.33.
Th im ble
Th im ble S cale
Sp indle M ain Sca le
An vils
0 5 10 5
0
45
Ba rrel
Scale
Fra m e
Fig 4.33 Thread M icrom eter
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In thread micrometer, first of all, a standard plug

gauge is placed in between fixed anvil and movable anvil.
Then by tightening the end of spindle, we can note the
readings. Then, place the screw thread in between anvils
and note the readings. For getting accurate result, more
number of readings should be taken.
4.4.4 Pitch measurement

The pitch of screw thread can be measured by
following methods.
(a) Tool makers microscope
(b) Pitch measuring machine
(c) Pitch gauge

The large Tool Maker’s Microscope (TMM)
essentially consists of base, the main lighting unit, the
upright coloumn with carrying arm and the sighting
microscope. The rigid cast base is resting on three foot
screws by means of which the equipment can be leveled
with reference surface. The base carries the co-ordinate
measuring table, consists of two measuring slides; each
one for directions X and Y and rotary circular table is
provided with the glass plate (Fig. 4.34). The slides are
running on precision balls in hardened guide ways for
reliable travel. Two micrometer heads each measuring
range of 0 to 25 mm permit the measuring table to move
in the directions X and Y . The range of movements of the
carriage can be widened up to 150 mm in the X direction
and up to 50 mm in the Y direction with the use of gauge
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C olum n
E ye p iec e
K n ob fo r m oving carrie r
S ig hting arm o n c olum n
m icros c ope
S tar nut fo r setting S tar hand le sc re w for

the sighting lo ck in g the carrie r a rm
m icros c ope C arrier a rm
Table glass plate B o x lev el

R ota ry
c ircu lar tab le
K n urled kn ob
S tar hand le
s crew
M icrom eter
hea d for
x -m ove m ent
B a se
M e asu ring ta ble
Vernier for table rotation
F oot sc re w s
M icrom eter he ad for y - m ovem e nt
Fig. 4.34 Tool M akers M icroscope
The rotary table is provided with 360 degrees

graduation with a minute vernier. The rotary motion is
initiated by activation of knurled knob and locked with
star handle screw. Slots in the rotary table are used for
fastening different accessories and elements.
The sighting microscope is fastened to a carrier arm
with column. The carrier arm can be adjusted in height
by means of a rack and locked with star handle screw.
Thread measurment according to the shadow image
permits the column to be tilted in X direction to either
side about an axis on centre plane level. The
corresponding swivel can be adjusted with a knurled knob
with a graduation. The main lighting unit is arranged in
the rear of the cast base and equipped with projection
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lamp where rays are directed via stationary mounted

mirror through table glass plate into the sighting
microscope.
Measuring principle
The work piece to be measured is placed in the path

of the rays of the lighting equipment. It produces a
shadow image, which is viewed with the microscope
eyepiece having a suitable mark for aiming at the next
points of the objects e.g. Threads or standard line pattern
for comparison with the shadow image of the text object
is projected to a ground glass screen. The text object is
shifted or turned for measuring in addition to the
comparison of shapes.
In addition to this method (shadow image method),

measuring operations are also possible by use of the axial
reaction method, which can be recommended especially
for thread measurement. This involves measuring knife
edges and measurement in axial section of thread
according to definition. This method permits higher
precision than shadow image method for special
measuring operations.
Applications
The large tool maker’s microscope is suitable for the

following fields of applications;
 Length measurement in cartesian and polar

co-ordinates.
 Angle measurements of tools, threading tools
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punches and gauges, templates etc.
 Thread measurements i.e., profile, major and

minor diameter, height of lead, thread angle,
profile position with respect to the thread axis
and the shape of thread. (rounding, flatness,
straightness of flanks)
 Comparison between centers and drawn patterns
and drawing of projected profiles.
4.4.5 Measurement of thread form Angle
Shadow protector
It is used to measure the flank angle which is

nothing but angle in between the individual flank and
perpendicular to the axis of the thread Fig. 4.35.
Initially, the thread image is projected by optical

methods and then the measuring device is placed over
the image. For clear definition of a thread form on the
screen, it is necessary to project the light beam along the
S traigh t e dg e on p rojecto r scre en
P ivo t
P ro tra ctor
A rm
S cre w P ro tra ctor
threa d
40
40
20 30
10 20
0 10
Fig: 4.35 Shadow protractor fo r m easu ring flank an gles
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on ho rizontal screens
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thread helix angle by using lamp. Then, the protractor is

momented on the thread image. By adjusting the
protractor arm about pivot, the angle of thread can be
obtained. Then the two more readings are taken by
protractor scale for accurate measurement.
4.4.6 Errors in screw thread

The following are the errors in screw thread.
1. Pitch error
2. Major diameter error
3. Minor diameter error
4. Effective diameter error
5. Angle error
1. Pitch error
Pitch
Pitch e rror
Fig 4.36 P itch E rro r Pitch e rror
The difference between the actual pitch and the

prescribed pitch.
Types of pitch error

The pitch error can be classified into following
manner.
(a) Progressive error
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(b) Periodic error
(c) Irregular error

(d) Drunken error
(a) Progressive error

It is a gradual, variation of the pitch of continuous
threads from the normal pitch.
(b) Periodic error

It repeats the same error at same periodic time.
(c) Irregular error

This type of error occurs in irregular manner along
the entire thread length.
(d) Drunken error

Similar to True Threa d
periodic error,
but repeated D runken T hread
once per turn of
P itch
the thread is a
H elix an gle
drunken thread.
In such a π x m ean dia Fig. 4.37
thread, the
pitch measured is parallel to the thread axis which will
always be correct, but the error arises because the thread
is not cut to the true helix angle. If the screw thread is
regarded as an inclined plane wound round a cylinder
and if the thread is unwound from the cylinder (ie,
development of the thread is taken), then the drunken
error can be visualized. The helix will be a curve in the
case of drunken thread and not a straight line as that of
true thread as shown in Fig.4.37.
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Error in the major diameter may cause interference

between mating threads (or) a reduction in the flank
contact.
Error in this element may similarly cause

interference (or) flank contact reduction.
Error in this important element will cause either

interference between the thread flanks (or) general
slackness of fit between mating threads.
5. Thread Angle error
It is the difference between the actual angle of

thread & the standard angle of thread.
6. Flank angle error
Difference between the actual flank angle and

prescribed flank angle is known as flank angle error.
F la n k a n gle E rro r
S ta n d a rd p re sc rib ed th re a d fla n k
A x is o f screw th re a d
Fig 4.3 8 F lank an gle Erro r
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4.5 GEARS MEASUREMENT
4.5.1 Introduction
When the positive drive (i.e without slipping) is

required for some precision machines, and if the distance
between the driver and follower is very small, the gears
(or) toothed wheels are used.
Gears are used for transmitting motion and power

from one shaft to another with constant velocity ratio.
When the Driver Gear is rotated by an input shaft, it
will rotate the follower in the opposite direction as shown
in Fig. 4.39.
P itch circles
D river
Follow er
+ +
L ine o f co nta ct
S hafts
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Fig. 4.39 A Pair of Gears
4.5.2 Advantages and Limitations of Gear Drive

The following are advantages and limitation of gear
drive as compared to other drives
Advantages
1. There is no slipping. So exact velocity ratio is
obtained.
2. Large power can be transmitted.
3. High efficiency
4. Reliable service
5. It requires less space, Hence compact layout is
possible.
Limitations
1. Special machines, tools and technology are
required for the manufacturing of gears.
2. The defective gears may cause vibrations and
noise.
3. Cost of manufacturing is comparatively high.
4.5.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS
4.5.3.1. Based on position of axes of the shaft

(i) Parallel shafts, (ii) Intersecting shafts
(iii) Non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts.
(i) Parallel Shafts

In this case, two parallel and coplanar shafts are
connected by any of the following gears.
Spur gears, Helical gears, Rack and pinion,

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Herringbone gears and internal gears.
Spur gears: In this gears, the teeth

are parallel to the axis of the shaft.
A spur gear transmits a positive
motion between two shafts parallel to
each other. The spur gears give a
smooth, regular and positive drive
which is of the greatest importance in
Fig. 4.40 Spu r gear
many engineering designs. Two spur
gears in mesh is shown in Fig. 4.40.
Helical gear: (Fig. 4.41 (a)) In this gears,
teeth are inclined to the axis.
Helical Gear is meant for very quiet
and smooth running, at high rotational
velocities. Single helical gears have their Fig.4.42 S ingle
he lical ge ar
teeth inclined at a small angle to their axis
of rotation Fig. 4.42.
(a) Single (b) D ou ble h elical gear (c) B evel gear

helical ge ar (H erring bon e gears)
Fig. 4.41 D ifferen t G ears .

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Herringbone gears: (Fig. 4.41 (b)) Double helical gears

are known as herringbone gears.
Herringbone gears give an efficient transfer of
torque and smooth motion at very high rotational
velocities.
(ii) Bevel gears for Intersecting shaft: Fig. 4.41 (c)

& 4.43.
Bevel gears are used to
connect two non-parallel (or)
intersecting, but coplanar shafts.
Bevel Gears have teeth cut on
a cone instead of a cylinder blank.
They are used to transmit rotary Fig. 4.43 B evel gear
motion and torque between the
shafts which are at right angles (90 degrees) to each
other. An example of two bevel gears is shown in Fig.
4.43.

Spiral gears are used to connect two non-parallel
and non-intersecting i.e., non coplanar shafts. It is also
called skew bevel gearing.
4.5.3.2 Based on type of gearing

(i) External gearing
(ii) Internal gearing
(iii) Rack and pinion
(iv) Worm and Worm wheel
(i) External gearing: When the gears of two shafts
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mesh externally with each other, it is known as external
gearing. Here the larger is known as spur wheel (or)

simply wheel and the smaller is known as pinion.
In this, the motion of two wheels is always opposite
to each other. i.e., It is always unlike.
(ii) Internal gearing: If the gears of two shafts mesh
internally with each other, then it is known as internal
gearing as shown in Fig. 4.44.
Pitc h circl e Dendendum

circle
Pressure
line
ω2
2
1 Base circle
Pitch circle
ω1
ο1 Addendum
Base
circle
circle
Fig. 4.44 Internal gear and pinion
Here, the larger is known as Annulus (or) Annular

wheel and the smaller is known as pinion. The motion
of two wheels is always in same direction i.e., It is always
like.
(iii) Rack and pinion:

If the gear meshes externally (or) internally with
the teeth in a straight line, then it is known as rack and
pinion as shown in Fig. 4.45.
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B ase pitch R AC K
pb
θ
p
PIN IO N
Circular pitch
Fig 4.4 5 R ack and pinion
The straight line teeth is

called rack and the circular
gear wheel is called pinion.
By using rack and
pinion, we can convert the
linear motion into rotary
Fig. 4.45 (a) Rack of P inion
motion and vice versa.
(iv) Worm and Worm Wheel

A gear, which has one tooth similar to W orm
a thread is called a worm. A worm wheel w h eel W orm
mashes with the worm. Since the worm

wheel is a helical gear, they can engage with
the thread - like worm. The worm and worm
wheel transmit torque and rotary motion
between the shafts at (90 degrees) right
Fig. 4.46
angles Fig. 4.46 Worm and
worm w heel
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4.5.4 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS

Spur gears are normally straight tooth or involute
gears. Some of the important terminologies of spur gear
are defined as follows:
O utside or
us
blank diam eter
di
ra
le
rc
W hole de pth
Ci
h
tc
C ircu lar
Pi
C en tre distance
pitch
D edendum
Adde ndum
C learance
Adde ndum circle
C ircu lar tooth

thickn ess Pitch circle
W orking
depth D edendum or
rooth circle
Fig .4.47.Spur gear term inology
The pitch circle is a theoretical circle on which all

calculations are usually based. The pitch circle is an
imaginary circle. The pitch circles of a pair of mating
gears are tangent to each other.
Pitch circle diameter: The diameter of the pitch circle
is known as pitch circle diameter. The size of the gear is
usually specified by the pitch circle diameter.
Pinion: Pinion is a smaller of the two mating gears.
Gear (or) wheel: The larger of the two mating gears is
called the gear (or) wheel.
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Pitch surface
elem ent
h
dt
wi
ce
nd
Fa
la
p
To
A dde nd um c ircle
ce
Fa
m C irc u la r
e ndu p itc h
A dd P it c h c
ir c le an
k
Fl
w idth o f
To o th sp ac e ( or)
nd
too th sp ace
dum th ic k n e s s
la
den
m
De
tt o
Bo
Fillet radius
clearance
D edendum circle
clearance circle
Fig. 4.48 G ear Tooth Term inology
Pitch point: It is a common point of contact between

the two pitch circles.
Pressure angle (or) Angle of obliquity (φ):
It is the angle between the common normal to two

gear teeth at the point of contact and the common
tangent at the pitch point. The standard pressure angles
are 14 1⁄2° and 20°.
Addendum: It is the radial distance between the top

land and pitch circle.
Dedendum: It is the radial distance from the bottom

land to the pitch circle.
Whole depth (or) Total depth: It is the sum of

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addendum and dedendum.
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Addendum circle: It is the circle drawn through the

top of the teeth and concentric with the pitch circle.
Dedendum circle: It is the circle drawn through the
bottom of the teeth (or) root circle.
Dedendum circle dia (or) ⎫

root circle dia ⎬ = Pitch circle dia × cos φ
⎭
Circular pitch (pc); It is the distance measured on the
pitch circle from a point on one tooth to the corresponding
point on the adjacent tooth.
πD
Circular pitch, p c =
T
where, D = Dia of pitch circle in mm.
T = Num ber of teeth on wheel
Diametral pitch (pd):
It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle

diameter.
T π
Diametral pitch p d = =
D pc
Module (m): It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter

to the number of teeth (or) reciprocal of diametral pitch.
D 1
m= =
T Pd
Clearance circle: It is a circle that is tangent to the

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addendum circle of the mating gear.
Tooth thickness: It is a width of the tooth measured

along the pitch circle.
Tooth space: It is a width of space between the two
adjacent teeth measured along the pitch circle.
Back lash: It is the amount by which the width of a

tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging tooth
as the pitch circles.
Face of tooth: It is the surface of the gear tooth above

the pitch surface.
Flank of tooth: It is the surface of the gear tooth below

the pitch surface.
Top land: It is the surface of the top of the tooth.
Face width: It is the width of gear tooth measured

parallel to its axis.
Profile: It is a curve formed by the face and flank of

the tooth.
Fillet radius: It is the radius that connects the root

circle to the profile of the tooth.
4.5.5 FORMS OF GEARS
Gear forms are of two types viz. involute and

cycloidal.
In involute gear, all the gear teeth have top flat

portion and two side curves. The side curves for the
involute gears are in the form of involute curve of a circle.
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Involute curve of a circle can be generated by the

locus of an end point of an imaginary taut string
unwinding from the circle. Involute profile gears have
wide applications in precision engineering.
Cycloid is a curve generated by locus of any point

on a circle which is rolling around another circle. If the
second circle rolls outside the first circle, then the
generated curve is called epicycloid and if it rolls inside
the first circle, then the generated curve will be
hypocycloid. The gear whose teeth profile is made up of
cycloidal curves is called cycloidal gear. Each tooth profile
will be combination of epicycloid and hypocycloid curves.
Cycloidal gears are not used in modern applications. They
are used only for some special cases of heavy and impact
loading conditions.
4.5.6 ERRORS IN SPUR GEAR
Before explaining the methods and instruments

used for gear-parameter measurement, we have to define
different types of error to be inspected and amount of
dimensional variations to be allowed, which actually
depend upon the required quality of gear. The major
aspects of any gear to be inspected are
(a) Gear blank.

(b) Teeth of single gear for tooth profile, for tooth
alignment, for tooth spacing around gear and tooth
thickness.
(c) Combined error of the gear in assembly.
The different types of gear errors are given here.
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1. Gear Blank Run-out Errors

(a) Gear tip diameter run-out error occurs due to
excessive interference of tooth tip with the root
fillet of the mating gear.
(b) Radial run-out of the interface surface occurs due
to wrong setting on the machine during
manufacturing.
(c) Face run-out of the interface occurs due to wrong
angular positioning of a blank with respect to the
axis of manufacture.
2. Gear Tooth Profile Errors occur due to deviation
of the actual tooth profile from the ideal tooth profile.
The errors of tooth profiles are given here.
(a) Tooth profile error which is the summation of
deviation between actual tooth profile and correct
involute profile.
(b) Pressure angle error
(c) Basic circle error
3. Gear Tooth Errors

(a) Tooth thickness error is the difference between
the design tooth thickness and actual tooth
thickness, measured along the pitch circle.
(b) Tooth alignment error also called distortion
error occurs when a spur gears tooth is not
parallel to the axis of gear.
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4. Pitch Errors exist in tooth spacing.

(a) Adjacent transverse pitch error is the
difference between the actual transverse circular
pitch and its theoretical value. It indicates the
deviation measured on similar flanks of two
adjacent teeth. When the measurement is done
over a length of more than one pitch, it is called
cumulative pitch error.
(b) Tooth to tooth pitch error is the difference
between two consecutive pitches.
(c) Radial run-out error occurs due to eccentricity
in the pitch circle.
(d) Single pitch error is the difference between the
measured pitch value and theoretical circular pitch.
(e) Accumulated pitch error is the difference
between theoretical summation over any number
of teeth interval and summation of actual pitch
measurement over the same interval.
(f) Normal pitch error is the difference between
theoretical normal pitch and its measured value.
The pitch errors mainly occur because of the run-out
of gear flank groove.
5. Runout Error of Gear Teeth occurs due to run-out

of the pitch circle and occurs in radial position of the
teeth. It is normally measured by indicating the position
of a pin or ball inserted in each tooth space around the
gear and taking the largest difference. For fine pitch
gears, the gear is rolled with a master gear on a variable
centre distance fixture, to record the change in the centre
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distance as the measure of teeth or pitch circle run-out.
Run-out creates noise. This error is due to insufficient

accuracy and ruggedness of the cutting arbor and tooling
system.
6. Lead Error is the difference of the actual advance
of the tooth profile from the ideal value. Lead error is
the cause of poor tooth contact. Tooth crowning and
relieving will eliminate this error to some extent.
7. Composite Error is the combined effect of many
number of errors acting simultaneously. This includes
profile errors, pitch error, tooth alignment error, tooth
thickness error, etc. This error can be measured by
meshing a gear with the master gear. These errors are
classified as single-flank tooth-to-tooth composite
error and double-flank tooth-to-tooth composite
error. These errors show the difference between the
largest and the smallest centre distance observed during
one revolution of the test gear.
8. Assembly Errors are checked for the following:
(i) Centre Distance Error is specified along with
tolerance. Any increase in centre distance will
increase the backlash which should be minimised.
(ii) Axes Alignment Error: The axes of the two mating
gears must be parallel to each other - any
misalignment will result into axes alignment error.
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4.5.7 SPUR GEAR MEASUREMENT AND

CHECKING
To ensure the correctness of different parameters
and smoothness of operation of gears, the following
elements are to be checked.
1. Run out 5. Lead

2. Pitch 6. Backlash
3. Profile 7. Concentricity
4. Tooth thickness measurement 8. Alignment
1. Runout
It is the total variation of the distance between a
surface of revolution and a reference surface measured
perpendicular to the surface of revolution. It may be
checked by using gear testing machine and a master
gauge.
2. Pitch measurement
Circular pitch is defined as the distance from a
point on one tooth to the corresponding point on the next
tooth, measured around the pitch circle.
It can be measured by
(a) Tooth to tooth pitch measurement
(b) Direct angular measurement
(a) Tooth to Tooth pitch measurement

A portable pitch measuring instrument is used to
measure tooth-tooth pitch by step-by-step method. The
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setup is shown in Fig.4.49.
D ia l in dica to r
B od y
Fixe d m ea su rin g tip

S e nsitiv e tip
A d ju stab le
g uide
stop
Fig.4.49 P ortable ba se p itch -m easu ring ins trum ent
The instrument consists of one dial indicator and

three measuring tips-the fixed measuring tip, sensitive tip
and the adjustable or guide stop for support. The distance
between the fixed and sensitive tip is adjusted and set
to the base pitch of the gear with the help of slip gauges.
The instrument is set so that all three tips make contact
with the gear tooth profile. The reading on the dial
indicator is the pitch error.
(b) Two-Dial Gauge Method (or) Direct angular

measurement
st
D ia l in dica to r
1
D ia l in dica to r
nd
2
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Fig. 4.5 0
This is the simplest method for pitch measurements.

In this method, two lever-type dial gauges are used on
two adjacent teeth of a gear mounted in centres as shown
in Fig.4.50. The gear under test is indexed through
successive pitches to give constant reading on the first
indicator and any change in the reading on the second
dial indicates pitch error.
3. Profile measurement
Profile measurement can be done by measuring the
tooth profile of a spur ie involute profile accurately. It
can be done in several ways. They are
(a) Optical projection technique
(b) Involute measuring machine
(c) Tooth displacement method
(d) Computer-controlled probe scanning method
(a) Optical projection method

In optical projection technique, the magnified profile
of the gear is compared with a master profile. Templates
may be used as thin gears with sharp edges. Here an
optical comparator and profile projector are used. A clean
image of the gear profile is produced, so this method
provides a relatively quick means of assessing profile
errors of small sized and thin gears.
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Scre en
M ag nified
profile o f
te st g ea r
Test g ear
Fig.4.51 O p tical projectio n m ethod for gear profile ch ecking
(b) By involute measuring machine

The step up is shown
in Fig.4.52. The gear S traigh t e dg e
under test and a ground
B a se
circular disc of the same circle
P lun ge r m o ve m en t
diameter as that of the in d icate s error
base circle of the gear are Fig.4.52. Involute m easu ring m achine
mounted on the mandrel.
Then the straight edge of the machine, to which the dial
gauge is attached, is brought in contact with the disc.
The straight edge is rolled around a base circle without
slipping the stylus present at the measuring end of the
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plunger of the dial gauge. When the gear and disc is

rotated, then the stylus moves over the tooth profile and
the deviations from the true involute profile are indicated
on the dial gauge. This machine is used for checking the
involute profile of large-sized gears.
(c) Tooth displacement method
Here, the vertical measuring machine (usually

height gauge) is used for checking the profile of the
large-sized gear. Even though it is a time-consuming
method, it is the best method for calibration of master
involute and for very high-precision components. The gear
under test is rotated through small angular increments
and the reading on the height gauge is noted. These
readings are compared with the theoretically calculated
values at about five to ten places along the tooth flank.
Pitch
circle
L L1
θ θ1
(a) (b)
L2 L3
θ2
θ3
(C)
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Fig.4.53.Tooth displacem ent m ethod
(d)
Trial and error method is used to establish the required

incremental angular positions. Theoretical values may be
calculated with respect to the angular positions.
(d) Computer-controlled probe scanning method

In this method, the
Schematic of Profile Scan
measurements are taken
with a computer-controlled
probe scanning from the
root of the tooth to its tip
at a constant rate with a
constant force. The
Fig.4.54 shows the Fig. 4.54 Com puter-controlled
probe scanning method
method of scanning. After
the data is collected for all the teeth, it mathematically
determines profile form error, concentricity error and
base-circle shrinkage error and actual tooth thickness.
4. Tooth thickness measurement

The tooth thickness of gear can be measured by the
following methods
(a) Gear tooth vernier caliper method
(b) Box tangent method
(c) Constant chord method
(d) Rolling gear test method

Gear tooth thickness is the length of the arc
measured on the tooth around the pitch circle. Hence, it
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is called pitch-line tooth thickness. As tooth thickness
varies from top to bottom,
5
the instrument must
4
measure tooth thickness
at a specified position on
2
the tooth. Auxiliary slid e
1
Gear tooth vernier
0 1 2 4 5 7
an instrument shown in
Fig.4.55 has main scale
and vernier scale
perpendicular to each
Fig. 4.55 Gear-tooth Vernier
other. The horizontal scale
is used to measure the
depth at the chordal addendum on the gear at which its
pitch-line thickness is to be measured. The vertical scale
is used to measure the actual pitch-line thickness, also
called chordal thickness. Then, the measured values are
compared with the calculated values.
(b) Constant chord method
Constant chord is defined as the chord joining two

points on opposite faces of the tooth. The constant chord
method avoids the difficulties occuring in tooth vernier
method in which the chordal thickness and chordal
addendum depend upon the number of teeth. Due to this,
for measuring large number of gears, different
calculations are to be made for each gear. So these
difficulties are avoided by this constant chord method.
In this method, an involute tooth is considered

symmetrically in close mesh with the basic form then it
is observed that when the gear rotates, all teeth come in
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mesh with the rack for a given size of tooth, i.e., for the
R a ck form
P itch line
o f th e rack
C d
A B
φ
h
D E
P
Tan ge nt to
base circle
P itch circle
B ase circle
O
Fig.4.56 C onstant chord m eth od
same module, the contact always occurs at points A and

B as shown in Fig.4.56 which results in distance AB
remaining constant. Hence, it is known as Constant chord
method. It has the same nominal value for all gears of
a common system, irrespective of the number of teeth.
(c) Base tangent method

The base tangent method measures the span of any
number of teeth between the two parallel planes, which
are tangential to the opposite tooth flanks. The span
length is a tangent to the base circle. This distance is
known as base tangent length.
The base tangent method is shown in Fig. 4.57.
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Tw o p a ralle l p la ne s
M icro m e te r
(lim ite d Fixe d an vil
m ove m e nt) L oc king
D im e nsio n to ga u ge block
M ring S e tting
(B a se Ta ng en t L en g th) tu be s
5
0
5
M ovin g G ea r
a nv il
Tan ge nt to B a se
B a se c ircle circle
Fig. 4.57 Too th T hick ness M easu rem en t (B ase Tang en t M eth od )
 This method is also called as David Brown

tangent comparator method.
 The main parts of this instrument (micrometer)
are a fixed anvil and a movable anvil.
 On the moving anvil side, there is a micrometer.
The moving anvil has a limited movement on
either side of the setting.
 With the help of the locking ring and setting
tubes, the distance is adjusted by setting the
fixed anvil at the required place. (The value of
the distance between two opposite involutes or
the dimension over parallel faces is equal to the
distance around the base circle between the
points where the corresponding both flanks cut.
It is calculated mathematically. This is the
distance that is set in the instrument using slip
gauges).
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Instruments by which the base tangent length can

be measured are the David Brown tangent comparator,
vernier calipers and micrometers having suitable fixtures
on anvils.
(iv) Rolling Gear Test

The variations of centre distance can be measured
when the gear under test is made to rotate with a master
gear with high quality. We can measure characteristics
during rotation and test for the general accuracy of gear
by checking its composite error. This test is generally
known as rolling gear test. The instrument used for
this purpose is the Gear rolling tester.
Enla rge d view
Fig.4.5 8 C ross-sec tion al view o f g ea r rolling teste r

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0
O ne 360 revo lution or on e rotation
F” I
F” r
F ”I
Fig.4.58(a)
The Gear roll tester consists of a frictionless,

backlash free measuring carriage, which rides on high
precision rolling bearings. The design is coupled with a
solid and stable machine base which guarantees high
measuring accuracy and repeatability of results. The
setting carriage is opposed to the measuring carriage so
that tests can be performed with a master gear.
Rolling gear test can be done by two methods.
(a) Single contact (or) fixed centre distance

method
(b) Dual contact (or) variable centre distance
method
(a) Single contact method (single flank testing)
In this method, the gear is mated with a master

gear on a fixed centre distance and set in such a way
that only one tooth side makes contact. The gears are
rotated through this single flank contact action and the
angular transmission error of the driven gear is measured
by means of the measuring carriage that transmits the
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centre to centre distance deviation to a dial indicator.
This is a fine turning method and is used only for the

inspection of very high precision gears.
(b) Double contact method (Double flank testing)
Here two gears are rotated in high mesh without

play against each other such that at least one left and
one right gear flank are meshed (double flank testing)
under the influence of a pressure that is applied in the
direction of the radial centre distance. We know, when
two tooth flanks are in mesh, the measurement result
represents the sum of the variation of both tooth flanks.
This method is also used to compare nominal versus
actual radial centre distance with upper and lower
tolerances and to make Go and ‘No.Go’ decisions.
PARKINSON GEAR ROLLER TESTER
Principle: The principle of this device is to mount the

standard gear on a fixed vertical spindle and the gear to
be tested on another similar spindle mounted on a sliding
carriage, maintaining the gears in mesh by spring
pressure.
The gears are mounted on the two mandrels, so that

they are free to rotate without measurable clearance. The
left spindle can be moved along the table and clamped
in any desired position. The right mandrel slide is free
to move, running on steel balls, against spring pressure
and it has a limited movement. The two mandrels can
be adjusted so that their axial distance is equal to the
designed gear’s centre distance. The spring pressure can
be regulated. There are also screws for limiting the
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movement of the sliding carriage. A scale is attached to
M aster G ear G ear u nde r Test
Fixed Ve rtica l M ovable S lid ing C arriage

Sp in dle
Ba se
Pa rkinso n
G ear Test
Fu lly
Sa tisfa ctory M od erate U n satisfactory
(1) (2) (3)

Fig. 4.59 Pa rkinson Gear Tester.
one carriage and a vernier to the other; Centre distances

can be measured within 0.005 mm.
When the waxed paper recorder is fitted, the chart
makes a revolution with the gears mounted on the sliding
carriage.
As the chart rotates along with gear, a line is traced

to record the movements of the sliding carriage and a
circle is drawn as the record as shown in Fig.4.59
Good circle shows the good gear.
Moderate circle shows the moderate gear.
Unsatisfactory circle shows the faulty gear.
It may be noted that the method described above is

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dual flank method. Single flank method measures centre
distance variation where as the angular deviation can

also be measured by dual flank method.
MEASUREMENT OVER PINS OR BALLS
Fig 4 .60 M e asurem ent of dim en sio n

ov er balls usin g d ial bore g auge
For quick and accurate measurement of dimension

over balls, roundness and conicity of internal gears in any
position and at any depth, a dial bore gauge can be used
as shown in Fig.4.60. It is easy method of checking tooth
thickness and obtaining accuracy of involute profile in
order to measure a gear over a roller placed in opposite
tooth spaces. Two or many different sizes of rollers are
used so that variations at several places on the tooth
flanks can be detected.
4. Lead checking
Lead is the axial advancement of helix for one
complete turn, as in the threads of cylindrical and teeth
of helical gears.
Lead checking instrument is used for checking lead.
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This instrument advances a probe along a tooth

surface, parallel to the axis while the gear rotates in a
specified timed relation, based on the specified lead.
5. Backlash checking
Backlash is defined as the amount by which a tooth

space exceeds the thickness of an engaging tooth.
Numerical values of backlash are measured at the
tightest point of mesh on the pitch circle, in a direction
normal to the tooth surface.
There are two types of backlash
1. Circumferential backlash
2. Normal backlash
Backlash can be determined as follows:
One of the two gears is locked, while the other is

rotated backward and forward as far as possible. The
maximum displacement is recorded by backlash checking
instrument.
O pe rating p itch circles
N o rm al
B acklash
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Fig. 4.61 B acklash
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For example: Comparator whose stylus is locked

near the reference cylinder and a tangent to this is called
circular backlash.
Normal backlash is equal to the circular backlash

multiplied by the cosine of pressure angle.
6. Concentricity measurement
It is important that the centre about which the gear

is mounted should be coincident with the centre from
which the gears are generated.
Otherwise, satisfactory gear will not function

correctly because of the eccentricity of the mounting.
The concentricity of the gear is checked by mounting

the gear between centres and measuring the variation in
height of a roller placed between successive teeth.
The error due to eccentricity may be established if

the results of the measurement are plotted graphically as
shown in Fig.4.62. The presence of eccentricity will be
indicated by a smooth sinusoidal curve with the gear
x
x
x
x x
x x
E cce ntricity
In dica to r rea d ing
x
x G e ar To o th
x
N u mb er
x
x
x
Fig.4.62 G raphical represe ntation of eccentr icity
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tooth thickness variation indicated by the spread of the

measurement above this line.
7. Alignment checking
The alignment of the gear teeth with respect to the
axis of mounting is determined using a parallel bar
placed between the gear teeth.
A parallel bar is placed between the gear teeth, the
gear being mounted between centres. The centres are
parallel to a datum surface. Finally, the readings are
taken at the two ends of the parallel bar and difference
in readings will indicate the presence of misalignment.
Recent development in gear metrology

Due to the improved manufacturing capability of
gear production equipment, higher accuracy measurement
equipment is required.
With the introduction and development of Computer
Numerical Controls (CNC), many inspection machines for
lead/involute profile checking and pitch measurements
have got simplified.
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4.6 SURFACE FINISH MEASUREMENT

Generally components are subjected to several
machining operations for producing required geometrical
surfaces. But it is not practically possible to produce a
component in exact dimensions due to various factors like
machine vibrations, nature of workpiece, method of
operations, tool conditions and skill of the labourers etc.
The wear resistance, fatigue resistance, corrosion
resistance, hardness, etc., are some of the most important
characteristics of the component which are influenced by
surface texture. The surface irregularities are normally
expressed in terms of surface roughness values.
4.6.1 Surface Texture

The surface texture is defined as the regular (or)
irregular surface spacings which tend to form a pattern
on the surface.
The various characteristics of surface texture are

shown in Fig. 4.63.
Lay direction
Flaw
W aviness
R oughness h eigh t height
R oughness w idth
W aviness
w id th
R oughness-w idth cuto ff
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Fig.4.63 S urface characteristics
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Types of Irregularities
The irregularities are classified as,
(a) Primary texture (or) Roughness
(b) Secondary texture (or) Waviness
(a) Primary texture (Roughness)

The primary texture is caused, due to the short
wavelength irregularities in the surface. The surface
roughness is defined as a quantitative measure of the
process marks developed during the creation of the
surface and other factors like the structure of the
component.
The surface roughness is denoted by Ra. The unit

of surface roughness is “μm ” (micron meter (or) microns).
(b) Secondary texture (Waviness)

The secondary texture is also called as waviness.
Waviness is the widely spaced component of the surface
texture. This may be caused by various factors like
spindle rotation, vibrations, tool run out, tool deflection
and heat treatment etc. The roughness and waviness is
shown in Fig. 4.64.
Prim ary te xture(roughness)
Se co ndary te xture (w avin ess)
Fig: 4.64 Roughn ess, w aviness

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4.6.2 Key Words
Roughness Height (or) Height of unevenness

It is the height of the irregularities with respect to
a reference line. It is measured in “mm” (or) “microns”.
Waviness Height
Waviness height is the peak-to-valley distance of the
surface profile. It is measured in “mm”.
Difference between Roughness and Waviness
Roughness Waviness
It is usually produced by It is usually produced by
the action of the cutting instabilities in the
tool. machining process such as
unbalance of cutting tool.
It is caused due to the Waviness is the widely
short wavelength spaced component of the
irregularities in the surface texture. It is caused
surface. by spindle rotation, tool
deflection and vibrations
etc.
Lay
Lay indicates the direction of predominant surface
pattern produced and it reflects the machining operation
used to produce it. The various lays are shown in Fig.
4.65 and listed here.
(a) Straight lay
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(b) Circular lay
(o r)
a) Straig ht Lay
b) C ircular Lay
Fig.4.65 Various L ay
Specification of surface texture
P ro du ctio n m e th od
tre atm e nt o f coa tin g
R o ug hn ess
v alue S a m pling len gth
D irec tio n of la y
Fig.4 .6 6. S pe cificatio n
of Surface Te xtu re
a s per IS O : 30 93 of 19 67
As per ISO [International Organization for

Standardization], the surface finish values are expressed
in terms of “μm ” (micro meter (or) microns).
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Lay symbol Meaning

= Parallel to the plane
⊥ Perpendicular to the plane
X Crossed in opposite direction to the plane
C Circular
M Multi directional
R Radial
Production method
Symbol Process
T Turning
M Milling
G Grinding
P Planing
As per IS: 3973, R a (Surface Roughness values are

tabulated as follows,
Symbol R a (μm)
– above 25
∇ 8 to 25
∇∇ 1.6 to 8
∇∇∇ 0.25 to 16
∇∇∇∇ < 0.025
Let, ∇ ⇒ Inverted Triangle
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Reasons for measuring the surface texture
Surface texture is measured for the following

reasons.
(a) To predict the performance of the work

material.
(b) To control the manufacturing process.
4.6.3 Factors Affecting the surface finish
The following factors affect the surface finish during

machining.
(a) The machining variables
(i) Cutting speed
(ii) Feed
(iii) Depth of cut
(b) The tool geometry also influences the surface

finish.
(i) Nose radius
(ii) Rake angle
(iii) Side cutting-edge angle
(iv) Cutting edge
(c) Properties of workpiece and tool materials and
(d) Type of the machine tool
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(e) Quality of the machine tool
Important terms
Average roughness R a;
The root mean square roughness R q;
The skewness S k and The kurtosis K.
The maximum peak height Rp;
The maximum valley height R v and
The maximum peak-to-valley height Rmax.
The R a measure is one of the most effective

surface-roughness measures. It gives general description
of the height variation in the surface. Fig 3.67 shows a
cross section through the surface. A mean line is drawn
to divide the surface in such a way that the sum of the
areas above the mean line is equal to the sum of the
areas below the mean line. The surface roughness, R a is
the sum of the absolute values of all the areas above and
below the mean line divided by the sampling length. ie,
The surface roughness value
⎡ [area (abc) + area (cde)] ⎤

Ra = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ L ⎦
where L is sampling length.
p ea k
m ean line
R max /2 b p ea k
R max a c e
d Valley
L /2 L /2
Valley
L
Fig: 3.67 A cro ss-section through the surface
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Table - Range of Surface Roughness (R a in μm )
Manufacturing ‘R a’ values
Methods
Process in μm
Metal-removal- 1. Turning 0.32 to 25
Process 2. Boring 0.4 to 6.3
3. Planing 1.6 to 50
4. Shaping 1.6 to 12.5
5. Drilling 1.6 to 20
6. Reaming 0.4 to 3.2
7. Milling 0.8 to 6.3
8. Broaching 0.4 to 3.2
Finishing and 9. Cylindrical 0.068 to 5
Super-finishing grinding
Process 10. Burnishing 0.04 to 0.8
11. Polishing 0.04 to 0.16
12. Honing 0.25 to 0.4
13. Lapping 0.012 to 1.16
14. Super finishing 0.16 to 0.32
15. Abrasive jet 0.1 to 1.6
machining
16. Ultrasonic 0.2 to 3.2
machining
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Manufacturing ‘R a’ values
Methods
Process in μm
Non- 17. Electric Discharge 0.5 to 6
conventional Machining (EDM)
material- 18. Electric Beam 0.4 to 0.6
removal process Machining
19. Plasma arc 3.2 to 25
machining
20. Electrochemical 0.05 to 3.2
machining
21. Chemical 0.2 to 6
machining
Forming 22. Rolling 2.5 to 50
process 23. Sawing 1.6 to 2.5
24. Forging 1.6 to 25
25. Extrusion 0.16 to 5
Casting process 26. Die 0.8 to 16
27. Permanent mould 0.8 to 3.2
28. Investment 1.6 to 2.3
4.6.5 Analysis of Surface Finish
A numerical assessment of surface finish can be

carried out in a number of ways. These numerical values
are obtained with respect to a datum. In practice, for
determining the surface texture, three major methods are
used.
1. Peak to valley height method

2. The average Roughness
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3. Form factor or bearing curve.
1. Peak to valley height: This method measures the

maximum depth (height) of the surface irregularities over
a given sample length, and largest value of the depth
(height) is accepted as a measure of roughness.
The main disadvantage of this method is that it
may read the same hmax for two largely different texture.
The value obtained would not give a representative
assessment of the surface.
A vera ge pe ak
P1 P2 P3
P e ak
h
A vera ge max
Valle y
valle y
v1 v2 v3 v4
Fig. 4.68 Peak to valley height.
To overcome this, PV (Peak to Valley) height is

defined as the distance between a parallel lines running
parallel to the general lay of the trace positioned so that
the length within the peaks at the top is 5% of the trace
length, and that within the valleys at the bottom is 10%
of the trace length.
2. The Average Roughness: The average roughness
(R a) is the most commonly used parameter in surface
finish measurement. For measuring average roughness,
the following statistical methods are used.
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(a) C.L.A. Method

(b) R.M.S. Method
(c) Ten point height Method.
(a) C.L.A. Method: Centre Line Average or Arithmetic
Average (AA) is defined as the average values of the
ordinates from the mean line, omitting the signs of the
ordinates.
A1
A3 A5
0
12 3 4 5 A2 A4
Fig. 4.69 Center Line Average M ethod
From, the Figure,

A 1 + A 2 + A3 + … , A n
C.L.A. value =
L
ΣA
=
L
So, it is clear that, by this method, the surface

roughness is measured as the average deviation from the
nominal surface.
C.L.A. value measure is preferred to RMS value
measure, because its value can be determined by
measuring the areas with planimeter or graph.
It can also be readily determined in electrical
instruments by integrating the movement of the stylus
and displaying the result as an average.
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(b) R.M.S. Method (R q): This method is also same as

above that the roughness is measured as the average
deviation from the nominal surface.
This value is based on the least squares.
O y y 10 yn
1
Sam pling length L

Fig. 4.70 RM S M ethod
It is defined as the square root of the arithmetic

mean of the value of the squares of co-ordinates of the
surface measured from a mean line.
Let us assume that the sample length ‘L ’ is divided
into ‘n’ equal parts and y1 y2, y3, … , yn are the heights of
the ordinates erected at those points.
y 21 + y22 + y23 + … + y2n

⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
∴ RMS value =
n
1
⎡ L ⎤2
⎢1 ⎥
y2 dL ⎥
y rms = ⎢ ∫
⎢L 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
For a pure sine wave of any wavelength and
amplitude, Rq is larger than the CLA value by 1.11 times.
RMS value = 1.11 × C.L.A. value.
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(c) Ten point height method: In this method, the

average difference between the five highest peaks and five
lowest valleys of Surface Roughness is taken for a given
sample length measured from a line parallel to the mean
and not crossing the profile.
P e ak (5 P e aks )
P e ak P e ak
P e ak
P e ak
Valle y Valle y Valle y

R5 Valle y R 1
(5 valleys) R4 Valle y R2
R6 R3 R8
R7 R9 R 10
Fig 4.71 Ten p oin t H eigh t M eth od
1
Rz = ⎡ ⎛ R + R 3 + R 4 + R5 ⎞ − ⎛ R6 + R 7 + R 8 + R 9 + R 10 ⎞ ⎤
5⎣⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎦
(5 Peaks) (5 Valleys)
As per ISO 10-point height parameter (ISO

4287/1-1984), R z is numerically the average height
difference between the 5 highest peaks and the 5 lowest
valleys within the sampling length.
This method is very simple method of analysis and

measures the total depth of surface irregularities within
the sampling length. This value is independent of the
frequency of the irregularities. So, this method does not
give sufficient information about the surface.
3. Form factor
The form is the general shape of the surface,

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ignoring variations due to roughness and waviness.
En ve lo pe
re ctangle
Are a of m aterial
Ba se
line
Fig: 4.72 Form factor
The form factor is defined as the ratio between

the area of material above the baseline to the area of the
enveloping rectangle.
Area of meterial
Degree of fullness (F) =
E nvelopin g rectangle Area
Degree of emptiness (K) = 1 − F
4.6.6 MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE FINISH

The inspection and assessment of surface roughness
of machined components are carried out by means of
various measurement techniques.
The surface finish can be measured by the following

methods.
(a) Surface Inspection by comparison method

(b) Direct Instrument method

The surface texture is assessed by supervisor either
by eye (or) fingernail. To get more accurate measurement,
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various techniques are used.
The surface inspection by comparison method is

further divided into following types.
1. Touch Inspection
2. Visual Inspection
3. Scratch Inspection
4. Surface Photographs
5. Reflected light Intensity
6. Micro Interferometer
7. Microscopic Inspection and
8. Wallace surface dynamometer
1. Touch Inspection
In this method, the surface of the component is
measured by finger-tip itself. The finger tip is moved
along the surface at a speed of about 25 mm/sec and the
irregularities as small as 0.01 mm can be easily detected.
This method cannot assess the degree of surface
roughness or detect minute flaws but can only tell which
surface is more rough.
2. Visual Inspection
This method is used to check the surface by naked
eyes. This method will mislead particularly when surfaces
having high degree of finish are inspected. Therefore this
method is limited to rougher surfaces and values of result
vary from person to person.
3. Scratch Inspection
In the scratch inspection method, a soft material is
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rubbed over the workpiece surface. The scratches formed
on the soft material correspond to the workpiece surface

roughness, and can be easily visualized.
4. Surface photographs
In this method, the magnified photographs of the

workpiece surfaces are taken with different types of
illuminations. When the illumination is on, then defects
like irregularities and scratches appear as dark spots and
flat portion of the surface appears as bright area.
5. Reflected Light Intensity
In this method, a light is projected on the workpiece

surface. The light intensity variation on the surface is
measured by a photo cell. The measured intensity
changes are compared with the calibrated standard
surface for which roughness is known.
6. Micro Interferometer
In this method, an optical flat is placed on the

surface to be inspected and illuminated by a
monochromatic source of light. Scratches in the surface
appear as interference lines extending from the dark
bands into the bright bands. The depth of the defect is
measured in terms of the fraction of the interference
band.
7. Microscopic Inspection
This is the best method for examining the surface

finish but only limitation is that only a small portion of
the surface can be inspected. In this method also, a
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master finished surface (calibrated) is placed under the
microscope and compared with the surface under

inspection.
8. Wallace surface Dynamometer

It consists of pendulum in which the testing shoes
are clamped and a predetermined spring pressure is
applied. In this method, the pendulum is lifted to its
initial position and allowing to swing over the surface to
the tested so that the testing shoes rub the surface. If
the surface is smooth, then there will be less friction and
pendulum swings for a longer time period. Thus the time
of swing is a direct measure of surface finish.

The direct instrument method is also used to
measure the surface finish of the components by means
of stylus type devices. The measurements are obtained by
using stylus and the stylus motion is perpendicular to the
surface to be measured. The direct instrument method is
further classified into four types.
(i) Stylus probe Instrument
(ii) Profilometer
(iii) Tomlinson surface meter and
(iv) Taylor - Hobson Talysurf
(i) Stylus probe Instrument

The stylus probe instrument is shown in Fig. 4.73.
The stylus probe surface-measuring instrument consists
of a stylus with a small tip (usually made up of harder
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material), a gauge (or) transducer and a processor. The
S kid S u rface to
stylus b e me asu red
S tylus m ovem e nt (z)
stylus
m ovem e nt
D ia m on d (z - dire ctio n)
tip Fig 4.73 S tylus probe instrum ent
surface of the component is measured by moving the

stylus across the component surface.
As the stylus moves up and down along the surface,
the transducer converts this movement into a signal,
which is then exported to a microprocessor that converts
this signal into a number. By the movement of stylus on
the component surface, the irregularities can be
measured. A skid has a radius large enough to prevent
movement in and out of the roughness characteristics of
the surface.
The stylus and the skid are usually independent in
their height (z) movement but move together in the
measurement direction. The surface deviations are
measured as the difference between the stylus and the
skid movement in the z - direction. The various units of
a stylus probe instruments are:
(a) Skid (or) Shoe
This follows the general contours of a surface when
moved slowly over it and provides a datum for
measurements. When a skid is not used, only a probe is
used to trace the actual profile.
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(b) Stylus (or) Probe
This has cone shape with a spherical tip and moves

over the surface along with the skid. It traces the micro
geometrical form of the surface.
(c) Amplifying device and Indicator
For magnifying the stylus movement, an applying

device is used.
(d) Recording device
This is used to produce a trace or record of the

surface profile.
The analysis of the obtained trace can be done using

an automatic device incorporated in the instrument or can
be done separately.
(ii) Profilometer
The schematic diagram of a profilometer is shown
in Fig. 4.74. It consists of stylus or tracer point with a
diamond tip, induction coil, optical detector and laser, etc.
The profilometer is a measuring instrument used to

measure the surface profile, in order to quantify its
roughness.
The tip of the stylus moves over the ups and downs
of the surface. As its upper end is connected to an
induction coil, the small currents excited by the up and
down movements of the stylus are amplified. The
induction coil is located in the magnetic field. The stylus
is suspended on the spring. The readings are obtained on
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galvanometer.
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Po le
M
ag
ne
t
Po le
Stylus R ough surface

to be m easu red
Fig: 4.74 Profilom eter
Types of profilometer
(a) Contact profilometer
(b) Non-contact profilometer
(c) Stylus profilometer (Mechanical profilometer)
(a) Contact profilometer
A diamond stylus is allowed to move vertically on

a sample and then move laterally across the sample for
a specified distance with specified contact force. A
profilometer can measure small surface variations in
vertical stylus displacement as a function of position.
The type of profilometer can measure small vertical

height ranging from 10 nm to 1 mm. The height position
of the diamond stylus generates an analog signal which
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is converted into a digital signal which is stored, analysed
and then displayed. The radius of the diamond stylus

ranges from 20 nanometres to 25 μm . The stylus tracking
force can range from less than 1 to 50 milligrams. This
is significantly better than white-light optical profiling.
(b) Non-contact profilometer

An optical profilometer is a non-contact method
providing much of the same information as that of stylus
based profilometer. There are different techniques
currently employed, such as laser triangulation
(triangulation sensor), low coherence interferometry and
digital holography, etc. The non-contact profilometer does
not touch the surface to be measured.
In this method, the surface is not damaged or worn

out since there is no direct contact between the optical
profilometer and the surface to be measured. Many
non-contact profilometers are solid state which tend to
reduce the required maintenance significantly.
(iii) Tomlinson surface meter

The Tomlinson surface meter is shown in Fig. 4.75.
It consists of stylus with diamond probe, body, arm,
spring, lapped steel cylinder, rollers, spring and smoked
glass.
Principle
The instrument uses mechanical-optical
magnification method.
Construction
The skid is attached to the body and its height is
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adjusted to enable the diamond tipped stylus to be
Sp rin g
H o rizonta l
Fixed R olle rs M otion of B od y
Ve rtica l
M otion of
Stylus AR M
D u e to
Wavine ss Bo dy
Stylus Leaf Spring

D iam ond Lapped S te el D iam ond
Probe C ylinder scriber
Skid Sm o ke d
G lass screen
R o ugh su rface Fixed

R o lle rs
to be m easures
Stylus
Fig.4 .7 5 To m lins on S urfa ce M e ter.
conveniently positioned. The coil spring and leaf spring

allow the stylus to move only in the vertical direction and
not any other directions. The spring forces hold a lapped
steel cylinder and a pair of parallel fixed rollers. The steel
cylinder carries a steel arm with a diamond scriber at its
tip when is set against a smoked glass screen.
Operation
While measuring surface finish, the instrument
body is drawn across the surface by rotating a screw
slowly (~ 1 rpm ) by the help of synchronous motor while
the glass is maintained stationary. The ups and downs
(irregularities) in the surface make the stylus to move
vertically up and down. This vertical movement of the
stylus makes the steel cylinder to rotate on which the
steel arm is pivoted. Thus the movement of arm is
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initiated which in turn the scriber produces a trace on

the smoked glass screen.
The trace on the smoked glass is transferred to an
optical projector and further magnified in the order of
50 X (or) 100 X. The profile or trace of the surface is
also taken by photographic methods and then it is
analysed.
(iv) Taylor - Hobson Talysurf

The schematic
diagram of Taylor -
‘E ’ sh ap ed
Hobson Talysurf is
A A stam p in g
shown in Fig. 4.76 C o ils w ith
A C cu rre nt
and 4.77. It consists B C
C e nte r leg
of stylus, skid, A rm a ture
armature, amplifier,
S tylus
demodulator, filter, S kid
recorder, oscillator
P rincip le
and ‘E’ shaped
Fig.4.76 Talysurf p rinciple
stamping, etc.
The Taylor Hobson Talysurf is an electronic
instrument which gives very rapid output, when
compared to Tomlinson surface meter.
Principle
This instrument works on carrier modulating
principle.
Construction
The measuring head of the instrument has a stylus

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and a skid (shoe) which are moved across the surface to
be inspected.
Filte re d w ave form
The armature
carrying the D M eter
F ilter
stylus, pivots
D em od ulator
A m plifier
about the centre B C
leg of the R e co rde r
E-shaped
A
stamping. The O scilla to r
other two legs
of the E-shaped
C a rrie r M od ulated D e m o du la te d an d
stamping carrier sm o o the ne d
consist of two Fig. 4.77 Talysu rf sch em atic layou t
coils with A.C

current. The two coils AB & AC and two resistances form
an oscillator (Fig. 4.77).
Operation
The armature is pivoted about the centre element.
The movement of the stylus causes armature to vary the
gap and the amplitude of the A.C current in the coil gets
modulated. The modulated output of the bridge is then
demodulated. So the current flow is directly proportional
to the vertical displacement of the stylus.
The output is sent to an amplifier which operates

a pen recorder and produces a permanent record. The
output is also sent to a meter which directly gives a
numerical value of surface finish.
Applications
 Laboratories
 Engineering
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4.7 ROUNDNESS (OR) CIRCULARITY

Roundness is the
measure of how closely the
shape of an object
approaches that of a circle.
A component is
defined as round if all e quPe rim e ter
id istant from
points of a cross-section are a xis
equal distant to a common Fig. 4.78 Cross-section of a

cylindrical object
centre. Accurate roundness
measurement is vital in productive manufacturing
processes. The measurement of out-of-roundness (usually
referred as roundness) is an extremely important
assessment.
4.7.1 Types of Irregularities of a Circular Part

The different types of circularity errors are as
follows:
(a) Ovality: Ovality is
the degree of deviation at
the cross-section of the D2
object from perfect D1

circularity towards D
elliptical from. This Pe rfect
circularity
refers to the difference
between major and minor Ellip tical profile
axis. Fig. 4.79 (a) Ovality
(b) Lobing: This refers to the condition at the

cross-section of a circular part where the diameters at
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E xact cylind rica l

form
D
Trian gu la r D
p rofile D D
Fig. 4.79 (b) L ob ing
P erfe ct
any two opposite points are circular fo rm
Irre g ular
p rofile
constant, but still the part is
not of circular form.
(c) Irregularities of No
specific form: This refers to
the condition where the cross
of the circular part has no
specific form as shown in Fig. 4.79 (c) Irregular fo rm
Fig.4.79(c)
4.7.2 Causes of out-of roundness:

Out of roundness can be caused due to
 Poor bearings in the spindle

 Poor alignment of shafts between centers.
 Stress caused due to compression of the part at
the points of contact when held in a chuck.
4.7.3 Methods of Roundness Measurement
Roundness can be measured by the following

methods
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(a) Diametral method
(b) Circumferential confining gauge

(c) Rotating on centers
(d) V-Block Method
(e) Three point Probe
(f) Roundness measuring spindle
(g) Reference circles
(h) Roundness measuring machines
(a) Diametral Method

In this method, the C a sing
workpiece is mounted on the
plungers. Here plungers are
arranged 180° to each other. The
diameter of workpiee is measured
at several places. This method is
suitable for specimen in elliptical
shape. This method is unreliable
Fig 4 .80
in determining roundness.
(b) Circumferential Confining Gauge

The specimen is located inside of the circumferential
confining gauge. If the surface of specimen is not exactly
roundness, the indicator
C ircu m fere ntial
will show the variation. Sp ecim e n con fin in g
This technique does not gauge
allow for the measurement

of other geometric
characteristics such as
concentricity flatness etc. Indica to r
Fig.4.81. Circum ferential
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confinin g gauge
(c) Rotating on Centers

Here, the workpiece
is mounted between two
centers. Roundness can be
measured for cylindrical
surface objects like shafts
C entre
using this method. When C ylindrical part
C entre
rotating the workpiece, Fig. 4.82.Rotating on centres

any error in roundness
will be indicated by the variation in the dial gauge.
(d) V-block Method

The V-block method
is a simple technique to D ia l ga ug e
measure roundness where

the part (whose roundness
W ork p ie ce
is to be checked) is placed to b e tes te d
S ta n d
in a Vee-block rested on a
surface plate. The feeler of V -B lo ck
a dial gauge fixed firmly
in a stand is made to rest
against the surface of the
Fig. 4.83 V-block m ethod
part. The setup is shown
in Fig.4.83.
Now, the part is rotated with its surface in contact
with the dial gauge. If the part is perfectly round, the
pointer of the gauge will not move and any error in the
form will cause the dial gauge to show a reading.
To find the number of lobes on the part, it is first
tested in a 60° V-block and then in a 90° V-block. The
number of times, the dial gauge pointer deflects during
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Varying levels of
indicator contact
r2 r1
r2
M r3
o
60
M ax D ia. Fig. 4.84 M in D ia.
rotation of the part through 360°

is equal to the number of lobes
on the part.
The vee-block method is a 3
point method and so is greatly
L ob e
influenced by the spacing and
phase of profile irregularities as
well as the angle of the vee-block.
For correct measurement of
roundness by vee-block method,
different angles of vee-block are
recommended depending upon the Fig. 4.8 5
number of lobes on a part. Since
it is difficult to ascertain the number of lobes on a part
and to avoid many fixed angle vee-blocks, an adjustable
vee-block can be used.
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Limitation of the V-Block Method

Usually V-block method is used where high accuracy
of roundness measurement is not needed, due to its
limitations. They are
 The error of roundness measured is greatly

affected by the included angle of the V-block.
This is because of the fact that as the angle of
V-changes, the place where the part rests also
changes. The measurement is also affected by
the number of lobes present on the part
circumference. Some lobing conditions are
greatly magnified and others are reduced or not
detected at all.
 The position of the instrument should be in the
same vertical plane as the point of contact of
the part with the vee-block. In cases, like in a
shaft, the contact of the vee-block is not
restricted to the plane being measured. This
means that the irregularities of the part along
its length will affect the dial indicator reading.
 To prevent readings to be affected by minute
undulations of the surface like surface
roughness, a leaf spring should always be placed
below the surface of the part.
(e) Three Point Probe Method

Roundness measurement using three point with
120° spacing as shown in Fig. 4.86.
In cases of doubtful geometry of part, the three

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point probe is used for determining the effective size. Like
a 60° Vee-block, the three

point probe will show no
error for 5 and 7 lobes,
magnifies the error for 3
lobes, and will show 120 o
120 o
partial error for randomly
spaced lobes. 120 o
Pa rt
(f) Roundness
measuring Spindle
3-Ja w inside m icro m eter
The roundness Fig. 4.86 Thre e point p robe m eth od
measuring spindle can be
classified into two types.
1. Overhead Spindle
2. Rotating table
The overhead spindle method is shown in Fig. 4.87.

In this method, the specimen is placed on a staging
platform. A comparator mounted on the overhead spindle
rotates independent of the part. Any error in roundness
will be shown in the indicator reading. The size (height)
O verh ea d
spind le
P a rt In dica to r
In dica to r S p in dle Fixe d
P a rt stan d
R o tatin g
S ta g in g ta ble
p lat fo rm
Fig.4.87.Ro un dness m easu ring Fig.4.88.Ro un dness m easu ring
spin dle-overh ead spindle spin dle-rotating table
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of the workpleces that can be inspected by this method

is limited by the location of the overhead spindle. The
load of the workpiece does not affect the measurements
as it is separate from the spindle. In this method both
roundness and circular flatness (camming) can be
measured.
The rotating table method is shown in Fig. 4.88.
Here, the specimen is mounted on the spindle, which is
an integral part of a rotating table. A fixed stand holds
the comparator in contact with the rotating part. There
is no limitation in the height of the workpiece as there
is no overhead spindle. But the weight of the workpiece
may result in error as it is supported by the spindle. By
this method roundness, camming and concentricity can be
measured.
(g) Reference Circles
The error of circularity is defined as the radial

distance between the minimum circumscribing circle and
the maximum inscribing circle which contain the profile
of the surface at a section perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.
The concept of reference circles can be used to

interpret the polar graph which is a graphical record
(suitably magnified) of the displacement of the stylus of
measuring elements, as either the stylus or the part
rotates on the axis of the precision spindle.
Four types of reference circles have been

standardized for use in the measurement of roundness.
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(i) Least Squares Reference Circle (LSCI)

RON t = Roundness Total
RO Np
RON p = Roundness Peak
P
RON v = Roundness Valley
A line (or) figure is fitted RO Nv V
to any data such that the sum

of the squares of the departure
of the data from that line (or)
figure is a minimum. This is RO Nt = d istance P + V
Least S quares Circle (L SCI)
also the line that deviates the Fig. 4.89
profile into equal minimum

areas. The LSCI is the most commonly used reference
circle.
Out of roundness is the maximum departure of the
profile from the LSCI i.e the highest peak to the lowest
valley.
(ii) Minimum Circumscribed Circle (MCCI)

It is defined as the circle
of minimum radius which will
enclose the profile data. The
out of roundness is the
maximum departure of the
profile from this circle. It is V
also referred to as the ring

gauge reference circle.
Fig. 4.90
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(iii) Minimum Zone O ut o f

ro un dn ess
Reference Circles
(MZCI)
P -V
It is defined as two
concentric circles positioned
to enclose the measured
profile such that their radial
departure is a minimum. The
out of roundness value is the R O N t = d ista nce P - V
radial separation of the two M in im um Zon e C ircle s (M ZC I)
circles. Fig. 4.91
O ut of
rou ndn ess
(iv) Maximum Inscribed
Circle (MICI)
P
It is defined as the circle
of maximum radius which will
be enclosed by the profile data.
The out of roundness is the
maximum departure of the
profile from this circle. It is
also referred to as the plug
gauge reference circle.
(h) Roundness Measuring Machines

Circular forms are easy to generate and arise in
many applications. But to check the roundness of such
forms is a difficult task.
Out of roundness can be specified only when some
centre is found from which to make the measurements.
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Finding the centre from which to measure the variation

in profile is an important part of roundness measurement.
To differentiate between diameter and roundness is
very important, because both are measured quite
differently and separately, by different methods and
instruments. Measuring of diameter can be done
statically, for measuring roundness, rotation is always
necessary.
Roundness is defined as the separation of two
concentric circles that just enclose the circular section of
interest. It is clear from the above definition that
measurement of diameter will not yield the roundness of
Rou nd 3 lo bed 5 lob ed 7 lob ed
Fig. 4.93 Same dia but roundness chang es
the component. The Fig.4.93. illustrates how markedly

the roundness changes even though the diameters are the
same for each component.
Modern Engineering requires closer tolerances and
more accurate measurement of roundness to have control
over the geometric form of round and cylindrical surfaces.
Roundness measuring instruments provide results
speedily, accurately and reliably overcoming limitation of
workshop methods.
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These instruments are of two types:

1. Rotating pick up type
2. Turn table type
1. Rotating Pick up type

In this type in which the workpiece is stationary
and pick up revolved. Precision spindle has to be designed
to carry the comparatively light load of the pickup, which
is easier to make. The weight of workpiece being
stationary, is not a limitation on measuring capacity.
2. Turn table type

In this type in which the workpiece is rotated and
pickup is stationary. The more commonly used type, since
the pickup is not associated with the spindle. This is
easier to measure roundness. Reposition the pickup has
no effects on the reference axis. It is also possible to
measure straightness by providing straight vertical
movement of the pickup, there being no need of modifying
the spindle (or) its mounting.
The pick up converts the minute movements of the

stylus into electrical signal, which is processed and
amplified and fed to a polar recorder.
Usually several related straightness and roundness

measurements are needed to give a much more complete
picture about the overall functioning of the part. The
system is programmed to assess the workpiece roundness
with respect to any of the four internationally recognised
reference circles. A visual display of workpice profile with
the reference circle relative to the axis of the instrument
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spindle can be obtained.
Measurement can be made with respect to the

spindle axis of the measuring instruments. The program
also provides functions like auto ranging, auto calibration,
auto centering and concentricity.
Modern Roundness Measuring Instruments

Modern roundness measuring have enhanced
capabilities and overcome the limitations of other devices
used for roundness measurement. These machines are
designed to make the numerical assessment of departure
from ideal roundness from one of the following two
centres.
(i) determination from minimum zone centres i.e
(centre for which the radial difference has a
minimum value).
(ii) determination from least square centre (maximum
inscribed circle and minimum circumscribed circle)
These machines are based on the use of
microprocessor to provide measurements of roundness
quickly and in a simple way. The machines can be
centering automatically and calculate concentricity,
straightness, and roundness and provide visual and
digital display
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Measurement of Power, Flow & Temperature 5.1
Chapter - 5
MEASUREMENT OF POWER,
FLOW AND TEMPERATURE
5.1 FORCE MEASUREMENT

Force is nothing but product of mass and
acceleration.
F = ma
The force is a vector quantity. Unit of Force is

Newton (N) Generally force can be measured by two
methods
1. Direct force measurement
2. Indirect force measurement
5.2 DIRECT FORCE MEASUREMENT

Here, the unknown force is directly compared with
known standard force.
(i) Analytical Balance Method

The direct force measurement by Analytical Balance
Method is shown in Fig. 5.1. In this direct force
measurement system, the unknown force is compared
with known gravitational force on a standard mass. The
force is applied on a system of mass (m ) due to the
gravitational field, which can be expressed by,
W = mg
Let Weight of the system

, W−
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Fig. 5.1 An alytical Balance M ethod
m− Standard mass
g− Acceleration due to gravity
To determine the force acting on the system, it is

essential to know the value of mass and acceleration due
to gravity. Generally the analytical balance method is also
called as equal arm balance method.
Here, the balance arm is pivoted about a knife edge
point or fulcrum O . The balance as shown in the
schematic (Fig. 5.1), is in an unbalanced condition due to
the forces (or) weights W 1 and W 2 (weights not equal in
this condition) acting on either side of the arm. The
unbalance is indicated by the pointer noting the angle (θ)
with the verticate. Deflection per unit of unbalance gives
a measure of sensitivity of the balance. Unbalance is
nothing but the difference between the two weights
(W 1 − W 2 ) .
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Now, let W A denote the weight of the balance arm

and pointer. When the two weights (W 1 & W 2 ) are equal,
then the angle θ will be zero. In this condition the weight
of the balance arm and pointer will not influence the
measurements.
For equilibrium conditon, we should have
W A ⋅ xA = W 1 ⋅ x 1 − W 2 ⋅ x2
The analytical balance method to not suitable for

the measurement of large weights.
(ii) Platform Balance
The Platform balance is also called as multi-lever

system. This method is also a type of direct force
Poise
W eight(W p)
Beam S cale
Adjustable
C ounterpo ise b a
W1 W
W2
Tension T
Platform
Pan
W eight
Wy
M ain lever F e
c
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Fig.5.2 Platform b alance
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measurement system. Generally this method is used for

measurement of large weights.
The arrangement of platform balance method is
shown in Fig. 5.2.
Two weights known as poise weight (W p) and pan

weight (W y) are used to measure the large weight (W ).
By using adjustable counter poise, the initial reading is
set to zero. The weight of the platform (W ) can be
replaced by two weights W 1 and W 2 by adjusting the poise
weight (W p)
For equilibrium condition
T × b = Wy × a
...(1)
⎛ f ⎞
and , T × c = W 1 ⎜ ⎟ e + [W 2 × h]
⎝d⎠
h f
We know that, linkage proportion, = hence
e d
⎛ f ⎞
h=⎜ ⎟e
⎝d⎠
T × c = h ( W1 + W2 ) = h × W
(∴ W = W 1 + W 2 )
T×c=h×W ...(2)
Wy × a
∴ equation (1) ⇒ T =
b ...(3)
h×W
∴ equation (2) ⇒ T =
c ...(4)
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Equating equation (3) and (4)
Wy × a h×W
(3) = (4) ⇒ =
b c
⎛a c ⎞
W = ⎜ × ⎟ Wy
⎝b h⎠
W = SW y
⎛a c ⎞
Where S (Scale Multiplication ratio), = ⎜ × ⎟
⎝b h⎠
(iii) Unequal Arm Balance Method

The unequal arm balance method is shown in Fig.
5.3
The direct force measurement technique, generally

uses the unequal arm balance method is used to measure
the mass of larger weights with the help of lighter
weights. There are two arms that are used in this system.
One is called load arm and an other one is called power
l2 l1
Load a rm Po w er arm
P
G
Q
C alib rated scale M ass(m )

Kn ife edge
in te rm s of F t
Fg
Po inter attached to kno w n sm aller
beam for leveling w eights
W eight to be m ea su red
F t (Test F orce) Fig. 5.3 Unequal arm b alance

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arm. The load is measured on the load arm and power

arm is used to add the counter weights for maintaining
balance in equilibrium condition.
The test force (F t) is applied at the end P and the
load is measured. The counter weight (F g) is acting on
the power arm at point G , to maintain equilibrium.
We know that, F g = m .g
The beam is pivoted on a point Q . The test force

(F t) is applied by a lever.
Now,
Taking moment about point (Q ),
F t × l 2 = F g × l1
F g × l1
Ft =
l2
From this, we can find unknown free
To find unknown mass,
Ft = m t ⋅ g
For equilibrium condition,
m t ⋅ g × l2 = m ⋅ g ⋅ l1 unknown mass,
l1
mt = m ×
l2
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(iv) Pendulum Scale
S cale fra m e
S e ctors
S u pp ort
ta pe s
E q ua lize r
b ar
P ivo t P ivo t
C o un ter W W C o un ter
W eigh t W eigh t
L oa ding
ta pe s
R a ck& L oa d
P inion ro d
a rran ge m en t W e ig ht
sca le
P u ll,p
Fig.5.5. Pend ulu m Scale
The arrangement of pendulum scale is shown in

Fig. 5.4. It also kind of direct force measurement. The
pendulum scale is working under the principle of
multilever system. The direct pull (p) is applied to the
load rod. As the load is applied, the sectors will rotate
about its pivot. Due to the centrifugal force, the counter
weights will move in the outward direction. This
movement continues until the balance moments and loads
get equalized. The pointer attached to a rack and pinion
arrangement indicates the measurement corresponding to
the movement of the equalizer bar.
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5.3 INDIRECT FORCE MEASUREMENT

In this measurement system, indirect comparison is
made by an calibrated transducer that senses by means
of a gravitational attraction or weight.
(i) Accelerometers
The Accelerometer is a device, which is used to
measure the acceleration. From that, we can find force
in the following manner.
F = ma
Let, F− Force
m − Mass of the body
a− Acceleration
A ccelero m ete r
A ccelera tio n (a)
Fo rce (F) M ass o f B ody
Fig. 5.5 F orce m easurem ent b y acceleration
(ii) Electromagnetic Balance Method

An electromagnetic balance method is shown in Fig.
5.6.
It consists of an amplifier, light detector, ammeter,
coil and light source. When current passes through the
coil, electromagnetic torque is produced. The servo system
is used to balance the difference between gravitational
force acting on a standard mass and the unknown force.
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Am plifier
Light de tector
N ull detec tor
Sc reen
Voltage s ource
Light So urce
C oil
Am m eter
Perm anent
M agnet
U nknow n Forc e
Fig.5.6 Electrom ag ne tic balance
The transducer is used to check the balance between

unknown force and the standard mass. The resistor is
connected to the circuit to measure the unknown force.
(iii) Load Cells

A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert
a force into electrical signal. This conversion is indirect
and happens in 2 stages. Through a mechanical
arrangement, the force being sensed is used to deform a
strain gauge. The strain gauge converts deformation in
to electrical signals.
5.4 TYPES OF LOAD CELLS

The load cells are classified in to six main types:
(i) Capacitive Load Cells
(ii) Magnetoelastic Load Cells
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(iii) Strain Gauge Load Cells
(iv) Hydraulic Load Cells

(v) Pneumatic Load Cells
(vi) Shear Type Load Cells
(i) Capacitive Load Cell

The capacitive load
cell arrangement is shown Top M ountin g S crew
Scale
in Fig. 5.7. Su rfa ce
M ou ntin g N ut
The capacitive load C a pa citive
cell uses the separation Se nsor
Bo tto m
between two conductive Plate
surfaces to measure the B ottom
force applied. As the force M o un ting Screw
increases, the separation Fig.5.7. C apacitive Lo ad Cell
between the surface

decreases and the capacitance increases.
(ii) Magnetoelastic Load Cell
It detects the changes in permeability by measuring

changes in their own magnetic field. It is sometimes
called as pressductor load cell.
Pressductor
It is kind of magneto-elastic type force transducer.

It consists of number of laminted sheets of magnetic
material bended together to form a transducer body, on
which primary and secondary coils are wound and located
perpendicular to each other. When the AC input given to
the primary, in secondary coil there is no magnetic
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induction produced.
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When the force is applied on the transducer, the

magnetic field is changed. Now, the flux lines are cut the
secondary winding. So the voltage is induced in secondary
winding. The output voltage is directly proportional to the
applied force.
F F
F
Se nsin g
elem e nt
P S P S
(a ) Flux contour in ne r (b ) Flux counter (c) Transd ucer

no loa d under load assem bly
Fig.5.8.Pressdu cto r
(iii) Strain Gauge Load Cell
The strain gauge load cell arrangement is shown in

Fig. 5.9
The strain gauge load cell is used to measure the

force. In this setup, there are two kinds of transducers
used.
1. Primary transducers [Elastic members]
2. Secondary transducers [Strain gauges]
The load cell is a kind of indirect method of force

measurement. In the above set up, there are four strain
gauges used in which, the two strain gauges are used to
measure the longitudinal strain and remaining two strain
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gauges are used to measure the transverse strain.
R1 R2
A C V
Strain
R3 R4 gauge
D
F
R1
-
1
Fig.5.9 Strain gauge arran gem ent R2 R3

Fo r a Load Cell
R4
From the equation of Young’s Modulus

Stress
E=
Strain ⎡ . . L oad F ⎤
⎢ . Stress = Area = A ⎥
⎣ ⎦
F/A
⇒ Strain =
E
F
Longitudinal Strain =
AE
Let, F − Load
A− Cross sectional area
E− Young’s Modulus
Based on the above formula, the strain value can

be calculated.
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(iv) Hydraulic Load Cell
Force(F )
D ia phragm
C h am ber
Pre ssu re G auge
Fig. 5.10 Hydrau lic Lo ad Cell
The cross-sectional view of hydraulic load cell is

shown in Fig.5.10 Instead of a piston, a diaphragm is
placed. In order to prevent the excessive strain on
diaphragm (when the load exceeds certain limit),
mechanical stops are used. Here, the load cell is fully
filled with oil. When the load is applied on the
diaphragm, the movement of diaphragm results in
increase of oil pressure. The oil pressure can be noted
using a pressure gauge.
(v) Pneumatic Load Cell
The cross-sectional view of Pneumatic Load Cell is

shown in Fig. 5.11.
The pneumatic load cell automatically regulates the

balancing pressure with the help of a flexible diaphragm.
The air is supplied at the one side of the chamber and
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it escapes through the nozzle at high velocity. The
Fo rc e (F )
D ia p hra gm
P re s su re
g au ge
A ir
S u pp ly
C h am b er
N o zzle
Fig. 5.11 Pne um atic load C ell
pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure inside

the load cell.
When the load is acting, the diaphragm will deflect.
Due to this, the air flow through the nozzle and pressure
inside of the chamber will be affected. This variation in
pressure is measured by the pressure gauge.
(vi) Shear Type Load Cell L oa d F
The shear type load cell Ten sion C o m p re ss io n

arrangement is shown in Fig.
5.12
The shear type load cell
is used to measure the loads
and bending moments. In this
method, two cantilever beams
are used. Both free ends of
cantilever beams are butted
together. In the cantilever
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Fig. 5.17 She ar Type lo ad ce ll
beam, the strain gauge is located at 45°. The strain gauge

(T) is used to measure the tensile force and strain gauge
(C) is used to measure the compressive force. The
resultant output is measured by a bridge circuit which
linearly varies with the applied load.
This kind of load cell is mainly used to measure
the shock loads.
5.5 ELASTIC LOADED MEMBERS

Elastic loaded members are also used to measure
the force. The deflection can be measured either directly
or indirectly by using secondary transducers. Various
secondary transducers such as strain gauges, piezoelectric
transducers and LVDT are used.
Direct measurement of elastic load members are

given here
(a) Coil springs

(b) Proving rings
(c) Load cells
(d) Electronic weighing system
(a) Coil Springs

The line diagram of spring balance is shown in Fig.
5.13.
The spring balance is the best example of coil

spring. The spring balance is a device, which is used to
measure the force directly with the help of coil spring
deflection. The fixed end is attached to catch hook and
free end is connected to the load hook. The displacement
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at the free end due to the applied force is shown by
pointer moving on a scale.

Here the deflection is a C a tch hook
linear function of force Fixe d
end
and can be used to
Sp ring
measure the force directly
Slot
F = k ⋅δ
Scale
Let,
F− Applied force
spring
k− Stiffness
Fre e end
8FD3n
δ− Deflection =
Gd 4
L oa d h oo k
D − Mean diameter
n− no.of turns
G− Rigidity modulus
W=mg
d− Wire diameter
Fig.5.13. Sprin g balance
(b) Proving Rings
Proving ring is a circular ring of rectangular section.
It may be carrying tensile force or compressive force. The
proving ring is made up of steel, which is used for
calibration of material testing machines.
The deflection of the ring is measured with the help
of micrometer. One end of the micrometer is connected to
vibrating read for getting vibratory motion. The
micrometer wheel is moved forward, until vibration is
observed.
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F
F
Pro ving ring

d
Vib rating
rod
F
M icrom e ter
w h eel
F Fig.5.14.Proving ring
(c) Load cell have been already discussed
(d) Electronic Weighing System

The electronic weighing system is designed with
computer interfaced software.
It consists of load cell, signal conditioners, Filter,

Analog to Digital converter (ADC), analog recorder,
display, printer, servo indicator and computer interface
etc.
S e rvo
In dica to r
Ze ro S e t A n alog
R e co rde r D isp la y
L oa d S ign al ADC
Filte r P rinter
C e ll C o nd ition er
C o m p uter
In te rfa ce
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Fig.5.15 E lectron ic W eighing System
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The signal conditioner gets the signal from load cell

in the range of 0-5V. This signal is further converted into
a digital format with the help of ADC. The output is
shown in display and also printout can be taken.
5.6 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS
The fluid pressure sensors are used to measure the

pressure within the fluid due to various forces acting on
the fluid during flow. The fluid pressure sensors generate
a signal as a function of the pressure applied by the gases
or liquids. The pressure sensors measure the absolute
pressure, gauge pressure and differential presence.
The Various types of pressure sensors are discussed
The pressure in a fluid is measured by the following

devices.
1. Manometers
2. Mechanical Gauges
Manometers
Manometers are defined as the devices used for

measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing
the column of fluid by the same or another column of
fluid.
Manometers are classified as:
(a) Simple Manometers
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(b) Differential Manometers
Simple manometers are used to measure pressure at a

point in a fluid flowing through pipe (or) contained in
vessel.
Differential manometers are used to measure the
pressure difference between any two points in a fluid
flowing though pipe or contained in a vessel.
Mechanical Gauges
Mechanical gauges are devices used for measuring
the pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring
or dead weight. The commonly used mechanical pressure
gauges are
(a) Diaphragm pressure gauge
(b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge
(c) Dead-weight pressure gauge
(d) Bellows pressure gauge
5.7 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT METHODS

Pressure can be measured by the following methods
1. Elastic pressure transducers: Bourdon tube
pressure gauge (C-type, Helical type, Spiral type),
Diaphragm pressure transducers, Bellows.
2. Manometer method
3. Electric pressure transducers: Strain gauge type,
potentiometer type (resistance type), capacitance
type etc.,
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5.7.1 Bourdon gauge (C-Type)
Principle
The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that
a flattened tube tends to change to a more circular
cross-section when pressurized. Although this change in
cross-section may be hardly noticeable, the displacement
of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the
tube into a C shape or even a helix, such that the entire
tube tends to straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is
pressurized as shown in the Fig.5.16
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Mechanism and working

A flattened thin-wall, closed-end tube is connected
at the open end to a fixed pipe containing the fluid
pressure to be measured. As the pressure increases, the
closed end moves in an arc, and this motion is converted
into the rotation of a (segment of a) gear by a connecting
link which is usually adjustable. A small diameter pinion
gear is on the pointer shaft, so the motion is magnified
further by the gear ratio. The positioning of the indicator
card behind the pointer, the initial pointer shaft position,
the linkage length and initial position all provide means
to calibrate the pointer to indicate the desired range of
pressure for variations in the behavior of the Bourdon
tube itself.
When the measured pressure is rapidly pulsing, as

in a reciprocating pump, an orifice restriction in the
connecting pipe is frequently used to avoid unnecessary
wear on the gears and provide an average reading.
When the whole gauge is subjected to mechanical

vibration, the entire case including the pointer and
indicator card can be filled with an oil or glycerin. Typical
high-quality modern gauges provide an accuracy of
± 2% of span, and a special high-precision gauge can be
as accurate as 0.1% of full scale.
Other types of Bourdon gauges

The other types of Bourdon gauges are Spiral type
(Fig. 5.17 (a)) and Helical Type (Fig. 5.17 (b)). The
principle of operation of Spiral and Helical type is same
as that of the C-type Bourdon gauge. When the tube is
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pressurized, the tube gets deflected proportionally to the
(a) (b)
Fig.5.17. (a) Spiral type (b) Helical type
change in pressure and the same is indicated by the

pointer attached at the end.
5.7.2 DIAPHRAGM-TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE
Principle
An elastic steel diaphragm usually is designed so
that the deflection-versus-pressure characteristics are as
linear as possible over a specified pressure range, and
with a minimum of hysteresis and minimum shift in the
zero point.
When the diaphragm is subjected to pressure the
diaphragm deflects linearly and this deflection is
magnified by mechanical linkages to indicate the pressure
as shown in Fig. 5.18 (a) & (b).
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M otion M otion
Dia phragm Dia phragm
(Flat) (corrugated
typ e)
P ressure P ressure
(a) (b)
Fig 5.18 (a) Flat diaphragm ; (b) C orrugated diaphragm
P ivot
Overrange Underrange
sto p S to p
Dia phragm
capsule
P ressure o r
vacuum
Fig 5.18 (c) Use of Capsule elem ent in Pressure gauge
Working
Fig.5.18 (c) shows the use of capsule element in
pressure gauge. To amplify the motion that a diaphragm
capsule produces, several capsules are connected end to
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end. Diaphragm type pressure gauges are used to

measure gauge, absolute, or differential pressure. They
are normally used to measure low pressures of 25 mm of
Hg, but they can also be manufactured to measure higher
pressures in the range of 0 to 7 kPa. They can also be
built for use in vacuum services.
The material of the diaphragm has the following
properties.
1. They are enough flexible to provide required

sensitivity of elastic transducer.
2. Physical properties of their material are
comparable with load and their natural frequency
is high enough to provide good frequency response.
Capsule Pressure Sensor

In capsule pressure sensor, there are two
diaphragms used integrally for getting accurate
measurement. The diaphragms are placed back-to-back
and sealed together as a capsule and so it is called as a
‘capsule’.
The capsule pressure sensor is classified into two

types-one is convex capsule and the other one is nested
capsule. The pressure difference between inner and outer
D isp la ce m en t D isp la ce m en t
P re ssure
P re ssure
(a )C onvex C a psu le (b ) N e sted C a psule
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Fig.5.19 C ap sule Pressu re Senso r
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surface of the capsule produces displacement. The

capsules are connected to the LVDT.
5.7.3 Bellows
Principle
The device consists of a precision potentiometer
whose wiper alarm is mechanically linked to bourdon tube
or bellow. The movement of wiper alarm across the
potentiometer converts the deflection into a resistance
measurement using a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
P ressure
Input pre ssure
B ellow s
slid e w ire
B ellow s S lid er
N eed le
W h eatstone
bridge
S pring
(a ) Sim ple bellow (b) Bellows res istance

pressu re gauge transducer
Fig 5.20
Features of Bellows
 Made of Bronze, Stainless steel, Beryllium
Copper, Monel etc.,
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 The movement is proportional to number of

convolutions.
 Sensitivity is proportional to size.
 In general, bellows can detect a slightly lower
pressure than a diaphragm
 The range is from 0-5 mmHg to 14 MPa
 Accuracy is in the range of 1% span.
Fig. 5.20 (b) shows Bellow with a variable resistor.
Bellow expands or contract causing the attached slider to
move along the slidewire. This increases or decreases the
resistance, thus indicating an increase or decrease in
pressure.
It consists of bellows, scale, pointer and slider etc.

The bellows is a collapsible, seamless metallic part. It is
much more sensitive as compared to diaphragm and
capsule pressure sensors.
When pressure is applied to the bellows, the bellows

will expand. The end of the bellows is connected to a rod
which is attached to a pointer. This pointer will slide on
the scale and shows the reading based on movement of
bellows.
The deflection can be measured by either indicating

needle or potentiometer. In potentiometer method, the
wheatstone bridge circuit is used for getting electronic
output from a mechanical pressure gauge.
5.7.4 Dead Weight Pressure Gauge

Fig 5.21 shows schematic diagram of dead weight
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pressure gauge. It is generally used for calibrating
Pressure W eights
gauge
Plung er Screw
Pisto n
Valve
Oil
Fig 5.21 Dead w eight pressure gauge
pressure gauges and is also used for producing and

measuring pressures.
Working: Initially piston and dead weights are removed
and plunger is at the lower most end. Clean oil is poured
through the opening of piston and plunger is moved
slowly upward and air gaps are removed. The piston is
fitted and pressure gauge to be calibrated is screwed.
When the valve is opened the pressure is transmitted to
the gauge. The pressure is varied by varying the weights
on the plunger. The pressure exerted is calculated by
knowing the weights.
Weight on plunger W
Pressure exerted (P) = =
Area of plunger π D2
4
Where D = Diameter of Plunger.
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5.7.5 Capacitive Pressure Transducer

A capacitive pressure transducer consists of a pair
of electrically insulated elastic diaphragms kept adjacent
to each other and bonded together with capacitor plates
to form a sealed cavity. A conductive layer is applied to
the inside surface of each of the diaphragms and a small
absolute pressure is provided in the cavity. This small
absolute pressure cavity essentially reduces the effects of
the negative temperature coefficient of the modulus of
elasticity of the diaphragms. (Fig. 5.22)
Insulated Diaphragm Capacito r

sta nd offs pla tes
Pressure
bellows Pressure
port
Fig 5.22 C ap acitor Typ e Pressure Transducer
The sensing diaphragm and capacitor form a

differential variable separation capacitor. When the two
input pressures are equal, the diaphragm is positioned
centrally and the capacitance are shown as equal. A
difference in the two input pressure causes displacement
of the sensing diaphragm and is sensed as a difference
between the two capacitances.
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5.7.6 Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

A strain gauge is a passive type resistance pressure
transducer whose electrical resistance changes when it is
stretched or compressed. The wire filament is attached to
a structure under strain and the resistance in the
strained wire is measured. A pressure transducer
contains a diaphragm which is deformed by the pressure
which can cause a strain gauge to stretch or compress.
This deformation of the strain gauge causes the variation
in length and cross sectional area due to which its
resistance changes.
Strain gauge
ele me nts Fixed resistor
Strain gauge
ele me nts
Dia phragm
Dia phragm
Pressure M ovable Pressure

blo ck
Strain
Fixed points gauges
W ire resistance strain gauge Double bonded
strain gauge
Fig 5.23 Strain G auge Type Pressure Transducer
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5.7.7 Piezoelectric Sensors

The arrangement of piezoelectric sensor is shown in
Fig.5.24
P re ssu re
O utpu t C ry stal
+ + +
O utpu t D ia p hra gm
- - -
E xte rna l P re ss ure

P re ssu re
(a ) P iezoe le ctric e ffect (b ) P iezoe le ctric p re ssure s e nsor
Fig. 5.24 Piezo electric sensors
The piezoelectric sensor is used to measure the

pressure, acceleration and also force using piezoelectric
effect. When the external pressure is applied to the
diaphragm, the electrical charge is developed across the
crystal that is directly proportional to the force applied.
This deformation results in a flow of electric charge
which can be measured as an induction of pressure.
5.7.8 Tactile Sensors
The tactile (touching) sensors are devices which are
used to measure the pressure distribution between a
sensor and a target. These types of sensors are used in
laptops, mobiles and ATM machines etc.
The tactile sensors consist of three layers as shown
in Fig.5.25. The upper layer is having negligible
resistance and lower layer having conducting strips. An
electric signal is applied to the conducting strips.
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Layer 1
C o nd ucto r o f
negligib le
resistance
Layer 2
M esh insula to r
seperator
Layer 3
F
C o nd ucting strip s w ith E
know n resista nce D F
C E
B D
A
C
B
A
Fig. 5.25 Tactile pressure sensor
When the tactile sensors are unloaded, their

resistance is very high. When the force is applied, their
resistance decrease. The tactile sensor converts the
change in resistance to voltage.
PVDF Piezoelectric material of Poly Vinyl Diene

Fluoride Film is the another kind of tactile sensor.
5.8 SIMPLE MANOMETERS

A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having
one of its ends connected to a point where pressure is to
be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere.
Common type of simple manometers are
(i) Piezometer
(ii) U-tube Manometer
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(iii) Single column Manometer
(i) Piezometer:
It is the simplest form of
manometer used for measuring
gauge pressure as shown in Fig.
h
5.26
If at a point A , the height A
of liquid (say water) is h in
piezometer tube, then pressure at
A is given by P ie zo m eter
Fig.5.26
PA = ρ × g × h ...(1)
ρ : Density of liquid in kg/m 3
g : Acceleration due to gravity
(ii) Simple U tube manometer
h p ‘m ’ of wa ter
S1
h2
h1
z A B
z
sm
Fig. 5.27 ‘U’ - tu be M ano m eter
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U tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in

U-shape as shown in Fig. 5.27. One end (left limb) is
connected to the pipe and other end (right limb) is open
to atmosphere. This U tube is filled up with mercury,
since it is heavier than water and it will not mix with
water.
The high pressure liquid in the pipe pushes the
mercury down in the left limb. So the mercury level in
the right limb rises up.
The liquid in the pipe and mercury meets at point A .
The meeting point A is taken as datum line ZZ
Pressure head at A = Pressure head o f liquid in

pipe + pressure head due to
h1 of liquid above datum
line.
= hp + h 1 s1 in m of water
Where s1 = specific gravity of liquid in
pipe
Pressure head at B = Atmosphere pressure head
+ Pressure head due to
mercury head h 2 above
datum line
= 10.3 + h2 sm in m of water
. .
[ . Atmosphere = 10.3 m of
water and
sm = specific gravity of
mercury = 13.6 ]
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Under equilibrium at datum line,
Pressure head at A = pressure head at B.
hp + h 1 s1 = 10.3 + h2 sm
To find gauge pressure, we can neglect the

atmosphere pressure (10.3).
So h p + h 1 s1 = h 2 s m
Pressure of ⎫
h = h 2 sm − h1 s1 in m of water. ...(2)
liquid in pipe ⎬⎭ p
Once we know h p we can convert the pressure head

into pressure by the following relation
P = whp where w = specific weight of water = 9810 N/m 3
(iii) Single column Manometer

Single column manometer is modified form of U
tube Manometer having a very large reservoir. There are
two types of single column manometer.
(a) Vertical single column Manometer
(b) Inclined single column Manometer.

Let X − X be datum line in
the reservoir and in right limb of
the manometer, when it is not
connected to the pipe. When A
h2
manometer is connected to the
pipe, due to pressure at A , the X X
heavy liquid is pushed downward Δh Y Y
and will rise in right limb as
shown in Fig. 5.28. F ig .5.28 Vertical sin gle
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If ΔH : Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir

h2 : Rise of heavy liquid in right limb
h1 : Height of centre of pipe above X − X
PA : Pressure at A
A : Cross sectional area of reservoir
a : Cross sectional area of right limb
s1 : Sp ⋅ gr of liquid in pipe
s2 : Sp ⋅ gr of heavy liquid.
ρ1 : density of liquid
ρ2 : density of heavy liquid
a × h2
then PA = [ρ2g − ρ1g] + h2ρ2g − h1ρ1g
A
a
Here is very small so
A
P A = h 2 ρ 2 g − h1 ρ 1 g
...(3)
(b) Inclined Single Column Manometer

Here the right limb is inclined at angle as shown
in Fig.5.29.
L : Length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from

X−X
θ : Inclination of right limb A
h2 = L sin θ h1 h2
L
X
Δh X X
Y Y Y
Pressure at A θ
P A = h 2ρ 2g − h 1ρ 1g Fig.5.29. Inclin ed sing le
co lum n M an om eter
. .
P A = L sin θ × ρ2g − h1ρ1g [ . h 2 = L sinθ]
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5.9 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER

Differential manometer consists of glass tube bent
in U-shape. Two ends of the U tube are connected to the
two different points in a pipe between which pressure
difference is to be measured. Refer the Fig. 5.30.
hA hB
hA
A hB
A B
h3
B
h3 h1 D
h1
D x
x z C z
z C z
sm sm
Tw o pipes at different levels. Tw o pipes at sam e levels.
Fig.5.30. U - tube differential m anom eters
Assume that pressure of liquid in pipe A has more

pressure than that of pipe B . High pressure liquid in pipe
A pushes the mercury in the left limb downward. Hence,
the mercury level in right side limb rises up.
Liquid in pipe A and mercury meet at point C. This

meeting point is taken as datum Z − Z .
x = Difference of mercury level in U tube.
⎧ pressure head of liquid in

⎪
Pressure head at C = ⎨ pipe A + pressure head due to h 1
⎪ of liquid in pipe A above datum
⎩
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ater
= hA + h 1 1 in m of w
⎧ Pressure head of liquid in pipe

⎪ B + Pressure head due to height
⎪
Pressure head at D = ⎨ x of mercury + pressure head
⎪ due to height h3 of liquid in
⎪
⎩ pipe B above D
= hB + x sm + h3 s3 in m of water
Under Equilibrium
Pressure head at C = Pressure head at D .
∴ h A + h 1 s 1 = h B + x sm + h 3 s3
Pressure head difference
= hA − h B = x sm + h 3 s3 − h1 s1 in m of water. ... (5)

If both pipes A and B are at same level and contain
same liquid, then
h1 = x + h3 and s1 = s3
ie h3 = h1 − x
Now the equation (1) becomes,
Pressure head ⎫
= hA − h B = xsm + (h 1 − x) s1 − h1 s1
difference ⎬⎭
= xsm + h 1 s1 − xs1 − h 1 s1
= x (sm − s1) in m of water.
So hA − hB = x (sm − s1) in m of water ...(6)

where x = difference of mercury level in U tube and
s1 = specific gravity of liquid in pipe.
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If water is flowing in pipe line, then s1 = 1
Then h A − hB = x (13.6 − 1)
hA − hB = 12.6 x
...(6)
[s m = specific gravity of mercury = 13.6 ]
To Find Pressure,
We can use the equation P = wh
Where w = specific weight of water
P A = whA and P B = whB
P A − P B = w (h A − hB )
PROBLEMS IN SIMPLE MANOMETER
Problem 5.1: The water pressure is measured by means of

simple manometer. The mercury level difference is 150 mm
as shown in fig. The height of water in the left tube is 40
mm. Determine the static pressure in the pipe.
Given: h 1 = 40 mm = 0.04 m; s1 = 1
h2 = 150 mm = 0.15 m; s2 = sm = 13.6
Solution:
Pressure Head at A
= Pressu re head in pipe + h1 s 1
= hp + h 1 s 1
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= hp + (0.04 × 1) in m of water.
Pressure Head at B = h2s2
h-’m ’ of w ater
s1
h 2 =150m m
h 1 =40mm
A B
z z
sm
Under equilibrium,
Pressure head at A = Pressure head at B
hp + (0.04 × 1) = h 2 s2
hp = (0.15 × 13.6 ) − (0.04 × 1)
= 2 m of water head
Pressure in pipe = wh p = 9810 × 2 = 19620 N/m2
Problem 5.2: A simple manometer is used to measure the

pressure of oil of specific gravity 0.8 flowing in a pipe. The
right limb is open to atmosphere and left limb is connected to
pipe. The centre of the pipe is 9 cm below the level of mercury
in the right limb. If the difference of mercury level in the two
limbs is 15 cm, find the pressure of oil in the pipe.
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Given:
Specific gravity of oil in pipe sp = 0.8
Specific gravity of mercury in tube sm = 13.6
Height of oil in left limb

h 1 = 15 − 9 = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Difference of mercury level x = 0.15 m
Solution:
To find Gauge pressure (neglecting atmospheric pressure)
Pressure head above xx in left limb = Pressure head
above xx in right limb.
90mm
Liquid(s 1 = s p = 0.8)
150m m
h2
h1
P ipe
x x
M ercury (s 2 = s m = 13.6)
hp = Pressure he ad of oil in pipe
h p + h 1 sp = x sm
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hp = x ⋅ sm − h1sp
∴ h pipe oil = 0.15 × 13.6 − 0.06 × 0.8
= 1.992 of water.
The pressure P is given by
P = w hp
= 9810 × 1.992
= 19541.5 N /m 2
= 19.542 kN/m 2
Absolute pressure of oil in pipe.
P abs = P atm + P gauge
= 1.01325 × 10 5 + 19541.5
= 120866.5 N/m 2
= 120.87 k N/m 2
[atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 × 105 N/m 2 ]
Problem 5.3: Consider a double fluid manometer attached
to an air pipe shown in fig. If the specific gravity of one
fluid is 13.55, determine the specific gravity of the other fluid
for the indicated absolute pressure of air. Take the
atmospheric pressure to be 100 kpa.
(April/May - 2008 - AU)
Given
Air pressure in the air pipe = 76 KPa (Absolute)
h1 = 22 cm = 0.22 m
SG 1 = 13.55
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h2 = 40 cm = 0.4 m
A h 2 =40cm
SG 2
SG 1 =13.55
P = 76 KPa = 76 × 10 3 P a
P atm = 100 KP a = 100 × 10 3 P a
Solution:
Starting with the pressure at point “A” at the air
liquid (1) interface and reaching point “B” where
atmosphere make contact with liquid (2).
P Patm
i.e + h1 ⋅ SG 1 = + h 2 ⋅ SG 2
ρw ⋅ g ρw ⋅ g
76 × 10 3 100 × 10 3
⇒ + 0.22 × 13.55 = + 0.4 × SG 2
1000 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81
10.7282 = 10.1937 + 0.4 × SG 2
∴ Specific gravity of fluid,
10.7282 − 10.1937
SG 2 = = 1.34 Ans
0.4
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Problem 5.4: U-tube manometer containing mercury is

used to find the negative pressure in the pipe. Water is
flowing through the pipe. The right limb is open to
atmosphere. The left limb is connected to pipe. The difference
of mercury level in the two limbs is 80 mm and height of
water in the left limb from the centre of the pipe is found
to be 40 mm below. Find the vacuum pressure in the pipe.
Given:
Specific gravity of water in pipe sp = 1
Specific gravity of mercury sm = 13.6
Height of water in left limb h 1 = 40 mm = 0.04 m
Difference of mercury level ⎫

⎪
(or) ⎬ x = 0.08 m
me rcury height in left limb ⎪⎭
h 1 =40 m m
Water(s 1 = s p =1.0 )
x=80 m m
Pipe
[ [
M ercury(s 2 = s m =13.6)
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Solution:
Neglecting atmospheric pressure, under equilibrium,
Pressure head in left limb above xx
= Pressure head in right limb above xx
h p + h 1 sp + x sm = 0
hp = − 0.04 × 1 − 0.08 × 13.6
= − 1.128 m o f water
Gauge pressure = wh = 9810 × (− 1.128 )
= − 11.066 kN/m2 (or ) 11.066 kN/m 2 vacuum
Absolute Pressure:
P abs = P atm + P gauge
= 1.01325 × 10 5 − 11066
= 90259 N/m 2
PROBLEMS IN DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER

Problem 5.5: A differential manometer is connected at two
points A and B in a horizontal pipe line containing oil of
specific gravity 0.8 and the difference in mercury level is 125
mm. Determine the difference of pressure at the two points.
Given:
Specific gravity of oil s1 = 0.8
Difference in mercury level x = 125 mm = 0.125 m
Solution:
We know pressure head difference between A and
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B is given by
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hA − h B = x (sm − s1)
= 0.125 (13.6 − 0.8) = 1.6 m of water
Pressuredifferenc e(P A − P B) = w (hA − hB )
= 9810 × (1.6) = 15696 N/m2

. .
[ . w = s pecific wt of water = 9810 N/m 3 ]
Problem 5.6: A U-tube manometer connects two pipes A
and B. The pipe A contains oil of specific gravity 1.6 and
pressure 120 kN/m2 . The pipe B contains oil of specific
gravity 0.8 and pressure 220 kN/m2 . The centre of pipe A is
3 meters above centre of pipe B. The centre of the pipe B is
at the level of mercury in the left limb connecting the pipe
A. Find the difference of mercury levels.
Given:
Pressure in Pipe A , P A = 120 kN/m 2 and in Pipe B ,
P B = 220 kN/m 2
Specific gravity of oil in pipe A = s1 = 1.6
Specific gravity of oil in pipe B = s3 = 0.8
Solution:
Pressure of liquid in B is greater than that of A .
PB PA
So h B − h A = −
w w
where w = specific weight of water = 9810 N/m 2
hB and h A = Pressure heads of liquids in pipe B and

pipe A respectively.
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220 × 10 3 120 × 10 3
hB − hA = − = 10.194 m of water
9810 9810
Pressure head at C = Pressure head in pipe A

+ h 1 s 1 + x sm
= h A + h 1 s1 + x s m
Pressure head at D = Pressure head in pipe B + h3 × s3
. .
= hB + x s3 [ . h3 = x ]
2
P ip e ‘A’ p A = 120kN /m
2
p B = 220kN /m
P ip e ‘B ’
h 1=3 m
x h3=h2
z C D z
sm
Under equilibrium,
Pressure head at C = Pressure head a t D

h A + h1 s1 + xsm = h B + xs3
h B − h A = h 1 s1 + x s m − x s 3
10.194 = 3 × 1.6 + x (13.6 − 0.8)

10.194 − (3 × 1.6)
x= = 0.4214 m
(13.6 − 0.8)
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Difference in mercury level = 0.4214 m
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5.10 TORQUE MEASUREMENT

Torque is nothing but twisting moment. Torque may
be defined as the force applied on the body on which it
acts about an axis, causing the tendency of body to rotate.
The torque can be calculated by,
2 π NT
Power, P =
60
Let, T= Torque in (N-m)

N= Speed in rpm
Po w er absorb er
C ra dle
C ra dle
F
Po w er absorb er
(a) Cradled p ower generato r
C ra dle
C ra dle
F
(a) Cradled p ower absorber
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Fig.5.20 M easurin g cradled fo rces in cradled shaft bearing s
Torque Reaction Methods
5.10.1 Cradled Shaft Bearing Type

The torque transmission through a shaft can be
measured using cradled shaft bearing type, which is
shown in Fig. 5.31. It consists of power source, shaft,
casing, bearing etc. The torque is measured at the cradle
with the help of force (F) and perpendicular distance
(L). The torque is calculated by,
T=F×L
5.10.2 Dynamometers
(i) Hydraulic Dynamometer
The water brake is of hydraulic nature and it is the

simplest example for hydraulic dynamometer. Generally
the water brake is used for large capacity systems as
compared to prony brake system, because large amount
of heat is dissipated to the water in water brake system.
 This device uses fluid friction and not dry friction.
Description
The main parts of this system are shown in Fig.

5.32
 A rotating disk is fixed to the driving shaft

Semi-elliptical grooves are provided on the disc
through which a stream of water flows.
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A casing is stationary in which the disc rotates.
C ham be r
D isc
W ater in
A ntifriction
B earin gs
D rivin g sha ft
W ater
W ater ou t C asin g
Fig : 5.32 Water Brake or Hydraulic Dynam om eter
 The casing is mounted on anti friction bearings

and it carries a braking arm and a balance
system. Therefore, the casing can rotate freely,
but its movement can be restricted by the arm.
Operation
 When the driving shaft rotates, water flow flows in a
helical path in the chamber. Due to vortices and
eddy-current setup in the water, the casing tends to
rotate in the same direction as the of the driving
shaft.
 By varying the amount of water and its pressure, the
braking action can be initiated. Braking can also be
provided by varying the distance between the rotating
disk and the casing.
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 Power absorption is approximately the cube of

rotational speed and the fifth power of disc diameter
 The housing is constrained by a force-measuring load
cell placed at the end of the arm of radius r.
Torque T = F ⋅ r
where F = force m easured at ra dius r
2 π NT
Power (P) =
60
(ii) Eddy Current Dynamometer

It is an absorption type dynamometer. The eddy
current dynamometer setup is shown in Fig. 5.32 (a) and
it consists of motor, stator, rotor bearing and load cell
etc.
Stator is the fixed member and rotor is the rotating
member.
The rotating member is connected to one side of the
motor and the other side consists of bearing, stator-rotor
arrangement. Due to the magnetic flux produced, the
rotating member will rotate. Therefore eddy currents will
be generated, when the rotating member rotates.
B e aring
S tato r
E n co d er
M otor
R o tor
R o tatin g
m em b er
W a tt m e te r
L oa d c e ll
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Fig. 5.32(a) E ddy C u rren t dy nam o m eter
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5.10.3 Strain Gauge Type

The torque can also be measured by the help of a
strain gauge as shown in Fig. 5.33. Strain gauge is a
devices which identifies and senses the change in
dimension (or) deformation.
1 2
R1 R3
+ Vo ut
+ -
4 3 R2
-
R4
Fig. 5.33 Stain gauge Type For Torque M easurement
In this setup, the strain gauges are arranged 45 °

to the longitudinal axis of the shaft. When applying the
torque on the shaft, the strain [change in original
dimension to the actual dimension] is induced in the
shaft. To determine the strain product on the shaft, four
strain gauges are attached to the shaft to determine the
strain produced.
5.10.4 Slip Ring Type

The torque measurement can be performed by using
slip rings strain gauge method. Which is shown in Fig.
5.34
It consists of sliprings, strain gauges and ammeter.

Here also the strain gauges are arranged 45 ° to each
other. The four strain gauges are connected to an electric
circuit and ammeter. Which senses the change in
dimension and sends the electrical pulse to ammeter.
Hence from the reading of ammeter the torque
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measurements are calculated.
strain
gauge
Shaft
R1
R2 R2
R1
+
R3
R4
R4 R3
Sliprings
R2 R1
+
Supply
Voltage
-
Am m eter
R3 R4
Fig.5.34 Torqu e Measurem ent by using Slip rings
5.11 TORQUE MEASUREMENT USING TORSION BAR

It is classified into following types.
(i) Torsion bar [Optical method]
(ii) Magnetostrictive [Capacitive method]
(iii) Laser Optic method
(iv) Proximity sensor method
(v) Stroboscope method
(vi) SAW method
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The torque can be measured by using torsion bar.

In this method, the following formula is used to calculate
the amount of torque produced.
T Cθ
=
J L
Let, T− Torque
J− π 4
Polar moment of inertia [J = d ]
32
C− Modulus of rigidity
θ− angle of twist
L− Shaft length
5.11.1 Optical Method
1 2
observer Light source
Sh aft
Fig.5.35(a).Torsion bar torque transdu cer
Fig. 5.35 (a) shows the cross sectional view of

torsion bar torque transducer. In this method, the
deflection is measured optically. Here two discs are
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mounted at a distance (x) on the shaft which move

relative to each other.
Capacitive method.
Fre e en d of tu be
Fixe d end of tu be
Se nsin g
Sh aft
D ie le ctric tube C apacitor
(b) Longitudinal Section

Fig.5.35.C apacitive Method
The capacitive torque measurement method is

shown in Fig. 5.35 (b). When the torque is applied to the
shaft, it causes relative motion between shaft surface and
free end of tube. Due to the relative motion, a sensing
R ota tin g S h aft
C ap ac itive
tra nsdu cer
Va ria ble
Fre quen cy
C1 L1 L2 gen erato r
50 0- 50 00 H z
Fig .5.35 (c) R otating R esonant Circuit Excited by In ductive coupling

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capacitor is used to measure the capacitance produced.

This sensing capacitor is connected to an inductor coil.
The circuit has resonance frequency which depends
on the applied torque. The second inductor coil is driven
by an oscillator.
The torque can be measured by measuring the

resonance frequency.
5.11.2 Magnetostrictive Type

The torque can be calculated by using
magnetrostrictive type also. In this method, Shear Stress
(τ) of the shaft is considered.
T τ
=
J R
Let, T− Torque
J− Polar moment of interties [J = π/32 ⋅ d4]
τ− Shear Stress
R− Radius of shaft
From the above equation, it concludes that the

stress is proportional to the torque. The torque must
change the permeability of the shaft if it is made of a
magnetic material such as steel. The permeability
decreases with increase in magnetic strain.
There are primary coil (P) and secondary coil (S) is

used in the circuit. The magnetic coupling between the
primary coil and secondary coil is provided by the steel
shaft under torsion. The AC supply is given to the
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primary coil. Due to supply of current, an oscillating
S h aft P P
M ag ne t
S
AC
C u rren t
Fig.5.35(d ). M agnetostrictive transdu cer
magnetic field is produced in the shaft. The secondary

coil is connected to the wheatstone bridge circuit.
If there is no torsion in the shaft, there is no out-of
balance in primary and secondary coil. So voltage is zero.
When the torque is applied to the shaft, the output
voltage is varied. From that, we can measure the torque.
5.11.3 Laser-Optic Method
The laser optic method is shown in Fig. 5.35 (e)
A shaft carries two wheels at its both ends. From
the light source, the laser is passed to the wheels. The
rotation of the wheel causes pulses of reflected light
which is transmitted back to a receiver. When no torque
is applied on shaft, the two pulse trains of reflected light
are in phase with each other.
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5.11.4 Proximity Sensor Method

Op
s ti c
b re R e ceive r al
l fi f ib
ica re
pt s
O
S h a ft rota tio n
Op
t ic
al es
f ib fi br
re
s ic al
pt
O
Fig.5.35(e) L aser optical

torque measurem ent
The proximity sensor method is shown in Fig. 5.35
O utput
Proxim ity sensor
Shaft
R otation
of shaft
G ear
L
Fig.5.35(f).Proxim ity sensor m ethod

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It consists of gear, shaft and proximity sensor.

There are two gears mounted on the shaft at a distance
of length (L). The proximity sensor produce output voltage
with phase difference proportional to torque. Each gear
is having one proximity sensor.
Strobescope Method
The stroboscope method is shown in Fig. 5.35 (f)
Stroboscope
a le
Sc
P o in t
er
F la n g e
A
Sh aft
F la n g Torq ue
eB
Fig.5.35(g). S troboscop e for torque m easurem ent
It consists of two flanges (A&B) and mounted at a

certain distance apart. Flange A has a scale, while flange
B has a pointer.
When the torque is applied to the shaft, due to the

angular twist, the pointer moves relative to the scale. The
stroboscope is used to read the deflection of shaft under
rotation. The light passes to the scale from stroboscope
and the flashing frequency is adjusted till a stationary
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image is obtained. The scale reading is taken for

measuring the angular twist.
Saw Method
Saw stands for Surface Acoustic Wave
The SAW electronic arrangement and transducer
arrangement is shown in Fig.5.35 (h) and (i).
The SAW deals with, waves can propagate along the
surface of an isotropic elastic medium. There are two
Re
ce i
ver
y
nc
q ue
r fre
e n te
o fc
Ex
c it n g th
a ti e le
on av
So W
ur c
e
Fig.5.35 (h) S AW electrode arrangem ent
transducers which are arranged at 45 ° in a shaft to

measure the torque. Each transducer is connected to
oscillator. The two transducers are used in a half-bridge
configuration. One transducer is undergoing tension and
the other one is undergoing compression and the
difference in frequency gives a measure of torque.
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Transd ucer
o
45
o
45
Fig.5.35(i).Saw transducer
5.12 FLOW MEASUREMENT

The fluid flow can be measured by flow meters. The
flow meters (or) obstruction meters are generally
mechanical type, which is classified into following
methods.
(a) Orificemeter
(b) Venturimeter
(c) Variable area meter (or) Rotameter and
(d) Flow Nozzle
Based on the above method, we can measure the

fluid flow (or) flow rate (or) Discharge.
Types of Fluid Flow

The fluid flow can be divided into three categories.
These are,
1. Laminar flow
2. Transient flow and
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3. Turbulent flow
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5.12.1 ORIFICE METER

An orifice meter is a simple device used for measuring
discharge of fluid through a pipe. It works on the basis of
Bernoullis equation like venturi meter Ref. Fig. 5.36.
It consists of a flat circular plate having sharp
P ipe Orifice M eter Vena

1 2 co ntracta
D irection of flow
1 2
D ifferential
M anom eter
x
Fig.5.36. Orifice m eter

edged hole (orifice) concentric with a pipe. The diameter
of the orifice varies from 0.4 to 0.8 times the pipe
diameter (mostly 0.5 times)
Orifice meter is fitted on the pipe line to measure
the discharge of fluid. A differential manometer is
connected so that one limb connects at section 1 and other
at section 2.
P 1, V 1 and A 1 are pressure, velocity and area at the
section 1 respectively
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P 2, V 2, and A 2 are pressure, velocity and area at

the section 2 respectively.
Applying Bernoullis equation
P1 V 21 P2 V 22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
w 2g w 2g
2 2
⎛ P1 ⎞ ⎛ P2 ⎞ V2 V1
⎜ + Z1 ⎟ − ⎜ + Z2 ⎟ = −
⎝ w ⎠ ⎝ w ⎠ 2g 2g
But
⎛ P1 ⎞ ⎛ P2 ⎞
⎜ + Z1 ⎟ − ⎜ + Z 2 ⎟ = h = D ifferential manometer head
⎝ w ⎠ ⎝ w ⎠
V 22 − V21
So h =
2g
V22 − V21 = 2gh ... (i)

The section (2) is at the venacontracta and A2 is
the area of the venacontrata
A2
The coefficient of contraction Cc =
A0
where A0 = Area of the orifice. So A2 = CcA0
[Vena contracta: When fluid is flowing through

orifice, the diameter of liquid jet will be reduced
(contracted) in front of the orifice. This one, refers to vena
contracta. When a fluid flows through the orifice, it
d
contracts and its dia reduces at a distance from the
2
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orifice. The point where the flow contracts is called vena
contracta. Beyond this vena contracta, the fluid jet

diverges. At venacontracta, the cross sectional area is less
than the orifice. The stream lines of the flow is parallel
here.
The ratio of the area of venacontracta to the area
of the orifice is known as coefficient of contraction.
Coefficient of contraction
A rea of jet at vena contracta

Cc =
Area of the orifice
According to continuity equation
A 1V 1 = A2V 2
A 2V 2 Cc A0 V 2
∴ V1 = =
A1 A1
Substitute V1 value in equation (i), we get
C 2c A 20V 22
V 22 − = 2gh Ve na
A 21 contracta
C Jet
2⎢
⎡ C 2c A 20 ⎤
V2 ⎢ 1 − ⎥ = 2gh d 2
2 ⎥
⎢ A1 ⎥ C
⎣ ⎦
d/2
⎯⎯⎯
√ 2gh Fig. 5.36 (a)
V2 =
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
⎡ C 2A 2 ⎤
⎢1− c 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ A 21 ⎥ . .
⎣ ⎦ ⎡ . A 2 = A 0 Cc ⎤
⎣ ⎦
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Theoretical discharge Q th = V2A2 = V2 × A0 Cc
2gh
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
= × A 0C c
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
⎡ C2 A 2
⎢1− c 0
⎤
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ A 21 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎯⎯⎯
√ 2gh × A 0 × C c
=
⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
⎡ A2 − A2 ⎤
⎢ 1 0 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ×C
⎢ A1 ⎥ c
⎣ ⎦
A 1A 0 ⎯⎯⎯
√ 2gh
=
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ A21 − A 20
Actual discharge = C d Q th
C dA 1A 0 √
⎯⎯⎯
2gh
Q actual =
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ A 21 − A 20
where C d = coefficient of discharge for orifice meter.
PROBLEMS IN ORIFICE METER
Problem 5.7: An orifice meter consisting of 10 cm diameter

orifice in a 25 cm diameter pipe has coefficient = 0.65. The
pipe delivers oil of specific gravity 0.8. The pressure difference
on the two sides of the orifice plate is measured by a mercury
differential manometer. If the differential gauge reads 80 cm of
mercury, calculate the rate of flow in L/s.
Given:
Dia of orifice D 0 = 10 c m = 0.10 m

π
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Area o f orifice = A 0 =
4
× 0.1 2 = 7.854 × 10 − 3 m 2
Dia of pipe D 1 = 25 cm = 0.25 m
π
Area o f pipe = A 1 = × 0.25 2 = 0.0491 m 2
4
Coefficient of discharge C d = 0.65
Specific gravity of mercury in manometer
= sm = 13.6
= 80 c m
Reading of differential gauge x = 0.8m

Solution:
We know
Difference of ⎫
⎡ sm ⎤
⎪ ⎡ 13.6 ⎤
∴ pre ssure heads ⎬ h=x⎢ − 1 ⎥ = 0.8 ⎢ −1⎥
⎪ sp ⎣ 0.8 ⎦
in two se ctions ⎭
⎣ ⎦
= 12.8 m of oil
To find discharge (Q)

Discharge
A 0 A1 √ 2gh
⎯⎯⎯⎯
(Q) = Cd
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√A 21 − ⎯
A 20
7.854 × 10 − 3 × 0.0491 × √
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
2 × 9.81 × 12.8
= 0.65 ×
√0.0491 2 − (7.854 × 10 − 3⎯)2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
(Q) = 0.08196 m 3/sec = 81.96 lit/s
. .
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m = ( . 1 3
/sec 1000 L/S)
Problem 5.8: Determine the rate of oil of sp. gravity 0.88

through a pipe of 240 mm diameter fitted with an orifice
meter of 120 mm diameter having a coefficient of discharge
as 0.65. Reading of the differential manometer fixed between
the upstream and venacontracta is 400 mm of mercury.
Given:
Specific gravity of mercury in manometer sm = 13.6
Dia of pipe D 1 = 240 mm = 0.24 m
π
Area of pipe A 1 = × 0.24 2 = 0.04524 m 2
4
Dia of orifice D 0 = 120 mm = 0.12 m
π
A rea of orifice A 0 = × 0.12 2 = 0.01131 m 2
4
Coefficient of discharge C d = 0.65
Reading of differential manometer ⎫

x = 400 mm
fixed between ups tream and venacontrata ⎬⎭
= 0.4 m
Solution
Difference of pressure hea d ⎫ ⎡ sm ⎤

∴ ⎬h=x⎢ −1⎥
between upstream and vena con tracta ⎭ s
⎣ P ⎦
⎡ 13.6 ⎤
= 0.4 ⎢ −1⎥
⎣ 0.88 ⎦
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= 5.782 m of oil
To find discharge (Q)

Discharge
Cd A 1 A 0 √ 2gh
⎯⎯⎯⎯
(Q ) =
√A21 − ⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ A20
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
0.65 × 0.04524 × 0.01131 √ 2 × 9.81 × 5.782
=
0.04524 2 − 0.01131 2
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√
Q = 0.080867 m 3/s = 80.867 lit/s
[1 m 3/s = 1000 L/s]
Problem 5.9: An orificemeter with orifice diameter 15 cm
is inserted in a pipe of 30 cm dia. The pressure on the
upstream and downstream of orifice meter is 14.7 N/c m2 and
9.81 N/c m2. Find the discharge. Cd = 0.6.
(April 2000 Madras University, April 2007 Anna University)
Given:
Dia of orifice, D 0 = 15 cm = 0.15 m;
P 1 = 14.7 N/cm 2 = 14.7 × 10 4 N/m 2
P 2 = 9.81 N/cm 2 = 9.81 × 10 4 N/m 2
π
A rea o f orifice A 0 = × 0.15 2 = 0.0177 m 2
4
Dia of pipe = D 1 = 30 c m = 0.3 m
π
Area of pipe = A 1 = × 0.3 2 = 0.0707 m 2
4
Coefficient of discharge ⎫
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for orifice meter ⎬ C d = 0.6
⎭
Solution
Difference of pressure ⎫
⎪
in between upstream ⎬ = P1 − P2
⎪
and down stream ⎭
= 14.7 × 10 4 − 9.81 × 104 N/m 2
P 1 − P2 = 48900 N/m 2
Difference of pressure head ⎫

P1 − P2
⎪
in between upstream and ⎬ h=
⎪ w
down stream ⎭
[Here assume water is flowing through pipe.
So w = specific wt of water = 9.81 × 10 3 N/m 3]
48900
So h = = 4.985 m of water
9.81 × 10 3
To find discharge (Q):
Cd A 1 A0 √ 2gh
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Discharge (Q) =
A 21 − ⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ A 20
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
0.6 × 0.0707 × 0.0177 √ 2 × 9.81 × 4.985
=
0.0707 2 − 0.0177
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ ⎯2
Q = 0.1085 m 3/s = 108.5 lit/s . .

[ . 1 m 3/s = 1000 L /s]
5.12.2 FLOW NOZZLE

A flow nozle is a device whch is used to measure
fluid flow. The flow nozzle acts as a venturimeter without
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its diverging cone. The discharge can be measured by,
D 0.5D
D d
Fig.5.37 Flow nozzle
Cd ⋅ A 1 ⋅ A 2 ⎯ 2gh
√⎯⎯⎯
Q=
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
√ (A1)2 − (A2)2
Let, Q − Discharge
Cd − Coefficient of discharge
A1 − Pipe area at inlet condition
A2 − Nozzle area
5.12.3 Electromagnetic Flow Meters

C ore
C oil
Electrode
N on-m etallic
Fluid portion of pipe
flow
Pipe
Fig.5.38 E lectro magnetic flow m eter

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An electromagnetic flow meter is shown in Fig. 5.38
The electromagnetic flow meter is also used to

measure the flow of slurries and sludge etc. It consists
of core, coil, pipe and electrode etc. The electarode is
insualted and the pipe liquid flow is to be measured.
When the fluid passes through the pipe, an e.m.f

(electro motive force) is produced in the electrode and
magnetic field is developed. Which is used to measure the
flow.
5.12.4 Hot Wire Anemometer

The cross-sectional view of hot wire anemometer is
shown in Fig. 5.39
The hot wire anemometer is a device, which is used

to measure the flow velocity of the fluid. Two conducting
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Flow Flow
H ot-w ire H ot-w ire
Vo ltm e ter
R1 R1
D G C D G C
R2 R3 R2 R3
B B
A A
(a ) C onstant-curre nt (b ) C onstant-tem p eratu re
Fig.5.40 H ot w ire anemo meter
wires are placed in a flowing stream of air. Due to the

convection, the heat energy is transfered, from wire to
surroundings. The velocity of air is proportional to the
rate of heat transfer (Q ). So, it is easy to measure the
velocity.
The electric current (I) is supplied to the wire, thus
the temperature of the surrounding air is increased, but
the wire is cooled, due to the flow rate of air surrounding
the wire.
In this method, wheatstone bridge circuit is used
for varying the electrical resistance. The velocity of flow
can be calculated by,
I4R2
V=
(x2 − y) ρ
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Where, V− Velocity
I− Electric current
R− Resistance
ρ− Density of fluid
x&y− Constants
5.12.5 Ultrasonic Flow Meter

The arrangement of ultrasonic flow meter is shown
in Fig. 5.41.
R e ce iver “B ” R e ce iver “A ”
Flow
v
Tra nsm itter “A ” Tra nsm itter “B ”
Fig. 5.41. Schematic arrangem ent of ultrasonic flow meter
It works on the principle of transit time method. In

this method, the ultrasonic transducer is attached at an
angle of 45° to the pipe wall. The waves are created for
a short period and transmitted across the fluid. Hence
the velocity of wave either increases or decreases with
respect to flow direction.
There are two crystals that are used in this system.
One acts as a transmitter (T) and another acts as a
receiver (R). The transmitter emits an ultrasonic pulse
which is received by the receiver after change in time.
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Generally the change in time is linearly proportional to

the velocity (V)
Under the doppler frequency time method also, the
ultrasonic flow meter is worked. In doppler frequency
method, the crystal transducer is attached to the pipe
wall to transmit the ultrasonic signal into the flow, hence,
the fluid particles are excited causing vibration. Here the
frequency is proportional to the velocity which is
measured by computer.
5.12.6 Other Flow Measurements
(i) Current Meter

A current meter is a device, which is used to
measure the flow velocity. The current meters are
(a) CUP type current meter
(b) Propeller (or) screw type current meter
(a) CUP Type Current Meter

In this method, series of V-shaped conical cups are
arranged on a spindle serially at right angle to the flow
direction.
(b) Propeller (or) Screw type Current Meter

In this method, series of V-shaped Conical Cups are
attached to a shaft with its axis parallel to the flow
direction.
At the periphery of the shaft, more number of

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propeller blades are connected. The propeller blades are
Tra nsm ission

lea ds to in dicating suspe n sion
u nit cab le
Van e to align
the me ter w ith
flow direction
C o nica l
cup s
Flow
Tail
S pin dle
B ala ncing
W h eel w e ight
con tain ing
b la des
Fig.5.42 P ropellor (o r) Screw type Curren t m eter
curved in shape. The current meter is immersed vertically

at a particular depth in a flowing stream of water.
Due to the dynamic thrust, the wheel will be
rotated. The rotation of wheel per unit time is
proportional to the flowing velocity of water. The
electrical transmission system is used to count the
number of rotation of wheel.
An electric current (I) is supplied to the wheel. The
commutator is located on the spindle of the revolving
blades, to make and cut-off the electric circuit during the
revolution.
The stop watch is used to note down the number
of revolutions of wheel. Based on that, the speed of wheel
is calculated.
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The current meter is calibrated experimentally. It

is carried out in still water in a larger tank. Then speed
of the towing carriage is noted for getting the speed of
the wheel. Then velocity of flow of water in a channel is
calculated by the help of plotting the curve between
rotational speed in rpm versus speed of the towing
carriage in m/s
5.12.7 Venturimeter
Basic Principle
When a venturimeter is placed in a pipe carrying

the fluid whose flow rate is to be measured, a pressure
drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the
venturimeter. This pressure drop is measured using a
differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this
pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate.
Description
The following are the main parts and areas of a

venturimeter.
 The entry of the venturi is cylindrical in shape

to match the size of the pipe through which fluid
flows. This enables the venturi to be fitted to
the pipe.
 After the entry, there is a converging conical
section with an included angle of 19 ° to 23 °
 Following the converging section, there is a
cylindrical section with a minimum area called
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as the throat.
(P re ssu re
P MAX R e du ce s) P M IN D ive rging
P ipe E n erg y C o nvergin g Th ro at S e ctio n P ipe
S e ctio n
Flow
Flow
α1 α2
D iffe re nta l
p res sure sen so r
S e ctio n-1 S e ctio n-2
S tatic P re ssu re
P re ssu re D ro ps
o o
N o te: α1 = 1 9 to 2 3
o o
Fig. 5.4 3 Ventu ri M eter. α2 = 5 to 1 5
 After the throat, there is a diverging conical

section with an included angle of 5° to 15°.
 Openings are provided at the entry and throat
(at sections 1 and 2 in diagram) of the
venturimeter for attaching a differential
pressure sensor (U-tube manometer, differential
pressure gauge etc.,) as shown in diagram.
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Operation
 The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured

enters the entry section of the venturimeter with
a pressure P 1.
 As the fluid from the entry section of

venturimeter flows into the converging section,
its pressure keeps on reducing and attains a
minimum value P 2 when it enters the throat.
That is, in the throat, the fluid pressure P 2 will
be minimum.
 The differential pressure sensor attached
between the entry and throat section of the
venturimeter records the pressure difference
(P 1 − P 2) which becomes an indication of the flow
rate of the fluid through the pipe when
calibrated.
 The diverging section has been provided to
enable the fluid to regain its pressure and hence
its kinetic energy. Lesser the angle of the
diverging section, greater is the recovery.
Application
 It is used where high pressure recovery is

required.
 Can be used for measuring flow rates of water,
wastes, gases, suspended solids, slurries and
dirty liquids.
 Can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes
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having diameters in a few meters.
Advantages
 Less chances of getting clogged with sediments.

 Coefficient of discharge is high.
 Its behaviour can be predicted perfectly.
 Can be installed vertically, horizontally or
inclined.
Limitations
 They are large in size and hence where space

is limited, they cannot be used.
 Expensive initial cost, installation and
maintenance.
 Require long laying length. (ie), the
venturimeter has to be proceeded by a straight
pipe which is free from fittings and
misalignments to avoid turbulence in flow, for
satisfactory operation. Therefore, straightening
vanes are a must.
 Cannot be used in pipe below 7.5 cm diameter.
5.12.8 Rotameter (Variable-area Meter)
Description
The main parts of a rotometer are as follows:
 A tapered transparent glass tube graduated to

read flow rate directly.
 A float whose density is greater than that of the
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flowing fluid. The float diameter is such that it
completely blocks the inlet of the tapered

transparent glass tube.
Operation
 As the fluid whose flow rate is being measured
comes and touches the bottom portion of the
float blocking the inlet of the tapered
transparent glass tube, the float starts to rise
when the following happens:
⎡ Pressure of ⎤ ⎡ Down ward ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ pressure due to ⎥
⎢ flowing fluid ⎥ is greater than ⎢ ⎥
⎢ + fluid byoyancy ⎥ ⎢ weight of float ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
 When the float rises, an annular space is created
between the periphery of the float and the inner
wall of the tapered transparent glass tube. This
annular space which is a concentric opening
through which the fluid passes to the other side
of the instrument keeps on increasing until the
following happens.
(Pressure of flowing fluid) + (Fluid buoyancy) =
(Downward pressure due to weight of the float)
When this happens, the float stops rising further

and stops at a particular position, that is, the float comes
to equilibrium.
 Thus, increase in flow rate will make the float

to rise higher and vice versa. That is, the
position of the float becomes a direct indication
of flow rate. Hence the tapered transparent glass
tube can be graduated suitably by proper
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calibration to get a direction indication of flow
F low
O u tlet
P ip e
P r e ss u re P 2 F loa t
T a p e re d
T r a n sp a r en t
G la ss T u be
P r e ss u re P 1
F low
In le t
Fig. 5.44 Rotameter.
rate by noting the position of the float with

respect to the graduations on the tapered tube.
 The instrument has to be designed in such a
manner so that the effects of changing viscosity
and density are minimised leaving only the
pressure of the flowing fluid as a variable.
Applications
 Can be used to measure flow rates of corrosive fluids.

 Particularly useful to measure low flow rates.
Advantages
 Engineering
Flow conditions are visible.Books
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 Flow rate is a linear function (uniform flow scale).

 Can be used to measure flow rate of liquids,
gases and vapours.
By changing the float, tapered tube or both, the
capacity of the rotometer can be changed.
5.12.9 Pitot Tube

Pitot-tube is a device used for measuring the
velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel. It is
based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a
point becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due
to the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure
energy. In the simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a
glass tube, bent at right angles as shown in Fig. 5.45.
Consider two points (1) and (2) at same level in
such a way that point (2) is just at the inlet of pitot tube
and point (1) is far away from the tube.
Let P1 : Intensity of pressure at point (1)
V1 : Velocity of flow at (1)
P2 : Intensity of pressure at point (2)
V2 : Velocity of flow at (2), which is zero
H : depth of tube in the liquid
h : rise of liquid in the tube above the free
surface
Applying Benoullis equation at points (1) and (2) we
get
P1 V 21 P2 V 22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g ...(i)
But Z1 = Z 2 as points (1) and (2) are on same line
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Also V2 = 0
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P1
Pressure heat at (1) = =H
ρg
P2
Pressure heat at (2) = = (h + H)
ρg
Substituting these values we get in (i) we get
V 21
H+ = (h + H)
2g
V 21
h=
2g
or V1 = ⎯⎯⎯
√ 2gh
This is theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is given by
2gh Cv: Coefficient of pitot-tube

(V1)act = Cv ⎯√⎯⎯⎯
∴ Velocity at any point V = C v √ 2gh

⎯⎯⎯⎯
The various arrangement of pitot-tube adopted are
Pitot - tube h
1 2 H
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Fig.5.45 P itot Tube.
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Fig. 5.46. Arrangement of Pitot Tube.
(i) Pitot-tube along with a vertical piezometer Fig

5.46. (1)
(ii) Pitot-tube connected with piezometer. Fig.5.46. (2)
(iii) Pitot-tube and vertical piezometer tube with
differential V-tube manometer. Fig 5.46. (3)
(iv) Pitot-static tube, which consists of two circular
concentric tubes one inside the other as shown in
Fig 5.46 (4). The outlet is connected to the
differential manometer where the difference of
pressure head ‘h’ is measured by knowing the
difference of the level of manometer liquid say x.
⎡ sg ⎤
Now h = x ⎢ −1⎥
s
⎣ o ⎦
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Problems in Pitot Tube

Problem 5.10: A pitot-static tube placed in the centre of a 300
mm pipe line has one orifice pointing upstream and other
perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.80 of the
central velocity. Find the discharge through the pipe if the
pressure difference between the two orifices is 60 mm of water.
Take the coefficient of pitot tube as Cv = 0.98
Given:
Dia. of pipe (d) = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Difference of pressure head
h = 60 mm of water = 0.06 m of w ater
C v = 0.98
Solution
Mean velocity V′ = 0.80 × central velocity
Central velocity
V = Cv ⎯ 2gh = 0.98 ×
√⎯⎯⎯ √⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯ ⎯
2 × 9.81 × 0.06 = 1.063 m/s
∴ V ′ = 0.80 × 1.063 = 0.850 m/s
Discharge through pipe (Q) = Area of pipe × V′
πd2 π
= × V ′ = (0.30)2 × 0.850
4 4
(Q) = 0.06 m 3/s
Problem 5.11: A pitot-tube is inserted in a pipe of 300 mm

diameter. The static pressure in pipe is 100 mm of mercury
(vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the centre of the pipe,
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recorded by the pitot-tube is 0.981 N/cm2. Calculate the rate of
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flow of water through pipe, if the mean velocity of flow is

0.85 times the central velocity. Take Cv = 0.98
Given:
Diameter of pipe (d) = 0.3m
πd2 π
Area of pipe = = (0.3)2 = 0.07068 m 2
4 4
Static pressure head = 100 mm of mercury (Vacuum)
100
=− × 13.6 = − 1.36 m of water
1000
Stagnation pressure =
= 0.981 N/c m2 = 0.981 × 10 4 N /m 2
Solution:
∴ stagnation pressure head
0.981 × 10 4 0.981 × 10 4
= = = 1m
ρg 1000 × 9.81
h = stagnation pressurehead − state pressure head
= 1.0 − (− 1.36) = 2.36 m of water
Velo c ity at c entre V = C v √ 2gh

⎯⎯⎯⎯
(V) = 0.98 √⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

⎯ ⎯
2 × 9.81 × 2.36 = 6.668 m/s
Mean velocity V′ = 0.85 × 6.668 = 5.6678 m/s
∴ Rate of flow of water = V ′ × Area of Pipe
(Q) = 5.6678 × 0.07068
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Q Books
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5.12.9.1 Advantage of pitot tube

 The advantages of pitot tubes are that the loss
of pressure in a pipe caused due to insertion of
pitot tube which is usually very small and these
are cheaper than orifice plates and
venturimeters.
 Differential pressures produced are usually low,
say of the order of 250 Pa. and so their
sensitivity is low and they require high fluid
velocity.
 The primary elements used for such
measurements are weirs, flumes and open
nozzles. In large streams or rivers, current
meters pitot tubes are also employed.
 The losses are low compared to orifice plates.
 Cross-types can be used to check distortions in
the velocity profile.
Disadvantage of pitot tube

 Accuracy is not as good as the orifice plate.
 Not suitable for hygienic applications.
 A proper alignment is essential.
5.13 POWER MEASUREMENT

Generally dynamometers are used as a power
measuring devices.
Types of Dynamometers
The dynamometers are classified into following
methods. Engineering
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(a) Absorption dynamometers
(b) Driving dynamometers
(c) Transmission dynamometers

It is the simplest form of mechanical type
dynamometers. The absorption dynamometer directly
dissipates the mechanical energy, from which torque (or)
power is measured. The simplest form of absorption
dynameters is the prony brake.

The driving dynamometers are used to measure the
power or torque and also provide energy. This energy is
used to operate the devices.

Transmission dynamometers are also called as
“Torque Meter”. The purpose of these meters is to simply
sense the torque. It doesn’t supply (or) receive any energy.
Different Arrangements used to find Brake Power

1. Rope brake arrangement
2. Prony brake arrangement
3. Band brake arrangement.
5.13.1 Rope Brake Arrangement
The rope makes one complete turn around the
flywheel keyed to the crankshaft of the engine. One end
of the rope carries a dead load and the other end is
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connected to spring balance. Here the flywheel is rotating
Spring
bala nce
W
Fig. 5.47
clockwise and the pull of the dead load makes

anticlockwise torque.
The engine is started with no load. Then gradually
load is increased by adding weights in the dead load
hanger.
At any steady condition,
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The effective radius R at which the net resisting

force is acting
D+d
R= m
2
Resisting torque acting on the brake wheel is given

by
T = (W − S) × R in kN−m S
2πNT
Brake Power = in kW R
60
2πN ⎡ (D + d) ⎤
B.P = ⎢ (W − S) × ⎥ in kW
60 ⎣ 2 ⎦
W Fig. 5.47(a)
where W = Dead load in kN
S = Spring balance reading in kN
D = Dia. of Brake drum in m
d = Dia. of rope in m
N = Speed of the engine.
5.13.2 Prony Brake Arrangement

Prony brake is a mechanical device whch converts
mechanical energy into heat due to dry friction.
It consists of brake shoes which touch on the rim

of the brake wheel by means of bolts, nuts and springs.
The pressure on the rim can be varied by adjusting the
nut in the arrangement.
When the brake drum is rotating in anticlockwise

direction, the dead load produce clockwise torque.
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So the resisting torque (clockwise) T = W × L
N ut
Loa d lever
B rake sho e
S pring
B rake
drum
W
L
Fig.5 .4 8 Pro ny B rake A rran gem e nt
where W = Weight on load carrier in kN.
L = Distance from the centre of the brake drum to

the point of load in m.
2πNT
Brake Power B.P = in kW
60
2πN(W L)
B.P = in kW
60
5.13.3 Band Brake Arrangements

A flat belt is put around the rim of the brake wheel.
The two ends of the flat belt is attached with
W 1 and W 2. Another belt is integrated with the flat belt
and its other end is connected to the spring balance.
Now the resisting torque T is given below.
T = [ (W 1 + S) − W 2 ] × R
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where W 1 = Wt. on right side load carrier in kN
W 2 = Wt. on left side load carrier in kN
S = Spring balance reading in kN
R = Effective radius of the brake drum in m.
2πNT
Brake Power = B.P = in kW
60
2πN
B.P = [ [ W 1 + S ] − W 2] × R in kW
60
Sp rin g
S balan ce
Be lt
w2
w1
Fig.5.49 Band brake
D.C. Dynamometer
In D.C dynamometer, the mechanical energy is
converted into electrical energy. The D.C. dynamometer
is a kind of both absorption and transmission type
dynamometer. The D.C dynamometer acts as a D.C.
motor with a provision to run as a D.C. generator. The
measuring balance force is used to measure the power
(or) torque, during this the D.C dynamometer is used as
a transmission dynamometer so that it acts as a D.C.
motor.
When the D.C dynamometer is used as an
absorption dynamometer, it act as a D.C generator
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B e aring
D .C . M achine
C a sing
B e aring
Torq ue
a rm
Fig.5.50
5.14 COMPARATORS
The comparator is a device, which is generally used
to measure the dimensional differences, that means it
doesn’t show the exact dimension but only shows the
deviation of the dimension from the standard dimension.
The comparators are kind of linear measurement
device. The comparators can be broadly classified as
follows:
(a) Mechanical Comparators
(b) Pneumatic Comparators and
(c) Electrical Comparators
5.14.1 Mechanical Comparators
The mechanical comparator are generally used for
inspection of components in workshop and tool room
industry etc. Even small deviations can also be magnified
in the mechanical comparator. The mechanical
comparator is further classified into two types.
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(i) Dial gauge (or) Dial indicator

(ii) Reed type mechanical comparator
(i) Dial Gauge (or) Dial Indicator

The dial gauge is device, which is widely used to
compare the dimension with standard dimension. It
consists of a case, circular graduated dial, steam, spindle,
pointer, gear train and contact point.
0
C a se 10
90
0 10 Po in te r
90
20
80
20
80
1 /10 0 Sm a lle r
mm a rm
1
30
70
70
30
40
60
50
40 60
50
G ra du ate d
d ia l
Plun ge r
Fig.5 .51 D ial Indicato r (or) Dia l g aug e
The dial gauge set up is shown in Fig. 5.51. When

the contact point touches against the standard specimen
(or) master, the dial scale is set to zero by rotating the
case. Now the standard specimen is replaced by the
workpiece. Now the dial gauge will show the reading with
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the help of moving pointer in the graduated dial. In case

there is no variation in the workpiece dimension as
compared to standard specimen, the pointer will show
zero reading.
Generally, the contact point is an interchangeable
one. It may be standard point (or) tapered point or button
point (or) regular flat point etc. The shape of contact
points are shown in Fig. 5.52
S tan da rd po in t Tap ere d po in t B u tto n po in t R e gu la r flat po in t
Fig. 5.52. Shape o f c onta ct points
The contact point material should be wear-resistant

and hard. It may be made up of boron carbide,
heat-treated steel and diamond. The least count of dial
indicator is 0.01 to 0.05 mm. The scale of dial indicator
is varying from 5 to 25 mm.
Mechanism of dial Indicator

The mechanism of dial indicator is shown in Fig.
5.53. The plunger consists of rack teeth and. The set of
gears contact with rack. The pointer is connected to the
last gear. When the plunger touches the workpiece
surface, the plunger will move upward. So linear motion
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of plunger is converted into rotary motion of gears. This

is turn makes the pointer move on graduated dial and
shows the reading. Due to the spring action, the plunger
will come to original position after removal of work.
Pointer G ears
Plunger
Spring
Fig.5.53. Mechanism of D ial gauge
(ii) Reed type Mechanical Comparator
Fig. Reed type Mechanical Comparator
The arrangement of reed type mechanical

comparator is shown in Fig. 5.54.
It consists of plunger, contact point, movable

member, fixed member, pointer and graduated scale etc.,
Initially the comparator is set to zero scale with the help
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of standard specimen like slip gauges. Then the workpiece
Ou
d is p la tp u t
cem e
X nt
S cale
R e ed s R 2
R e ed s R 1
M ova ble Fixe d

m em b er m em b er
A B
x (In pu t disp la ce m en t)
C o m p o ne nt
Fig.5.5 4. M echanical (Reed) Co mparator
is kept at the bottom of plunger. So the contact point will

touch the surface of workpiece-if any variation occurs,
then the plunger will move upward. Generally the
plunger is attached to movable member. Due to the
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movement of plunger, the movable member also will

move. The reeds are connected between movable member
and fixed member. Due to movement of reeds, the pointer
will move on graduated scale and shows the reading.
Merits of mechanical comparator
 Cheaper than any other comparator

 It does not require other device (or) external
power supply
 Usually has linear scale
 It is robust, compact and easy to handle
 It is portable
Disadvantages
 Due to the movement of rack and pinion, the

accuracy may be reduced.
 It consists of moving parts and hence friction
will come into play.
5.14.2 Pneumatic Comparator

The pressurized air is used as a working medium
in the pneumatic comparator. In pneumatic comparator,
there is no metal to metal contact of gauge and
workpiece. Hence the accuracy of measurement is
increased. The amplification range also increased without
reduction in range as compared to mechanical or electrical
comparator. The pneumatic comparators are classified as
follows:
(a) Flow (or) velocity type pneumatic comparator.

(b) Engineering
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Back pressure type pneumatic comparator.
(a) Flow (or) velocity type pneumatic comparator

The arrangement of flow (or) velocity type
pneumatic comparator is shown in Fig. 5.54. It consists
of compressor, FRL unit, valve, tapered glass tube, float
and gauging head.
Air W ork be in g
Flexib le hose
m ea sured is
Ad justm e nt screw sho w n in cross
sectional vie w
Scale
Floa t
Air
Tap ere d glass tu be
C le arance
Air supply (o r) Air gap
M ea suring
device show n in
cross sectional
Sh ut-off Pre ssure H ose vie w
C om p ressor
Filte r valve re gulator
Fig.5.55.Flow (or) velocity type pneum atic co mp are
The pressurized air in the range of 1.5-2 bar is

supplied through a tapered glass tube that contains a
float. Then the air passes through hose and exits to the
atmosphere through the gauging head. Now the gauging
head is inserted to the workpiece. Due to the clearance
between gauging head and workpiece, the flow of air is
restricted, thereby the position of the float is changing in
tapered glass tube. The compressed air is filtered by the
help of filter and then lubricated and finally regulated
for the required range.
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A shut-off valve is used to shut-off air supply, when

not in use. The air bleed and adjustment screw is used
to set zero level in the gauge.
F lo w
C le aran ce
C le aran ce
Fig.5.55(a).Flow -Clearance curve
The flow-clearance curve shows that, flow rate

increases with the increase in the clearance between
workpiece and gauging head.
(b) Back pressure type pneumatic comparator
Let, d1 − Diameter at point 1
d2 − Diameter at point 2
O1 − Orifice at point 1
O2 − Orifice at point 2
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P1 P2 D ista n ce
W ork
p ie ce
d2
A ir sup ply
o1 O2
Fig.5.56.B ack p ressu re typ e p neum atic com parator
P1 − Pressure at point 1
P2 − Pressure at point 2
The arrangement of back pressure type pneumatic

comparator is shown in Fig. 5.56. Now the orifice (O2)
is fully closed, and supplies the pressurized air to the
system until the pressures P 1 and P 2 are equal to zero.
When orifice (O2) is opened, the pressures P 1 and P 2
varies with reference to the distance between orifice (O2)
and to the elevation of surface in the workpiece.
If there is any deviation in pressures P 1 and P 2,
then the deviation in pressure can be measured. The solex
air gauge is good example for back pressure type
pneumatic comparator.
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(c) Solex Air Gauge
Solex pneumatic Comparator.

The important parts of a solex pneumatic
comparator are listed as below:
The important parts of a pneumatic comparator are

listed as below:
1. Restriction chamber
2. Control orifice
3. Flexible pipe
4. Manometer integrated with container
The other name for this type comparator is Solex

pneumatic gauge. It has a water tank fitted with a
manometer. A scale is fitted vertically by the side of the
manometer. A dip tube is dipped into the water.
Restriction chamber is provided at the top of the dip tube.
The dip tube is connected to a flexible pipe through a
control jet. The top of the manometer tube is connected
to the flexible pipe.
Compressed air enters the dip tube through the

restriction chamber. The air expands in the tube and
maintains a constant head H of water. The excess air
will escape as bubbles. But air from the section chamber
flows through flexible pipe and escapes out through the
measuring head. Now, the level of water both in the tank
and manometer will be the same.
If there is any restriction to the flow of air in the

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measuring head, a back pressure is created in the flexible
A ir filter C ontrol orifice

Flexible tube
M easuring Jets
C om pressor
h
H
D ip tube
W ater tank W ork being
M anom eter tube m easured
Fig. Solex Air G auge.
pipe. Due to this the level of water in the manometer

changes. The change in level ‘h’ is shown in the scale.
An internal measuring head is used to check the
size of holes in the work piece. External measuring head
is used to check the height of work piece.
Internal measurements:
An internal measuring head is connected to the

flexible pipe. First the measuring head is inserted to a
master gauge (ring gauge). Now, the manometer reading
is marked as reference or zero reading. Then the
measuring head inserted into the hole of work piece. The
water level in the manometer changes depending upon
the gap between the work and the measuring head.
If the hole size is smaller, the restriction of flow of

air is less. So, the water level in the manometer goes
down from the zero reading. Or if the hole size is larger,
the level in the manometer rises up above the zero
reading. Finally, the size of the hole is compared with
the required size. Engineering
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External measurements:
For measuring external dimensions, the external

measuring head is connected. Generally this method of
measurements is used for checking the thickness or
height of the work pieces. The reference point is set by
using slip gauge blocks under the measuring head. Here
also, the gap between the work piece and the measuring
head varies. The corresponding variations are indicated
in the manometer.
Merits of Pneumatic Comparator
 Friction is less
 High magnification can be obtained.

 Wear of measuring head is less due to absence
of direct contact.
 Pneumatic comparator is very accurate and fast.

 It has very high magnification capacity.
 There is no wear and tear for measuring head.

 Deep bores can be checked easily using
pneumatic comparators.
Disadvantages
 FRL (Filter, Regulator, Lubricator) unit is

needed
 The scale is not uniform

 Various measuring heads are required for
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different dimensions of workpiece.
5.14.3 Electrical Comparator

Electrical comparators generally depend on a
wheatstone bridge circuit for measurement. In this
comparator, we can get high magnification range A DC
(Direct Current) is supplied to the system.
Am plifier
C oil 1
M eter
Arm ature
Plunger
Flexib le
strip C oil 2
W ork
piece
Fig.5.58.E lectrical com parator
The arrangement of electrical comparator is shown

in Fig. 5.58. It consists of armature, coil, amplifier,
meter, plunger and flexible strip etc.
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The armature is placed between two coils. One end

of armature, the plunger is supported and other end is
connected to flexible strip. The amplifier is a device,
which is used to amplify the output signal.
With the help of wheatstone bridge circuit, the
meter is set to zero. When the plunger touches the
workpiece surface, due to variation, the plunger will move
up or down. Due to plunger movement, the armature also
move either up or down. Due to this movement, the
change in current or potential will be induced and the
meter will show the value of displacement.
Merits
 It consists of less moving parts
 Magnification range is high.
 The instrument is compact.
Disadvantages
 External power supply is needed
 Variation of voltage will affect the output
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5.15 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

5.15.1 Temperature
It is a numerical measure of hot and cold bodies.
Its measurement is done by detection of heat transfer.
Temperature is one of the most frequently used
parameters for measurement and controlling of industrial
processes.
Example: Metallurgical process, melting, making alloys

and heat treatment.
5.15.2 Temperature Scales

The most commonly used scales include the
Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin and Rankine temperature
scales. The Fahrenheit (°F) and Celsius (°C) sc ales are
based o n the freezing po int and bo iling po int o f w ater.
In the histo ric al pro gress, the zero po int 0 °C is set to the
freezing point of water and 100 °C is set to boiling point
of water at atmospheric pressure. The freezing point of a
substance is the temperature at which it changes its
physical state from a liquid to a solid.
5.15.3 Temperature measuring devices

They are classified into two major groups.
1. Temperature sensors
2. Absolute thermometer
Sensors are different types according to their

construction. The most commonly used four types of
sensors are
(a) Thermocouples
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(b) Thermostat Books
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(c) Resistance temperature devices (RTD)
(d) Filled system
The temperature of the substance can be measured

directly by measurements taken with an absolute
thermometer. Some of the absolute thermometers are:
(a) Gas-build thermometer
(b) Radiation pyrometer
(c) Noise thermometer
5.16 TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Bimetallic strip thermometer
2. Thermocouples
3. Thermometer
4. Thermistors
5. Pyrometers
6. Resistance Temperature Detectors
5.16.1 Bimetallic Strip Thermometer

It is a strip made of two different metals, one on
each side. In a bimetallic strip, the two metals have two
different co-efficients of expansion and when the
temperature changes, the strip bends. The principle
behind the bimetallic strip thermometer relies on the fact
that different metals expand at different rates as they
get heated up. By bonding two different metals together,
we can make a simple electric controller that can
withstand fairly high temperatures. This type of
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controller is often found in ovens.
R ive t
C o nta ct
W ire M etal B W ire
B im e ta llic strip M etal A

B a se
Fig 5.59 S chem atic diagram of bimetallic strip thermo meters
Working
Two pieces of metal with different co-efficients of
thermal expansions are bonded together to form a
bimetallic strip as shown in Fig 5.59. Metal B would
be chosen to expand faster than metal A if the device is
used in oven. In refrigerator, an a opposite setup is,
imposed, so that when the temperature rises, Metal A
expands faster than metal B . This causes the strip to
bend upward, touching the contact so that current can
flow. The strip is in the form of cantilever beam. When
the bimetallic strip is heated to the temperature higher
than the bonding temperature, it will start to bend in
one direction. If it is heated to a temperature lower than
the bonding temperature, it will bend in the other
direction.
5.16.2 Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a device made of two different
wires joined at one end, called junction end. The two
wires are called thermoelements.
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TAIL JU N C TION
+ EN D W IR E1 EN D
V T1 T 2>T 1
- W IR E2
Fig. 5.60
The two thermoelements are distinguished as

positive and negative ones. The one end of the
thermocouple is called tail end or reference end. The
junction end is placed in the environment whose
temperature T 2 has to be measured. The tail end is held
at a different temperature T1 (at ambient temperature).
Because of the temperature difference between junction
end and tail end, a voltage difference is produced and it
can be measured at the tail end: So the thermocouple is
a temperature - voltage transducer which was discovered
by Thomas Seebeck in 1821. Hence this effect is called
seebeck effect. All dis-similar metals exhibit this seebeck
effect. The seebeck voltage is linearly proportional to
small change in temperature.
5.16.2.1 Measuring Thermocouple Voltage
We can measure the seebeck voltage, by connecting
a voltmeter to the thermocouple, and the voltmeter leads
create a new thermoelectric circuit. Fig. 5.61. Some
circuits connect a voltmeter across a copper - constantan
(Type T) thermocouple as shown in Fig. 5.62
To find the value of
M etal A
voltage (V 1) the voltmeter is +
e AB
connected to measure the -
M etal B
output of Junction J1 which
e AB =S ee be ck v olta ge
will create two more metallic
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Fig. 5.61
J3
Cu Cu
+ +
V V J1
- C - 1
Cu
J2
Equivalent circuits
Cu + - Cu Cu
V3
+ J1 +
J3 J1
V1 V1
- -
+ - -
+
Cu V2 C Cu V2 C
J2
J2
Fig. 5.62 M easu ring jun ction voltage w ith a D VM
junctions J2 and J 3. Since J3 is a copper-to-copper

junction, it crates no thermal EMF (V 3 = 0), but J 2 is a
copper-to-constantan Junction which will create an emf
(V 2) in opposition to V 1. The resultant voltmeter reading
V will be proportional to the temperature difference
between J 1 & J2.
5.16.2.2 Thermocouple Junction

Sheathed thermocouple probes are available with
the following three junction types.
1. Grounded thermocouples
2. Ungrounded thermocouples
3. Exposed thermocouples
1. Grounded Thermocouples (Fig. 5.63 (a)) This is

the most common type of junction. a thermocouple is
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grounded when both thermocouple mines and the sheath
In sula tion m aterial. Tw o the rm oe le ctrically

dissim ila r m e tallic w ire s
+ - + - + -
G ro un de d In sula te d junctio n (or) Ba re w ire (o r)

ju nction U n gro un de d Th erm o co uple Expo sed Th ermo cou ple
Fig. 5.63 Th ree w ire layo uts of typical thermo co uples
are all welded together to form one junction at the probe

tip. Grounded thermocouples have a very good response
time since the thermocouple has direct contact with the
sheath, allowing heat to transfer easily.
2. Ungrounded Thermocouple: (Fig.5.63 (b)) The
thermocouple is ungrounded when the thermocouple wires
are welded together but they are insulated from the
sheath. The wires are often separated by insulation.
3. Exposed thermocouple (or) Bare wire

thermocouple: (Fig.5.63 (c)) A thermocouple is
exposed here and the thermocouple wires are welded
together and directly inserted into the process. The
response time is very quick, but exposed thermocouple
wires are prone to corrosion and degradation.
Advantages of Thermocouple
• Rugged and inexpensive
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• Reasonably short response time

• High Accuracy
• Used to measure the temperature ranges of
1000 °C
Disadvantages
 Possible to get corroded because thermocouple is
made with two different types of metal
composition. It reduces the accuracy.
 The relationship between the process
temperature and the thermocouple signal is not
linear.
Thermocouple Specifications
 Type E, J, K and T are base-metal thermocouples
and can be used upto about 1000 °C
 Type S, R and B are noble-metal thermocouples
and can be used upto about 2000 °C .
The following criteria are used in selecting a
thermocouple:
• Temperature range
• Abrasion and Vibration Resistance
• Chemical Resistance of the thermocouple
5.16.3 Thermometer
Thermometer was invented by physicist Daniel
Gabriel Fahrenheit in Amsterdam in 1714. One of the
most common devices for measuring temperature is the
glass thermometer. This consists of glass tube filled with
mercury or some other liquid, which acts as the working
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fluid. When the liquid mercury is heated, it expands
inside a narrow tube that has been calibrated to show

the temperature. Temperature can be recorded in Celsius,
Fahrenheit or Kelvin.
A Mercury-In-Glass Thermometer
A mercury-in -glass thermometer is a thermometer
consisting of mercury in a glass tube as shown in Fig.
5.64. Calibrated marks on the tube allow the temperature
to be read by the length of the mercury within the tube,
which varies according to the temperature. There is
usually a bulb of mercury fixed at the end of the
thermometer to increase the sensitivity. The bulb contains
full of the mercury.
36 38 40 42
35 37 39 41
Bu lb M ercury
Fig:5.64 D iagram of Th erm om eter
When temperature rises, the mercury is expanded

and pushed up through the constriction by the force of
expansion. When temperature falls, the column of
mercury breaks at the constriction and can’t return to the
bulb, thus remaining stationary in the tube. The observer
can then read the maximum temperature over a set
period of time. To reset the thermometer, it must be
swing sharply. This is similar to the design of a medical
thermometer.
5.16.4 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
In 1821, Sir Humphery Dary announced that the
resistivity of metals is dependent on temperature. Fifty
years later, Sir William Siemens recommended that
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C o nnection
R e sistan ce to le ads S h eam
C o nnection lea ds In su la to r
the rm om eter
Fig:5.65 RTD construction
Platinum can be used as an element in a resistance

thermometer. Since then, Platinum has been used as the
primary element in all high-accuracy resistance
thermometers. It is capable of withstanding high
temperatures and also it can sustain excellent stability
and exhibits good linearity.
RTD’s Working Principle

An RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) a
temperature sensor operates on the measurement
principle that a material’s electrical resistance changes
with temperature. It means that the resistance of
electrically conductive material is proportional to the
temperature. Hence, metals can be classified as per their
positive temperature co-efficient.
When temperature measurement is performed by a
resistance thermometer using metallic conductors, it is
called a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), on the
other hand, semiconductors used for temperature
measurement are called thermistors.
Many materials such as Platinum, Nickel and
Copper are commonly used for making resistance
thermometers.
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5.16.4.1 Platinum Sensing Resistors

Since very high accuracy is demanded from primary
standard resistance thermometers, it requires a more
pure form of Platinum as a sensing resistor. The
Platinum-detecting wire should be kept free of
contamination to remain stable. A Platinum wire or film
is created and supported on a former in such a way that
it gets minimal differential expansion or other strains
from its former. It is reasonably resistant to vibration.
Platinum is the most popular and internationally
preferred material due to following factors:
 Chemical Inertness
 Almost linear relationship between temperature
& Resistance
 Greater stability because the temperature
resistance remains constant over a long period
of time.
 Large temperature co-efficient of resistance,
resulting in readily measurable values of
resistance changes due to variations in
temperature.
 The Platinum is ductile so that it can be formed
into small wires.
5.16.4.2 Film Style Element

Film type sensing elements are made from a metal
coated substrate which has a resistance pattern cut into
it. This pattern acts as a long, flat, skinny conductor,
which provides the electrical resistance. Lead wires are
bounded to the metal coated substrate and are held in
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place using a bead of glass (or) epoxy.
G LA S S C O V E R IN G TO
P R O T E C T F O IL C O N D U C T O R S
G LA S S O R E P O X Y C O V E R IN G
TO P R O T E C T LE A D W IR E S
AT AT TA C H M E N T P O IN TS
P L ATIN U M F IL M W IT H
C O N D U C TO R S E T C H E D
L E A D W IR E C E R A M IC O R C U T IN TO IT
P L ATIN U M C O AT E D S U B S T R ATE
N IC K E L O R P L ATIN U M
A L LO Y
Fig. 5.66 Film S tyle E lem ent
Standard Resistance Thermometer data
Temperature sensors are usually supplied with

thin-film elements. The resistance elements are rated in
accordance with BS EN 60751-2008 as follows:
5.16.4.3 Rating of temperature Sensors
Tolerance Class Valid Range
F 0.3 − 50 to + 500°C
F 0.15 − 30 to + 300°C
F 0.1 0 to + 150°C
Resistance temperature thermometer elements can

be supplied which function up to 850°C . Sensor tolerances
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are calculated as follows:
Calculation of Sensor Tolerances
Class B Change in t = +/− (0.3 + 0.005 |t|)

Class A Change in t = +/− (0.15 + 0.002 |t|)
1/3 Class B Change in t = +/− 1/3 × (0.3 + 0.005 |t|)
1/5 Class B Change in = +/ − 1/5 × (0.3 + 0.005 |t|)
Hence, |t| = absolute temperature in °C . If

elements have a resistance of n × 100 ohms then the basic
values and tolerances also have to be multiplied by n .
5.16.5 WIRING CONFIGURATION (RTD)
1. Two-Wire Configuration:
Two wire RTD’s are mostly used R 1
with short lead wires or where
close accuracy is not required. R (b)
Two wire construction is the least
R2
accurate of the 3 types since it is
F ig : 5.67
very difficult to eliminate the lead
wire resistance from the sensor measurement. Using the
configuration shown in Fig. 5.67 one can use 100 meters
of cable. The values of the lead resistance can only be
determined in a separate measurement without the
resistance temperature thermometer sensor. Therefore, a
continuous correction during the temperature
measurement is not possible.
Measured resistance
R t = R1 + R2 + Rb
2. Three-wire Configuration: It is most commonly

used in industrial applications where the third wire
provides a method of eliminating the average lead wire
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resistance from the sensor R1

measurement. High quality
connection cables should be used R (b)
for this type of configuration. This R2
R3
configuration allows for up to 600
meters of cable. The 3 wire circuit Fig: 5.68
works by measuring the

resistance between 1 & 2 (R 1 + 2) and sub tracing the
resistance between 2 & 3 (R 2 + 3) which leaves just the
resistance of the RTD bulb (R b). This method assumes
that wires 1, 2 & 3 have the same resistance.
(R 1 + 2 + R b) − (R 2 + 3) = (R b)
3. Four Wire Configuration: It is used primarily in

the laboratory where close
accuracy is required. In a R1
4-wire RTD, the actual R2
resistance of the lead wires R (b )

are determined and R3
eliminated from the sensor R4
measurement. The four wire Fig: 5.69

circuit is a true 4-wire
bridge, which works by using wires 1&4 to power the
circuit and wires 2 & 3 to read. This true bridge method
will compensate for any differences in lead wire
resistances.
5.16.6 RTD Design Characteristics
Sensor Designs: The sensing element of the RTD
usually consists of a wire cut to a length that provides
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a predetermined resistance at 0°C . The wire may be

coiled within or wound around an insulating material.
RTD Accuracy: It is the comparison of measurement
with standard results. Accuracy problems will arise when
RTD’s from different manufactures are used in the same
system. The accuracy of the measurement system is the
degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to its
actual value.
Stability: It is the measurement of drift over time.

Stability is affected by sensor design. Well designed, high
quality sensor will have less drift where as high
vibration, mechanical wear & tear and thermal shock will
degrade the stability.
Response Time: Response time is time the sensor takes

to react to temperature changes in a process.
Self Heating: Very small cross-sectional areas in the

sensing elements will tend to get heated when electrical
current is applied. Most RTDs are operated with a
current of 1 milliampere or less.
Advantages
• Good stability at high temperature
• Speed response
• No drift over long period
• High accuracy and good reproducibility
• Interechangable sensors
Disadvantages
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•More expensive Books
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• Affected by shock & vibration

• Low sensitivity
• No point sensing
• Requires three or four-wire operation
Limitation
• Its bulb size is larger than thermocouple

• Requires external electrical supply.
5.17 THERMISTOR
Thermistors are made up of solid semiconductor
materials having a high coefficient of resistivity.
Semiconductors used to measure the temperature are
called thermistors.
When a thermistor is employed for temperature

measurement, its resistance decreases with increase in
temperature. The valence electrons, which are mutually
shared by the metal atoms, move continuously and freely
through the metal during their movement from atom to
atom.
The vibration in the crystal lattice of atoms

increases with the increase in temperature. The free
moment of electrons becomes restricted due to an increase
in the volume of space occupied by the atoms. In case of
thermistors, the valence of electrons are attached more
firmly to the atoms; Some of the electrons are detached
and flow due to the increase in temperature, which
decreases electrical resistance facilitating the easy flow of
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Thermistors are suitable for temperature

measurement in the range of − 100°C to 300°C . Some
thermistors measure as high as 600°C . The relationship
between temperature and resistance is given by the
following equation:
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
β⎜ −
T TR ⎟
R = RR ⋅ e ⎝ ⎠
where, R − is the resistance at the measured

temperature, T
RR − is the resistance at the reference
temperature, T R
β− is the experimentally determined
constant for a given thermistor material,
generally with a value of 4000.
TR − is the reference temperature generally
taken as 298 K (25°C)
5.17.1 Types of Thermistors
Thermistors are classified as follows:

1. According to the temperature co-efficient
(a) Positive Temperature Co-efficient (PTC)

Thermistor
(b) Negative Temperature Co-efficient (NTC)

Thermistor
2. According to the Construction
(a) Bead thermistor
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(c) Disc thermistor
(d) Rod thermistor
(e) Probe thermistor
1. (a) Positive Temperature co-efficient (PTC)

thermistors
PTC thermistors increase their resistance as the
temperature rises. The relationship between resistance
and temperature is linear, as expressed in the following
equation.
Δ R = K (Δ T)
Where, Δ R = Change in Resistance

ΔT= Change in Temperature
K= Temperature co-efficient
When K is positive, it causes a linear increase in

resistance as the temperature rises.

Most of the NTC thermistors are made from a
pressed disc or cast chip of a semiconductor like sintered
metal oxide. They work because raising the temperature
of the semiconductor increases the number of electrons
able to move about and carry charge. It promotes them
into the conduction band. The more charge carriers that
are available, the most current a material can conduct.
More temperature, lesser resistance.
This is described in the formula;
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I=n⋅A⋅V⋅e
Where, I= Electric current (amp)

n= density of charge carriers (count /m 3
A= Cross-sectional area of the material (m 2)
V= Velocity of charge carriers (m/s)

e= Charge of an electron
(e = 1.602 × 10 − 19 Coulomb)
2. (a) Bead thermistor

The bead thermistor is G la ss co ate d be ad
made up of a small bead of
thermistor material on L ea d
which a pair of leads is

(a) B ead typ e
attached. The diameter of
Fig. 5.70
beads can vary from 0.15 to
1.25 mm. This is the most familiar type of thermistor
usually glass coated.
(b) Washer Thermistor

Washer type is usually
long cylindrical units. Leads are
attached to the ends of the rods.
The advantage of this type is
that it produces high resistance (b) Washer type
Fig 5.71
under moderate power.
(c) Disc Thermistor

Disc thermistors are made by pressing material
under high pressure into cylindrical flat shapes with a
diameters ranging from 2.5 mm to 25 mm. The leads may
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be attached radially or L ea ds
axially to the top and / or
bottom of the disc. Some
of the disc thermistors
Fig.5.72 Disc typ e T hermistor
have no leads, and are
fabricated with metal
plated faces that can be clipped in the circuit. They are
mainly used for temperature control.
(d) Rod Thermistor

A rod thermistor is basically a
stick of thermistor material to which
a pair of leads is attached. The leads
may be attached axially or radially to
the end of the rod. Fig:5.73 Rod type
(e) Probe Thermistor

Leads may be sealed Lea ds
G la ss
in the tips of solid glass

rods to form probes. Glass
probes have a diameter of
about 2.5 mm. The probes
Fig:5.74 Pro be typ e Thermistor
are used for measuring
the temperature of liquid.
Applications
 PTC thermistors can be used as current limiting
devices for circuit protection, as replacements for
fuses.
 NTC thermistors can be used to monitor the
temperature of an incubator.
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 NTC thermistors are regularly used in

automotive applications. More over, thermistors
can also be used for temperature compensation
in complex electronic equipment, magnetic
amplifiers, warming devices, etc.,
Advantages
 High sensitivity and fast response than RTD.
 Low cost and increased stability with age.
 They are very reliable and convenient to use.
 They are smaller in size as compared to
thermocouples.
 Unlike thermocouples which provide milli volt
outputs, use of thermistor results in reasonable
output voltages.
Disadvantages
 Since thermistors are semiconductor devices,
their operation are highly non-linear. This effect
of non-linearity needs to be compensated.
 Another disadvantage of thermistors is their
limited temperature range due to which they are
not suitable for higher temperatures.
Limitations
 Unstable at high temperature
 Interchangeability of individual elements often
creates a problem.
 Wide temperature range can’t be obtained.
 Engineering
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5.18 PYROMETERS
If the temperature of a very hot body has to be
measured, then contact-type temperature-measuring
devices will not be suitable, since they will be damaged
when they come in contact with the very hot body. So
non-contact-type temperature-measuring devices are
needed and they are called pyrometers.
The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the total

energy radiated by a black body is a function of its
absolute temperature only and is proportional to the
fourth power of that temperature.
If E is the total energy radiated per unit area per

unit time, then
E α T 2 or E = σ T4
Where σ = Stefan-Boltzmann’s = 5.67 × 10 − 8 W/m 2K4 and

T absolute temperature in K .
If e is the emissivity of the body at a given

temperature, then
E = e σ T4a
If the emissivity of the surface is known, then the

temperature of the body can be determined
By using this equation, the value of Ta can be

determined.
Pyrometry is derived from Greek word Pyro which

means fire and ‘metron’ mean ‘measuring’. Pyrometer is
a temperature measuring device but unlike RTDs and
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thermocouples. It does not have contact with the surface
for which temperature is to be measured actually. It can

measure the temperature by means of radiations coming
out of the hot body. As per kirchaff’s Law, any body
having thermal Equilibrium with its surroundings emits
maximum heat radiations it receives at any given
wavelength and temperature. This heat energy is radiated
by hot body in the form of electromagnetic waves in the
range of infrared, visible light, ultra violet, X-rays and
gamma rays. When the material is heated to more than
3000 K, it glows and radiates shorter wavelength which
can be made use of Pyrometer to measure temperature.
Temperature measuring device which is having
physical contact with hot body should withstand the
temperature. If very hot bodies having corrosive vapours
(or) liquids are to be measured, it will create real
problems. This can be overcome by use of pyrometers.
This can be used to measure high and very high
temperatures of hot bodies (ranging from 600°C to
2000 °C ). Moreover, pyrometer can also measure the
temperature of flowing substance like the temperature of
molten metal, moving ingot of hot metals.
5.18.1 Types of Pyrometer

1. Optical Pyrometers
2. Total Radiation Pyrometer
3. Infrared Pyrometer
1. Optical Pyrometer
Optical Pyrometers work on the principle of using

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the human eye to match the brightness of the hot body
to the brightness of a calibrated lamp filament inside the

pyrometer.
The brightness of a lamp filament inside the device
is adjusted to match the brightness of the target. At this
time, amount of power required by the filament to match
the brightness of the target is measured and the
corresponding temperature is found out which is equal to
the temperature of object (hot body) to be measured. This
is called filament disappearing method.
Construction
The construction of an optical thermometer is
similar to a telescope. However a tungsten filament lamp
is placed at the focus of the objective lens. The filament
lamp acts as the standard source, so that the image of
the hot target is on the plane of the filament. Due to
this, the target image and filament lamp are super
imposed on one another when viewed through the
eyepiece. A two-volt battery with a multimeter and
[Tem p era tu re so urce

like furnac e fla m e]
O bse rve r L am p A b so rp tio n filte r
H o t sou rce
E yep ie ce
R e d filter
O bjective
R h eo stat
B a tte ry A m m eter
Fig.5.75 O p tical pyrom eter

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rheostat is connected in series with the lamp. The

intensity of a filament lamp lights can be adjusted by
adjusting the current using rheostat.
Working
1. An operator views a hot body (target) and adjusts
the lamp brightness until its image is seen in red.
When the lamp filament is initially cooler than
the target, its image appears as darker red (or)
black spot superimposed on the target’s image.
(Fig 5.76 (a))
2. If the lamp current is increased till the filament
becomes hotter than the target, then the image of
filament appears brighter red than the target.
(Fig. 5.76 (b))
Fila m en t
Fila m en t Fila m en t
d arker he re Targ et im a ge
(ligh t from furn a ce ) b rig hte r h ere d isap pe ars h e re
Tem p era tu re o f Tem p era tu re o f Tem p era tu re o f

fila m e n t is too lo w fila m e n t is too h ig h fila m e n t w h ich eq ua l
th an th a t o f ta rg et th an th a t o f ta rg et to the ta rge t.
te m pe rature
Th e cu rre nt is too Th e cu rre nt th rou gh
low th e filam e nt is too Th e filam e nt is a t th e
high a nd it lo oks sam e te m p e ratu re as
Fig. (a) b rig ht ag ainst the th e ba ckg rou nd
ligh t from furn ace . ie
Th e filam e nt is Fig. (c)
b rig hte r tha n targ e t
Fig. 5.76
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3. If the lamp current is adjusted so that the lamp

filament’s brightness is equal to that of the target,
then the filaments image blends into the image of
the target.
The filament then disappears as shown (Fig 5.76
(c))
When the brightness (or) radiation temperature is

equal to the temperature of a black body then it looks as
bright as the target. For grey bodies, the instrument
should have emissivity correction facility.
The temperature of filament can be measured by

electrical resistance. Temperature readout is actived
either by ammeter measuring the current through the
filament (or) by temperature calibrations on the control
resistor regulating the current through lamp. Lamps for
optical thermometers normally will not operate at higher
temperature, more than 1500 °C . However to exceed this
range a neutral filter of known transmission factor can
be placed in the light path before the lamp.
Advantages
 It shows lower temperature error.
Disadvantages
 It is only suitable for spot measurements and it
requires a skilled operator to use it.
 It is not capable of quick response and is totally
unsuitable for control purposes.
 Fragile: Expensive - capability required.
 Engineering
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Emissivity correction Books
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Every object radiates thermal energy at
temperatures above absolute zero and the radiation
emitted is a function of its temperature. The energy
radiated is proportional to the emissivity at a particular
temperature and wavelength. To measure the accurate
temperature of a given surface from which radiation is
receiving, an operator has to know the emissivity of that
material. The radiation is focussed using a lens onto
sensor which is a photo sensitive device and generates a
voltage proportional to the radiation falling on it
(Thermal detector)
In co m in g
ra diation
M irro r E y e piec e
Fu rn ace or
h ot bo dy L en s
Tem p era tu re
Th erm o cou ple (o r) T he rm op ile
d is play u nit
sen so r (o r) d e tecto r
Fig. 5.77 Tota l radiatio n py rom e ter
A total radiation pyrometer is used to measure the

temperature by evaluating the heat radiation emitted by
a body. All the radiations emitted by a hot body or
furnace flames are measured and calibrated for
black-body conditions. A total radiation pyrometer Fig.
5.77) consists of an optical system which includes a lens,
a mirror, and an adjustable eyepiece. The radiation heat
energy emitted from the hot body is focused by an optical
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system onto a thermocouple or a thermopile and

converted to its analogous electrical signal and can be
read on a temperature display unit.
The pyrometer should be aligned properly with hot
body and should be placed as close to it as possible to
minimize the absorption of radition by the atmosphere.
Radiation pyrometers are useful for the measurement of
temperature in corrosive environments and in
applications where physical contact is impossible.
Advantages of radiation pyrometers are:

1. It is a non-contact-type device.
2. Very quick response is possible.
3. Suitable for high-temperature measurement.
Disadvantages
1. Due to emission of radiations to the atmosphere,
errors in temperature measurement are possible.
2. Errors due to emissivity affect measurements.
3. Fibre-optic Pyrometers
A temperature-sensing component is placed at the
tip of the fibre optics’ free end. The desired radiation is
collected by connecting a measuring system to the other
end of the fibre optic cable. The data collected is then
converted into a temperature value. The fibre-optic
pyrometer consists of a fibre-optic cable, probes sensors
or receivers, terminals, lenses, couplers, and connectors.
A fibre-optic cable will transmit radiation from the black
box cavity to a spectrometric device which computes the
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temperature. The operating temperature of the fibre
optics can be upto a temperature of 300°C and are

available for wavelengths of 1 and 1.6 μ m . Fibre-optic
pyrometers are normally employed in applications where
strong electrical and magnetic interference fields act.
Advantages of Fibre Optic Pyrometers
1. These are used where the path of sight to the

target is not clear.
2. These are used when accuracy is a critical
parameter.
3. These can be used when the target subjected to a
physical or chemical change.
4. Even temperature as low as 100°C can be
measured.
5. Fibre-optic pyrometers can be safely used in
explosive and hazardous locations since they do
not carry any electrical current.
4. Infrared Pyrometers
Every material with temperature above absolute

zero emits infrared radiations proportional to the
temperature. Infrared radiations are invisible to the
human eye and can be sensed as heat. An infrared
thermometer is a non-contact-type sensor used to detect
infrared radiation from a hot body. The radiation emitted
by hot body has different wavelengths. Radiations having
longer wavelengths than visible light are known as
infrared radiations which possess less energy and are less
harmful. A part of the infrared energy radiated by target
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is detected by an infrared detector to measure.
D ispla y
d evice
IR Filte r
Ve ry h ot
ta rget
D e tecto r L en s
(Tem p era tu re
S e nso r) Field of view
Fig.5.78 Infrared Pyrom eter
The amount of radiation emitted by the target. The

surface of the target begins to radiate when it attains a
temperature of around 500 − 600 °C . The infrared energy
increases with increase in temperature. The benefit of
infrared sensor is formed in Wien’s displacement I law
which states that the maximum radiant intensity of low
temperature bodies occurs in the infrared for example, at
25°C (298K) the body radiates at the maximum
wavelength of 9.7 μm as per Wien’s law.
λm ax = The wave length at which the maximum

value of monochromatic emissive power occurs. Wien’s
law states that the product of λm ax and T is constant i.e
λm ax T = 2.898 × 10 − 3
2.898 × 10 − 3
λmax for 298 K = = 9.7 × 10 − 6 m
298
Maximum wavelength = 9.7 μ m
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(λmax for 298 K )
Normally radiations with the wavelength range of

0.7 − 14 μ m are employed for measurement.
An infrared pyrometer consists of which four the

infrared wave detector (temperature sensor).
The infrared radiation is absorbed and converted

into an electrical signal by the temperature detector. The
amount of radiation striking the detector influences the
electrical output signal. The amplified electrical output
signal is then displayed on the display device with
temperature units. Variation due to ambient temperature
is properly compensated before display.
The infrared pyrometer provides better accuracy if

emissivity of the material is known. Higher the emissivity
of the material, higher the accuracy of measurement.
An infrared pyrometer is also useful for the

measurement of temperatures of moving objects and in
situations where objects are placed in vacuum or in a
controlled atmosphere, or the distance between the source
of the temperature and the instrument of measurement
is large and when the objects are in inaccessible areas
and hazardous conditions.
5. Thermal Imaging
One important application of infrared pyrometry is
thermal imaging or infrared thermography. Infrared
thermography is used in medical imaging, in testing
buildings for heat leakage, in satellite surveys, in night
time surveillance and in measuring temperature
distributions in electronic equipment. Many devices
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operate by scanning the image across a single, cooled
photon detector. Nowadays the CCD (charge-coupled

diode) array technology is developed with digital video
cameras. Here, a two-dimensional array of detectors is
positioned behind a camera lens to record the thermal
image of the field viewed.
Uncertainties in the emissivity may be a problem
for thermal imaging systems because the emissivity may
vary across the field of view.
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Two Marks Question and Answers TM.1
Chapter 1
GENERAL CONCEPT
1.1 What is measurement? Give its types?

(Anna Univ. April ‘ 04 & April 08)
The act or process of obtaining quantitative
information about a physical quantity is called as
measurement. The value of the measured quantity is
determined by comparing with a predefined standard.
Types of measurement:
1. Direct and Indirect
2. Primary, Secondary & Tertiary
3. Contact and Non-contact type
1.2 What is the difference between Direct and Indirect
comparison methods of measurement?
Direct Comparison Indirect Comparison

1. The value of the
The unknown quantity is
unknown quantity is
determined by indirect
determined by directlycomparison with
comparing with primarystandards using a
or secondary standards.
calibrated system.
2. Human senses are very Chain of devices
much necessary. processes and present
the output as a known
function of input.
3. Not very accurate. Fairly accurate.
4. Ex: measurement of Ex: measurement of
length using a meter strain in a machine
scale. member.
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TM.2 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
1.3 What are the main requirements of measurement?

The two main requirements are
 The standard used for comparison must be
accurately defined and universally accepted.
 The procedure followed for the measurement and
the apparatus or instrument used for
comparison must be provable.
1.4 How can the means of measurement be classified?
(a) Standards or reference masters.
(b) Fixed gauges.
(c) Measuring instruments.
1.5 What is the need for measurement

 To have a better understanding of the physical
world.
 To ensure the efficient use of resources.
 To enable interchangeability of parts,
 To provide quality products to the end user.
 To provide a basis for research and
developmental activities.
1.6 What are the basic component of a measuring
system? (Anna Univ.May / June 2012)
The basic components of a measuring system are
 Primary sensing device

 Transducer
 Manipulator or signal conditioner
 Read out or Recording device.
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1.7 What are the important elements of measurements?

Elements of measurement are
 Measurand
 Standard
 Comparator
1.8 Give any four methods of measurement.
 Direct method
 Indirect method
 Substitution method
 Coincidence method
1.9 Define Measurand
The physical quantity or property to be measured
is called measurand.
1.10. Draw the block diagram of a fundamental
measuring process.
M easurand C om parator R esult
S ta ndard
1.11 Define Unit

A definite magnitude of a physical quantity is called
a unit of measurement. It is used as a standard for the
some physical quantity. Eg. Unit of time is second(s).
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1.12 Mention any four basic units of SI system.
Unit of length – meter (m)

Unit of Mass – kilogram (kg)
Unit of Electric current – Ampere (A)
Unit of Luminous Intensity – Candela (Cd)
1.13 Mension the two supplementary units of SI system.

 Radian (rad) - for plane angles.
 Steradian (sr) - for solid angles.
1.14 What are derived unit? Give an example?
The units derived from fundamental and
supplementary units are called derived units.
Eg. Unit of force - kgm/s2 (newton)
1.15 What is a standard of measurement?

A standard is an accepted and approved example of
a quantity against which others are measured or
compared. It has a defined relationship to a unit of
measurement of a physical quantity.
1.16 What are the standards and standard systems for

linear measurement?
Standards
 Line standard
 End standard
 Wavelength standard
Standard systems
 English (yard) system, and

 Metric (metre) system
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1.17 Distinguish between ‘Line Standard’ and End

Standard. (Anna Univ. Nov/Dec 2010)
S.No. Line Standard End Standard

1. Measurement of Measurement of
distance between two distance between two
lines. surfaces.
2. Accuracy is limited to Highly accurate, upto
 0.2 mm  0.001 mm
3. Quick and easy Time consuming
4. Parallax errors can Improper wringing of
occur. slip gauges may
introduce errors.
1.18 What is wavelength standard?

The wavelength of a selected radiation of light is
used to express the basic unit of length. This is not
influenced by variation of environmental conditions like
temperature, humidity, ageing, etc.
1.19 How can standards be classified according to their

importance?
 Primary standards
 Secondary standards
 Tertiary standards
 Working standards
1.20 Classify standards according to their uses?
 Reference standards
 Calibration standards
 Inspection standards
 Working standards
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1.21 What are measuring instruments?

The devices used for measuring the values of a
given quantity or condition are called measuring
instruments.
1.22 How are measuring instruments classified?
They are classified as follows:
1. On the basis of function

(a) Length measuring instruments
(b) Angle measuring instruments
(c) Geometrical form checking instruments
(d) Surface finish - checking instruments
2. On the basis of accuracy

(a) Most accurate instruments
e.g. light interference instruments
(b) Moderate accurate instruments
eg. comparators.
(c) Below moderate accurate instruments
eg. dial indicators
3. On the basis of precision
(a) Precision measuring instruments

(b) Non-precision measuring instruments
1.23 Mention any four characteristics of measuring
instruments.
 Range
 Sensitivity
 Accuracy
 Repeatability
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1.24 Define range of measurement.

The difference between the higher calibration value
and the lower calibration value of a given instrument is
known as range of measurement.
1.25 Define Resolution and sensitivity.

Resolution: The minimum value of the input signal
required to cause an appreciable change in the output is
known as resolution.
Sensitivity: It is the degree of response of an instrument

to an incoming signal.
Change in Ou tput
Also, Sensitivity 
Change in Input
1.26 Define span.

Span is the algebraic differenc e betw een the higher
c alibratio n value and the lo w er c alibratio n value o f an
instrument.
1.27 What is response time?

It is time at w hic h the instrument begins its
respo nse fo r a c hange in measured quantity.
1.28 Define Threshold, Backlash and Drift.

 Threshold is the minimum value below which no
output value is achieved.
 Drift is the variation in the measurement value
when the same quantity is measured under
similar condition at different points of time.
 Backlash is the free play between mating
mechanical elements like gears, linkages, etc.
Backlash is the clearance or gap between the
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mating components which causes play or loss of

motion.
1.29 Differentiate between sensitivity and range with a
suitable example.
Consider an instrument having a scale reading 0.05
mm to 50 mm.
Here the sensitivity of the instrument is 0.05 mm

i.e the minimum value the instrument can read.
The range is 0.05 to 50 mm, i.e the minimum to

maximum value the instrument can read.
1.30 Define accuracy and precision.

Accuracy is the closeness of measured value to true
value.
Precision is the degree of agreement between

repeated results for a given input.
1.31 What are the characteristics of a measuring system

in relation to its performance?
1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamic characteristics
(a) Single pulse or aperiodic
(b) Continuing or random
1.32 Explain dead zone and lag.

Dead zone is the range of different input values over
which there is no change in the output.
Lag is the delay in the response of an instrument

to a change in the measured quantity.
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1.33 Define Readability.

It is a measure of an instruments ability to display
incremental changes in its output value.
1.34 Define Reliability. (Anna Univ. Nov’08)

The reliability of an item is the probability that it
will perform a required function under a specified
condition for a stated period of time.
1.35 Define the term error and correction.

(Anna Univ. Nov/Dec 2011)
Error is the difference between the measured value
and the actual value of the measurand. Correction is the
numerical value which should be added to the measured
value to get the correct result.
1.36 Classify the errors in measurement.

 Systematic errors.
 Random errors.
 Illegitimate errors.
1.37 Define hysteresis. (Anna Univ. Dec’04)
Hysteresis is the difference between the indications
of a measuring instrument when the same value of the
measured quantity is reached by increasing or decreasing
that quantity.
1.38 What are the sources of error?

(Anna Univ. Nov’08)
Different sources of errors are
 Static error
 Reading error
 Interpolation error
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 Environmental error
 Characteristic error
 Loading error
1.39 Distinguish between relative error and random
error? (Anna Univ. Nov’07)
Relative error indicates how good a measurement is
relative to the size of the object being measured.
absolute error
Relative error 
value of object measured
Random errors are errors which occur due to

unpredictable conditions like temperature variations,
mechanical vibrations, etc during measurement.
1.40 What are systematic errors?
When the deviation in the measurement by an
instrument is uniform, the resultant error is known as
systematic error. Also known as bias error.
1.41 State the dynamic characteristics of simplified
measuring system? (Anna Univ. Apr ’04)
Dynamic Characteristics of measuring system are
 Speed of response
 Lag
 Fidelity
 Dynamic error
1.42 Define Calibration. (Anna Univ. April ‘04)
The process of comparison of a device with unknown
accuracy to a device with a known, accurate standard to
eliminate any variation in the device being checked is
called calibration.
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1.43 Mention the various methods used for limiting

temperature errors? (Anna Univ. Nov ‘04)
 In the measuring laboratory, controlled
temperature is maintained.
 The parts, gauges and reference masters are
stored on the heat sink till they stabilize to the
room temperature.
 For high accuracy measurements, insulated
forceps / tweezers and plastic pads / gloves are
used to handle gauge blocks and workpieces.
 Certain machines are enclosed in a transparent
box, so that the machine surroundings are not
influenced by the presence of persons around it.
1.44 Mention the precautions to be taken during
calibration?
 Care is taken that similar conditions prevail
when the system is calibrated and when the
actual measurement is made.
 The standard system used for calibration should
be at least one order of magnitude more
accurate than the system to be calibrated, i.e
accuracy ratio of 10:1.
1.45 Define limits and Tolerance.
Limit of size: The two extreme permissible sizes for any
dimension (maximum and minimum) are called limit of
size.
Tolerance: The difference between the maximum limit of

size and minimum limit of size is called tolerance. It is
always a positive quantitative number.
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1.46 What is deviation?

It is the algebraic difference between a size to its
corresponding basic size. It may be positive, negative or
zero.
1.47 What is meant by nominal size and Tolerance?

(Anna Univ. Nov/Dec 2011)
Nominal size: It is the ideal size of a part on which the
limits of size are based.
Tolerance: It is defined as the magnitude of permissible

variation of a dimension.
1.48 Define Tolerance and zero line.

(Anna Univ Nov/Dec 2013)
Tolerance: The difference between the maximum limit of
size and minimum limit of size is called tolerance. It is
always a positive quantitative number. It is defined as
the magnitude of permissible variation of a dimension.
Zero line: In graphical representation, the line which

represents the basic size is called zero line, so the
deviation from the basic size is zero. This line is also
called as the line of zero deviation.
1.49 Mention the different ways of expressing tolerance.

 Unilateral Tolerance
 Bilateral Tolerance
1.50 What is Tolerance zone?
In graphical representation, the zone bounded by
the two limits of size of the part is called tolerance zone.
It is specified by its magnitude and its position in relation
to the zero line.
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1.51 Differentiate between Dimensional and form

tolerances? (Anna Univ. May/June 2013)
Dimensional Tolerance Form Tolerances

It is the tolerance specified It is tolerance specified to
to control the linear control the form features of
dimensions of a part. a part.
Ex. Tolerances for length, Ex. Form features
height, etc. straightness, flatness
circularity and cylindricity.
1.52 What are location Tolerances?

These are stated by three tolerance zones; They are
 Position Tolerances
 Concentricity Tolerances
 Symmetry Tolerances
1.53 What is Allowance?
It is the intentional deviation between the hole
dimension and shaft dimension for any type of fit.
Allowance is positive for clearance fit and negative for
interference fit.
1.54 Differentiate between allowance and Tolerance.
Allowance is the intentional or planned deviation
from the nominal dimension. Whereas, Tolerance is the
unintentional but acceptable deviation from the nominal
dimension.
1.55 Explain feature control symbol.
Feature control symbol is a frame containing the
geometric characteristic symbol, tolerances, references and
applicable conditions.
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0.03 M A
G eo m e tric Toleran ce
characteristic D ia. At m ax. D atum
sym bo l m aterial referen ce
condition
1.56 Define Interchangeability.

(Anna Univ. May/June 2013)
Interchangeability means identical component
manufactured at different locations by different personnel
can be substituted for one another for use in assembly
or for replacement without affecting the functioning of the
component.
1.57 What is meant by static response?
(Anna Univ Nov/Dec 2013)
Static response gives the relationship between the
output and input of measuring system, when the input
does not change or is changing at a slow rate.
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Chapter 2
LINEAR AND ANGULAR

MEASUREMENTS
2.1 Define Metrology.

Metrology is defined as the ‘science of
measurement’, which includes both its theoretical and
practical aspects at any level of uncertainty, in any field
of science and technology.
2.2 What are the main activities of Metrology?
The Main activities of Metrology are:
 Defining and establishing internationally
accepted units of measurement.
 Reproducing these units in the form of
standards.
 Developing measurement methods and
estimation of their accuracy.
 Establishing uncertainty of measurement and
finding causes of measuring errors and
eliminating them.
 Application of chains of traceability linking
measurements made in practice to reference
standards.
 Design, manufacturing and testing of gauges of
all kinds.
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2.3 What are the types of Metrology?

The types of Metrology are
 Scientific or fundamental metrology

 Industrial metrology
 Legal metrology
2.4 What are the elements of Measurement?
The Elements of Measurement are
(a) Linear dimensions (length measurement)

(b) Angular dimensions (angular measurement)
(c) Non-linear functions (concentricity,
roundness, flatness and surface texture).
2.5 What are the methods of linear Measurements?
Linear measurements can be made by two methods,
which are
(a) Line measurement - measurement of distance
between two lines. Example of measuring
instrument - steel rule.
(b) End measurement - measurement of distance
between two surfaces. Example of measuring
instrument - micrometer.
2.6 What are the various linear measuring instruments
used?
There are various linear measuring instruments.
They are
 Steel rule
 Calipers, Dividers, etc used in combination with
steel rule.
 Dial indicators and vernier calipers.
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 Micrometers
 Slip gauges
 Comparators
2.7 Define the principle of vernier scale?
Principle of Vernier
N divisions on the vernier scale is equal to (N-1)
divisions on the main scale.
i.e. N Vernier Scale Divisions (VSD)
 N  1 Main Scale Divisions (MSD).
N  1
1VSD  MSD
N
2.8 What are the limitatins of Vernier Callipers?

The Limitations of Vernier Calipers are
 It is difficult to obtain the correct feel of the

part . As both the part and caliper are always
to some extent elastic, the amount of force used
by the operator affects the indication.
 The scales are difficult to read.
 The accuracy is about 0.02 mm
 The caliper must be properly used in order to
take the desired measurement.
2.9 What are the errors in measurement of Vernier or
Caliper?
The Errors in Measurement with Vernier Caliper
are
 Errors occur due to manipulation of vernier
caliper and its jaws on the workpiece i.e Care
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should be taken to properly align the workpiece

between the measuring faces of the jaws.
 Vernier caliper is tilted during use especially
when measuring depth.
 Dirty measuring surfaces.
 The improper conditions of the jaws of the
caliper, like natural wear and warping, so the
caliper jaws must be tested frequently by setting
the 0.0 point of the main and vernier scales.
2.10 What are the different parts of vernier height
gauge?
The different parts of a vernier height gauge are
(a) Base (b) Beam (c) Measuring jaw and scriber
(d) Graduations (e) Slider
2.11 What are tests carried out using vernier height
gauge?
The tests carried out using vernier height gauge are
(a) Hardness of working faces.
(b) Flatness of base.
(c) Rigidity of beam.
(d) Flatness of the working surface of the measuring
jaw and scriber.
(e) Parallelism of the measuring jaw and scriber with
the base.
(f) Thickness of graduations.
(g) Accuracy of scale readings.
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2.12 What are the sources of errors in vernier height

gauge?
Errors occur due to
 Slide arm not parallel with the base

 Unclean and damaged base which causes
inaccuracy.
 Worn-out scriber.
 Improper calibration. The zero mark of the
vernier and main scale should coincide when the
base of the scriber makes flat contact with the
surface plate.
 Parallax errors. The measured value should be
read by looking vertically at the scale.
2.13 What are the applications of vernier height gauge?
It is used for various applications in the workshop
and inspection department.
(i) Used in conjunction with a surface place and it

can be used for marking the workpiece with a
scriber attached to it.
(ii) Used to check the height of a surface.
2.14 What is vernier depth gauge?
As the name implies, the vernier depth gauge is
used to measure the depth of holes, slots, recesses and
the distances from a plane surface to a projection used
for precise measurements.
2.15 What are the errors in vernier depth gauge?
It is easier to make errors with a vernier depth
gauge due to manipulation. Errors occur due to
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 the reference surface, on which the vernier

depth gauge is rested, is not satisfactorily true,
flat and square. Though the gauge, be true and
square, it can be imperceptibly tipped or canted.
 The base or anvil of the vernier depth gauge not
firmly rested on the reference surface. This
occurs due to the high pressure applied in
sliding the beam against the measured point
which lifts the base of the gauge from its
position on the reference surface.
It is advisable to keep several kilograms of hand
pressure on the base or anvil rested on the reference
surface and then manipulating the beam, to measure the
depth, by applying light measuring pressure.
2.16 What is Micrometer (or) Screw gauge?
A micrometer is a widely used precision measuring
instrument. It is also called as micrometer screw gauge
(as it uses a calibrated screw) and micrometer caliper
(because they are usually in the form of calipers).
2.17 What are the types of Micrometer?
The common types of micrometer, based on their
applications are:
(a) Outside micrometer (micrometer caliper) to
measure wires, spheres, shafts and blocks.
(b) Inside micrometer - to measure the internal
dimensions of an object.
(c) Depth micrometers - to measure the depth of slots
and steps.
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2.18 What are the various components of inside

micrometer?
The various parts of a inside micrometer are:
 Measuring head or micrometer unit

 Extension rods
 Spacing collars, and
 Handle
2.19 How will you check the internal Micrometer
reading accuracy?
The internal micrometer reading accuracy is
checked by
 checking the accuracy of the traverse of the

measuring head.
 checking the accuracy of the overall lengths
when the measuring head set to zero, is
attached with the various extension rods.
2.20 What is special function Micrometer?
These micrometers are designed to serve a specific
purpose. They are similar in their operating principle to
other micrometers but vary only in their design with the
introduction of a special feature suitable for a particular
purpose.
2.21 What is thickness micrometer? How it differs?

This type of micrometer is used to measure the wall
thickness of a tube, sleeve or bush. An ordinary
micrometer is not suitable for this purpose because of the
concavity of the internal surface.
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2.22 What is vernier Micrometer?

As the name suggests, in this micrometer in
addition to the regular scales, a vernier scale is provided
on the sleeve in order to increase the accuracy of
measurement. The vernier metric micrometer is capable
of measuring to an accuracy of 0.001 mm.
2.23 What is bench Micrometer? How it differs?

This micrometer enables highly precise and accurate
measurements particularly for small objects and where
the workpiece has to be brought to the gauge. Unlike
other micrometers which are hand held, this micrometer
has a heavy cast iron base with an adjustable work-table.
2.24 How will you obtain Measurement using digital

Micrometer?
In order to obtain the measurement using a digital
micrometer.
 First of all, the micrometer and its measuring

surfaces are wiped clean.
 The thimble is rotated to align its zero line with
the reference line on the sleeve.
 The ON/OFF button is turned on. If the display
shows zero reading, measurement can be taken
otherwise the thimble and rachet stop are
adjusted until the micrometer reads zero.
 Now the desired unit system is chosen by using
the mm/in button
 The same method of measurement as in the case
of a ordinary micrometer is followed except that
the reading is obtained on the digital display.
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2.25 What is slip gauge? What it does?

Slip gauges are the most accurate form of
representing size by means of its two parallel surfaces
which are very flat. They permit a comparison between
the working measuring instruments and recognized
international standards of measurement.
2.26 What is meant by wringing in slip gauges?
Wringing is defined as the property of the
measuring faces of a slip gauge to adhere to the
measuring faces of other slip gauges by sliding or
pressing without the use of any external means.
2.27 What are the applications of slip gauge?
The Applications of Slip Gauges are
 Slip gauges are used as reference standards to
set or calibrate the measuring instruments and
gauges.
 They are used to set up length dimensions in
comparative measurements.
 Used for setting up sine bars for angle
measurements.
 Used for setting up tool height at required
length in milling cutters.
2.28 What are the accessories of slip gauge?
The various accessories are
 Holders and base

 Measuring jaws
 Scribers and centre points
 Gauge block stone
 Wringing pads.
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2.29 What is tool maker microscope? What it does?

Engineering Microscopes designed to satisfy the
various needs of tool makers are known as tool maker’s
microscopes. Tool maker’s microscope is an optical
measuring instrument used for precise three dimensional
measurements of components.
2.30 What are the applications of tool maker

microscope?
The application of toolmaker’s microscopes are as
follows:
1. Determination of the Relative Positions
2. Measurement of Angles
3. Comparison Measurement
4. Comparison with a Scale
2.31 What are the factors influencing selection of

angular measuring instruments?
Factors affecting the selection of suitable angular
measuring instruments:
 Size and shape of the part

 Location and angular accessibilities of the
feature to be measured.
 Expected range of angle variations
 Required sensitivity and accuracy of
measurement
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2.32 What are the types of angular measuring

instrument?
Angular measuring instruments can be divided into
two groups. They are:
 Line standard instruments Examples:

Protractors, Bevel gauges
 Face standard instruments Examples: Sine
bars, Angle gauges.
2.33 What is bevel protector?
This is a simple instrument used for measurement
of angles between two faces of a component. It consists
of two arms, one fixed and the other adjustable.
2.34 What are the types of bevel protector?

They are two types of Bevel protractors
(i) Mechanical bevel protractor.
(ii) Optical bevel protractor.
2.35 What is universal bevel protractor?
The universal bevel protractor is an angular
measuring instrument capable of measuring and laying
out of angles accurately and precisely to within 5
minutes.
2.36 What are the applications of bevel protractor?
Bevel protractors can be used for a number of
applications. Some of them are given below
(i) For checking the inside bevelled face of a ground
surface.
(ii) For Checking of Vee block
(iii) For measuring acute angle
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2.37 What is spirit level?

Spirit level is an instrument commonly used for
inspecting the horizontal positions of surfaces and for
finding the direction and magnitude of minor deviation
from that nominal condition.
2.38 What is Clinometers?

A special case of application of the spirit level is a
Clinometer used for measuring in the vertical plane, the
incline or decline of a surface in relation to the basic
horizontal plane over an extended range. A Clinometer is
also known as a tilt meter or tilt indicator, slope gauge
gradiometer, etc.
2.39 What are the features of precision microptic

clinometer?
A precision microptic clinometer has the following
features.
 Direct reading over the full 360 measurement

range.
 Estimation to within 2 arc seconds.
 Circular and sub-division micrometer scales for
sensitive reading.
 Slow motion screw for fine setting
 Eyepiece rotatable to most convenient viewing
 Hardened ground steel base.
2.40 What is angle gauge? How it is used?
Like slip gauges which are built up to use for linear
dimensions, angle gauges are built up to give a required
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angle. A series of fixed angles are used for comparative

assessment of the angle between two surfaces.
2.41 What is gauges?
Gauges are one of the most commonly used
inspection tools in production shops for quick checking
and validation of the dimensions of manufactured parts.
2.42 What is gauging?

Gauging has become an integral part of any
machining process as they help in ensuring the required
degree of interchangeability among the millions of parts
manufactured all over the world.
2.43 What is limit gauges?

Limit gauges are inspection tools of rigid design,
without a scale, which serve to check the dimensions of
manufactured parts.
2.44 What are the types of limit gauges?

The types of limit gauges are
 Plug Gauges – For checking internal dimensions.

 Snap Gauges – For checking external dimensions.
and Ring
Gauges
2.45 What is solid gauges?

The gauges in which the handle is an integral part
of the gauging portion or if the whole gauge is machined
from a single piece of metal, they are called as solid
gauges.
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2.46 What is renewable end gauge?

If the handle is manufactured separately and
engaged with the gauging portion by means of a suitable
locking device, then such gauges are called renewable end
gauges.
2.47 What is single ended gauge and double ended

gauge?
If only a single gauge (either Go or ‘No Go’ gauge)
is on one handle, then it is called single ended gauge. If
both ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ are combined on one handle on
either side, it is called double ended gauge.
2.48 What is progressive gauge?

A single ended plain plug gauge with one gauging
member having two diameters of the ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’
respectively is called the progressive gauge.
2.49 What is plug gauge? How it is used?

Plug gauges are of cylindrical form used in the
manner of a plug for inspecting internal dimensions.
Plain plug gauge is used to check the size of a hole.

The gauging portion is made of suitable wear resisting
steel and hardened, ground and lapped.
2.50 What is Ring Gauge? How it is Made?

Plain ring gauge is a couple of gauges (‘Go’ gauge
and ‘No Go’ gauge) having measurement side with the
maximum and minimum limit deviation of shaft to assure
the interchangeability of the shaft. The gauges are made
up of suitable wear resisting steel and the gauging
surfaces are first stabilized, then ground and lapped.
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2.51 What is Snap Gauge?

A snap gauge is a limit gauge, having a C-shaped
frame with hardened, adjustable anvils at opposite ends,
used to check diameters, lengths, and thicknesses.
2.52 What is combined limit gauge?

A single plug gauge used for inspecting both the
upper and lower limits of cylindrical holes is called a
combined limit gauge.
2.53 What is contour gauge? How it is made?

Contour gauges are also called as profile gauges
used for checking the dimensional accuracy and
cross-sectional shape of a surface. These gauges are made
of similar profile as that of the work.
2.54 What is taper gauge?

Taper plug gauge is in the shape of the frustum of
a cone for checking tapered holes and taper ring gauges
are used for checking tapered shafts.
2.55 What is feeler gauge?

Feeler gauges are used for checking the clearances
between mating surfaces eg. clearance between piston and
cylinder. These are a bunch of narrow strips of steel
sheet, each made to a given thickness.
2.56 What is the principle used in design of limit

gauge?
William Taylor developed a concept relating to the
gauging of components i.e to check the specific dimensions
and geometric feature of a component. His concept, known
as Taylor’s Principle is used in the design of limit gauges.
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2.57 What are the points considered for gauge design?

The Points to be considered for Gauge Design are
 The form of the ‘Go’ gauges should be a replica

of the form of the mating parts.
 ‘Go’ gauges should enable several related
dimensions to be checked simultaneously.
 During inspection, Go gauges must always be
put into conditions of maximum impassibility.
 ‘No Go’ gauges are for checking a single element
of feature at a time.
 ‘No Go’ gauges must always be put into
conditions of maximum possibility during
inspection.
2.58 What are the materials used for manufacturing of
gauges?
The materials used for manufacture of gauges
should be
 Hard and wear resistant.

 Corrosion resistant.
 Capable of maintaining dimensional stability
and form.
 Easily machinable.
 Having low coefficient of expansion to avoid
temperature effects.
2.59 What is interchangeability?
Interchangeability means making the different parts
of a product so uniform in size such that each part of a
certain model will fit any mating part of the same
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regardless of the lot to which it belongs to or when or

where it was made i.e a component selected randomly
should assemble correctly with any other mating
component, also selected randomly.
2.60 What are the parameters of interchangeability?
The Parameters of Interchangeability are
 Geometric (dimension, shape, relative position of
surfaces and others).
 Physical and mechanical (Specific gravity,
hardness, strength and others)
 Chemical (composition, mixtures)
 Electrical
2.61 What are the types of interchangeability?
The types of Interchangeability are
(i) Universal or Full Interchangeability
(ii) Selective assembly
In Full Interchangeability all types of parameters
are ensured with the accuracy that allows to perform
assembling (or replacement at repair) of any
independently produced parts to obtain finished items.
In selective assembly, parts are selected for mating,
rather than being mated at random. That is, parts are
graded according to size and only matched grades of
mating parts are assembled.
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Chapter 3
3.1 What is wavelength and time period?

The distance between two crests or two troughs is
called the wavelength. The time taken by light in covering
one wavelength is called the time period.
3.2 Compare laser light and ordinary lamp light?

The Comparison between Laser light and light from
an incandescent lamp are distinguished below:
Laser light Ordinary light

Has single wavelength ie Has a mixture of various
spectrally pure or wavelengths ie
monochromatic polychromatic
Coherent radiation ie all Incoherent radiation
photons are in phase
High directionality No directionality
(unidirectional)
Prevails over long distance Does not prevail long
3.3 What are the advantages of laser?

The Advantages of laser are
 Lasers are more intensive than any other

monochromatic source.
 Metrology lasers are low power instruments.
 Lasers have wide dynamic range, low optical
cross talk and high contrast.
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 Lasers are highly precise, accurate and can

prevail over long distances.
 Lasers facilitate rapid non-contact gauging of
soft, delicate or hot moving parts.
 They allow fabrication of fine structures with
high quality avoiding mechanical stress.
3.4 What are the main components of scanning laser
gauge?
The main components in a scanning laser gauge are
 Transmitting unit
 Photo cell (receiver)
 Microprocessor & control unit
3.5 Why laser telemetric system is used? What it
measures?
Laser telemetric system is used for high speed,
non-contact dimensional and positional measurement and
control. The system measures outside diameters, multiple
dimensions or part position of either opaque or
transparent objects. It is rugged and can be used on-line
and in harsh industrial environments.
3.6 What ae the components of laser telemetric system?
The laser telemetric system consists of three
components: transmitter, receiver and processor
electronics.
3.7 What is interference?

The pluexomenon in which two waves suppose to
form a resultant wave of greater or lower amplitude is
called interference.
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3.8 Define principal of superposition.

When two or more waves of the same type are
incident at the same point, then the total displacement
at that point is equal to the vector sum of the
displacement of the individual waves.
3.9 What is constructive interference?

If the two light waves are of the same wavelength
and are exactly in phase with each other, then the
amplitude of the resultant wave is the sum of the
individual amplitudes which produces increased
brightness (because intensity of light depends an
amplitude.) This is known as constructive interference.
3.10 What are the necessary conditions for interference

of light waves at a place?
The conditions necessary for the interference of light
waves at a place are
 The sources should continuously emit waves of

the same wavelength or frequency.
 The amplitudes of the two interfering waves
should be equal or nearly equal for obtaining
interference fringes.
 The two waves should have the same phase or
a constant difference in phase.
3.11 What are the conditions of coherent sources?
The sources satisfying the above conditions are
known as coherent sources.
 The sources emitting the waves should be close

to each other.
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 The surface must be reflective.

 The sources should be narrow.
3.12 How ‘metre’ is defined in interferometry?
The wavelength of pure monochromatic light is used
as the natural standard of length. Now, metre is defined
as the distance travelled by light in vacuum during a
specific interval of time.
3.13 What is interferometer?

It is an instrument which generates and compares
the difference between two light waves which are
reflected off two different surfaces. It utilizes the effect
of interference.
3.14 What are the applications of interferometers?

The Applications of Interferometers are
 Measurements of lengths and small changes in

lengths.
 Optical testing.
 Studies of surface structure.
 Measurement of pressure and temperature
difference in gas flows and plasmas.
 Measurements of particle velocities and
vibration amplitudes.
 Wavelength measurements.
3.15 What are the types of laser interferometer?
Laser interferometers can be generally classified as
 Homodyne or Single - frequency or DC laser

interferometers.
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 Heterodyne or Dual - frequency or AC laser

interferometers.
3.16 Compare Homodyne interferometry and Hetrodne
interferometry?
Homodyne Interferometry Hetrodyne Interferometry

Here interference occurs Here two beams of slightly
between two beams at the different frequencies are
same frequency. combined to produce a beat.
This is based on Doppler
shift.
Displacement information is Displacement information is
carried on a dc signal. carried on a ac signal.
A single frequency laser Here, highly stablized
source is required. two-frequency laser source
and more intricate detector
electronics are required.
Laser source intensity level This system is less sensitive
changes, ambient light and to all such problems.
various other noises affect
measurements.
3.17 What are the basic components of Michelson

interferometer?
The basic elements of a Michelson interferometer
are laser source, a beam splitter (to divide and recombine
the beams), a fixed reflector and a movable reflector
(cube-corner or retro-reflectors are used).
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3.18 Why photodetectors is employed in counting of

fringes?
It is difficult to count such fringes by eye, so
photodetectors connected to high speed counters are used
by wich acuracy of one part in million can be obtained.
3.19 What are the components of NPL Flatness

interferometer?
The system consists of
 a light source
 a condensing lens system
 suitable table to position the work part (gauge)
 projection optics comprising lenses and mirrors
 an optical flat.
3.20 What are the components of A.C. laser
interferometer?
1. Two frequency laser source
2. Optical Elements
(i) Beam splitters
(ii) Beam Benders
(iii) Retro-reflectors
3. Laser lead’s measurement receiver.
4. Measurement display.
3.21. What is meant by beam benders?
These are usually flat mirrors having very high
reflectivity. They are used to deflect the light beam
around corners on it path from the laser source to each
one’s.
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3.22 What is retro-reflector?

A retro-reflector is a device or surface that reflects
light back to its source with minimum scattering i.e the
reflected beam is parallel to the incidental beam but
opposite in direction.
3.23 What is the funciton of measurement display in

A.C laser interferometer?
The signals from reference receiver and
measurement receiver are counted in two separate pulse
counters and subtracted. Necessary calculations are made
using a micro computer. The computed value and other
corrected input signals like temperature, coefficient of
expansions, air velocity, etc are displayed.
3.24 What are the advantages of ACLI?

The Advantages of AC Laser Interfermeter (ACLI)
are
 It is more tolerant to environmental factors like

dust, smoke, air turbulence, etc that attenuate
laser beam intensity.
 It has high repeatability and resolution of
displacement measurement.
 It has high accuracy of measurement.
 If facilitates to maintain long range optical path
(60 m)
 It is easy to install.
 There is no change in performance due to wear
and tear (or) ageing.
 It requires no warm up time or standby power
sources of errors in ACLI.
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 Uncertainty in the refractive index of air

 Alignment (No cosine error) is good.
3.25 What is Hetrodyning?
Heterodyning is a technique in which new
frequencies are created by combining or mixing two
frequencies in a signal processing device called a mixer.
3.26 What laser is used in Alignment?

The use of laser permits alignment test to be carried
over a long distance when compared to other conventional
equipments like alignment telescope.
3.27 What is CMM?

A Coordinate Measuring Machine is a sophisticated
measuring device used to determine the geometrical
characteristics of an object operating in a three
dimensional space.
3.28 Why three dimensional measuring machine?

The automation of machine tools triggered the need
for a faster and more flexible means of measuring. This
resulted in the introduction of three dimensional
measuring machines.
3.29 What is the important role of CMM?

CMMs play a important role in the mechanisation
of the inspection process. These machines provide precise
measurements of objects for design, testing, profiling and
reverse engineering of parts. Some are used as layout
machines before machining and for checking feature
locations after machining.
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3.30 What are the main components of CMM?

A coordinate measuring machine consists mainly of
four elements. They are
(a) The main structure including the three axes of

motion
(b) The probing system,
(c) The machine controller and computer hardware
(d) Suitable Application software
3.31 What is probe? What is does?
Probe is the sensory part of a coordinate measuring
machine responsible for gathering data from the
workpiece. Probes are inserted into the probe arm, which
is supported by the moving frame that allows movement
of the probe relative to the workpiece.
3.32 What is the function of controller in CMM?

A controller of a CMM fulfills many functions like
axis control, object probing, programming, control of
measuring run, data acquisition and evaluation.
Coordinate measuring machines are controlled either
manually or by a computer.
3.33 What are the types of CMM in terms of control

technology?
In terms of control technology equipment, two types
are in use.
 Manually operated CMM with computer -

assisted data evaluation and reporting.
 CNC - CMM with offline programming capability
and measurement data feedback.
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3.34 Define the importance of software in CMM?

The software is a set of coded instructions, formulae
and operations that structure the actions of the computer.
It is the most important element of any CMM because
its power determines the number of part features that
can be measured and its ease of use and sophistication
is the key to productivity of all computer-assisted CMMs.
3.35 What are the functional capabilities of CMM

software?
The functional capabilities of a CMM software
should include.
 Correction of all systematic effects such as

guideway deviations, rectangularity deviations,
temperature effects or stylus bending.
 Conversion of measured values from the
machine co-ordinate system to any desired part
coordinate system.
 Programs to define geometric elements, for
evaluating geometric tolerance conditions and to
optimize machining - allowance distribution
 Programs to handle special shapes like gears,
cams and also for automatic part scanning for
digitizing profiles.
 Interface to CAD software.
 Digital input and output commands for process
integration.
3.36 What are the types of CMM?
CMMs are classified as follows
1. According to control system
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(i) Manual CMMs or Free Floating CMMs (operator

controlled)
(ii) Computer Numerical Control (CNC) (or) Direct

Computer Control (DCC) CMMs
2. According to design of main structure or orientation

of probe arm (s).
(i) Bridge type
(ii) Cantilever type
(iii) Column type
(iv) Gantry type
(v) Horizontal type
3. According to mounting style
(i) Benchtop
(ii) Free standing
(iii) Portable and Hand held
3.37 What is manual CMM? How it is used?

These CMMs are operator controlled devices where
an operator physically moves the probe along the axis to
make contact and record measurements. Manual CMMs
are used for small and medium size component inspection
and are best suited for prototype workshops with small
quantities of measurements.
3.38 What are the different designs used by bridge type

CMM?
Two different designs of the bridge type are
 Stationary table and moving bridge
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This design allows high table loads and has large

clamping surface.
 Stationary bridge and moving table.

In this design table load is restricted due to
acceleration but high rigidity of the overall structure
leads to small measuring uncertainty.
3.39 What are the advantages of portable CMM?

The advantages of portable CMM are
 Increased reliability and speed

 Total freedom of movement resulting in
increased productivity and quality
 Insensitive to vibrations or other changes in the
environment.
 Highly efficient for measuring parts that cannot
be moved to a table.
 Highly suitable for geometric and surface quality
control.
3.40 What are the advantages of CMM over
conventional inspection technique?
The advantages of using CMMs over conventional
inspection techniques are given here.
(a) Reduced inspection cycle time
(b) Flexibility
(c) Reduced operator errors
(d) Improved accuracy and precisions
(e) Improved productivity
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3.41. What are the types of CMM probes?

CMM probes fall into two general categories:
 Tactile or contact probes

 Non-contact probes
3.42 What is contact probes? Define its classifications?
Contact probes, as the name suggests, gather data
by physically touching the workpiece ie the acquisition of
the measuring points takes place by probing with a
stylus. Contact probes are classified as
 Hard or fixed probes

 Touch trigger probes
 Measuring type or displacement probes
3.43 What is Non-contact probes? What it does?
Non contact probes - also called as proximity probes
are used when fast, accurate measurements are required
with no physical contact with the part. These probes
enable the measurement of flexible parts whose soft
material and geometry might be distorted with a contact
probe.
3.44 What are the types of styli?

The types of styli available to suit different
applications are given here with figures.
 Standard or straight styli

 L -shaped styli
 Star - styli
 Pointer and scriber styli
 Disc styli
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 Cylinder styli
 Ceramic half sphere styli
 Swiveling styli
 Pin styli
Apart from the above styli, there are custom styli
designed and manufactured to suit specific requirements.
3.45 What are the applicatioins of CMM?

The applications of CMM are
 To check dimensional accuracy of parts in

various steps of production and of parts supplied
by the vendor.
 To inspect test equipment, gauges and tools.
 To determine shape and position, maximum
metal condition, linkage of results, etc which
conventional machines cannot perform.
 To carryout total inspection of safety components
for aircraft and space vehicles.
 To measure features like flatness, surface
profile, roughness, thickness, parallelism,
perpendicularity, circular runout, etc.
 To achieve optimum paring of components
within tolerance limits by sorting.
 To replace several single purpose instruments
with low degree of utilisation like gear tester,
gauge tester, measuring microscope, etc.
 To produce deviation maps from CAD and for
geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD &
T).
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 To accurately reverse engineer the existing parts

when prints are no longer available.
 Inspection and reverse engineering of mobile
phones, turbine blades, tools, plastics, etc.
3.46 What is machine vision? Define its technique?
Machine vision is the ability of a computer to ‘see’.
Machine vision is also called as ‘artificial vision’ or
‘computer vision’. It is defined as a technique which allow
a sensor to view a scene and derive a numerical or logical
decision without further human intervention.
3.47 What is machine vision system?

Machine vision systems have the ability to acquire
data about an object, measure image features, recognise
objects and make appropriate decisions.
So, a system which electrooptically simulates the

image recognition capability of human eye/brain system
can be called as Machine Vision System.
3.48 What are the essential elements of machine vision

system?
The essential elements of a machine vision system
are
 The delivery system

 Light source
 Lenses
 Image sensor and digitizer
 Preprocessor
 Vision processor
 Communication Links
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 Output devices
3.49 What is the function of delivery system in machine
vision system?
The delivery system positions the part for
inspection. It performs the following functions.
 Ensures that the surface of the part that is to
be inspected is facing the camera.
 Holds the part still for a brief moment required
for the camera to take a picture.
3.50 What are the cameras used in machine vision
system?
Cameras used in machine vision applications are of
two types namely, vidicon cameras and solid state
cameras.
Vidicon cameras are similar to those used in
television systems. Here an image is formed by focussing
the incoming light through a series of lenses on to the
photo conductive surface of the vidicon tube.
Solid state cameras employ either charge coupled
device (CCD) or charge injected device (CID) image
sensors. They contain a matrix of accurately spaced
photosensitive elements fabricated on silicon chips.
3.51 What is Windowing in Machine vision system?
Windowing is a technique in which various
mathematical operations are applied to the image data,
with a computer, in order to create an enhanced image
that is more useful.
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3.52 What is image restoration in machin vision

syhstem?
Image restoration: Here the degradation suffered by
an image during its formation is removed in the
preprocessing stage, to make it more closely resemble the
original object.
3.53 What is meant by edge detection in machine vision

system?
Edge detection refers to the set of mathematical
methods or computer programs which identify the
contrast in light intensity between pixels bordering the
image of the object and resolve the boundary of the object.
3.54 What is thresholding in machine vision system?

Thresholding is also an image processing technique.
A threshold is a limit. The comparison of an element’s
brightness or other characteristics with a set value or
threshold is called thresholding.
3.55 What is meant by laser triangulation in machine

vision system?
Laser Triangulation is a technique of acquiring 3D
height data of an object by projecting a laser line onto
the object and viewing through a camera from the side.
3.56 What are the uses of machine vision system?

The various tasks for which machine vision systems
can be used are:
Dimensional gauging & measurement - checking

dimensional accuracy against geometrical tolerances.
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Part and Product Identification - provides positive

identification of an object for decision making purposes.
It involves reading of printed characters and decoding
symbols on products. These systems are used in
conjunction with part-handling equipment like robots.
Part Positioning - positioning tools, locators or
pattern finders are used to recognize and determine exact
position and orientation of parts. This correcting for part
movement is known as landmarking.
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Chapter 4
FORM MEASUREMENT
4.1 Define straightness?

Straightness is defined as the qualitative measure
of a surface in terms of variation of its geometry from a
predefined straight line or mean line.
4.2 Define the tolerance for straightness?

The tolerance for the straightness of a line is
defined as maximum deviation from the reference line
joining the two extremities of the line.
4.3 What is flatness?

Flatness is a minimum distance between two
planes, which will cover all irregularities of the surface
to be tested. Determining flatness means to determine
the best-fit plane between two standard reference planes
one above and one below the plane of surface to be tested.
4.4 What is autocollimator?

An autocollimator is widely used to measure small
angular deviation of a reflecting surface placed in front
of the objective lens of the autocollimator.
4.5 What are the applications of autocollimator?

The applications of autocollimator are
(i) Measuring the straightness of machine

components
(ii) Measuring flatness
(iii) Other industrial applications
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 Aircraft assembly jigs

 Rolling mills
 Retro reflector measurement
 Roof prism measurement
4.6 What are the types of thread?
The types of threads are
1. Triangle shaped threads

2. Square shaped threads
3. Trapezoid shaped threads
4.7 What are the parameters required for accuracy of

screw thread?
It is necessary to measure following parameters of
the screw thread to ensure the accuracy of the screw
thread.
These are,
1. Major diameter
2. Minor diameter
3. Effective diameter
4. Pitch
4.8 What are the method used for measuring effective

diameter?
The effective diameter can be measured by following
methods.
(i) One wire method
(iii) Three wire method &
(iv) The thread micrometer
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4.9 What are the methods used to measure pitch of

screw thread?
The pitch of screw thread can be measured by
following methods.
(b) Pitch measuring machine
(c) Pitch gauge
4.10 What are the essential pass of (TMM)?

The Tool Maker’s Microscope (TMM) essentially
consists of base, the main lighting unit, the upright
coloumn with carrying arm and the sighting microscope.
4.11 What are the applications of tool Maker’s

Microscope?
The large tool maker’s microscope is suitable for the
following fields of applications;
 Length measurement in cartesian and polar

co-ordinates.
 Angle measurements of tools, threading tools
punches and gauges, templates etc.
 Thread measurements i.e., profile, major and
minor diameter, height of lead, thread angle,
profile position with respect to the thread axis
and the shape of thread. (rounding, flatness,
straightness of flanks)
 Comparison between centers and drawn patterns
and drawing of projected profiles.
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4.12 What is shadow protector?

It is used to measure the flank angle which is
nothing but angle in between the individual flank and
perpendicular to the axis of the thread.
4.13 What are the errors in screw thread?

The following are the errors in screw thread.
1. Pitch error
5. Angle error
4.14 What is Gear?
Gears are used for transmitting motion and power
from one shaft to another with constant velocity ratio.
When the Driver Gear is rotated by an input shaft, it
will rotate the follower in the opposite direction.
4.15 What are the advantages of gear drive?

The Advantages of gear drive are
1. There is no slipping. So exact velocity ratio is

obtained.
2. Large power can be transmitted.
3. High efficiency
4. Reliable service
5. It requires less space, Hence compact layout is
possible.
4.16 What are the limitations of gear drive?
The Limitations of gear drive are
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1. Special machines, tools and technology are

required for the manufacturing of gears.
2. The defective gears may cause vibrations and
noise.
3. Cost of manufacturing is comparatively high.
4.17 What are the classifications of gear?
Based on position of axes of the shaft
(i) Parallel shafts,
(ii) Intersecting shafts,
Based on type of gearing
(i) External gearing

(ii) Internal gearing
(iii) Rack and pinion
(iv) Worm and Worm wheel
4.18 What is addendum and dedendum in spur gear?
Addendum: It is the radial distance between the top land
and pitch circle.
Dedendum: It is the radial distance from the bottom land

to the pitch circle.
4.19 What are the methods used for measuring tooth

thickness?
The tooth thickness of gear can be measured by the
following methods
(b) Box tangent method
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(c) Constant chord method
(d) Rolling gear test method
4.20 What are the methods used for rolling gear test?
Rolling gear test can be done by two methods.
(a) Single contact (or) fixed centre distance

method
(b) Dual contact (or) variable centre distance
method
4.21 Define the principle of Parkinson Gear Roller
Tester.
The principle of this device is to mount the standard
gear on a fixed vertical spindle and the gear to be tested
on another similar spindle mounted on a sliding carriage,
maintaining the gears in mesh by spring pressure.
4.22 What is lead checking? Why it is used?

Lead is the axial advancement of helix for one
complete turn, as in the threads of cylindrical and teeth
of helical gears. Lead checking instrument is used for
checking lead.
4.23 Define backlash and it types.

Backlash is defined as the amount by which a tooth
space exceeds the thickness of an engaging tooth.
There are two types of backlash
1. Circumferential backlash
2. Normal backlash
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4.24 Explain the importance of concentricity

measurement?
It is important that the centre about which the gear
is mounted should be coincident with the centre from
which the gears are generated.
Otherwise, satisfactory gear will not function

correctly because of the eccentricity of the mounting.
4.25 Define surface Texture.

The surface texture is defined as the regular (or)
irregular surface spacings which tend to form a pattern
on the surface.
4.26 What are the types of irregularities?

The types of Irregularities are
The irregularities are classified as,
(a) Primary texture (or) Roughness
(b) Secondary texture (or) Waviness
4.27 Define surface roughness.

The surface roughness is defined as a quantitative
measure of the process marks developed during the
creation of the surface and other factors like the structure
of the component.
4.28 What is Waviness?

The secondary texture is also called as waviness.
Waviness is the widely spaced component of the surface
texture. This may be caused by various factors like
spindle rotation, vibrations, tool run out, tool deflection
and heat treatment etc.
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4.29 Compare roughness and waviness?
Roughness Waviness
It is usually produced by It is usually produced by
the action of the cutting instabilities in the
tool. machining process such as
unbalance of cutting tool.
It is caused due to the Waviness is the widely
short wavelength spaced component of the
irregularities in the surface texture. It is caused
surface. by spindle rotation, tool
deflection and vibrations
etc.
4.30 Define lay and its types.

Lay indicates the direction of predominant surface
pattern produced and it reflects the machining operation
used to produce it. The various lays are listed here.
(a) Straight lay
(b) Circular lay
4.31 What are the factors affecting surface finish?
The following factors affect the surface finish during

machining.
(a) The machining variables
(i) Cutting speed
(ii) Feed
(iii) Depth of cut
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(b) The tool geometry also influences the surface

finish.
(i) Nose radius
(ii) Rake angle
(iii) Side cutting-edge angle
(iv) Cutting edge
(c) Properties of workpiece and tool materials and
(d) Type of the machine tool
(e) Quality of the machine tool
4.32 What are the methods used for surface texture?

In practice, for determining the surface texture,
three major methods are used.
1. Peak to valley height method

2. The average Roughness
3. Form factor or bearing curve.
4.33 What are the methods used for surface finish?

The surface finish can be measured by the following
methods.

The surface texture is assessed by supervisor either
by eye (or) fingernail. To get more accurate measurement,
various techniques are used.
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(b) Direct instrument method

The direct instrument method is also used to
measure the surface finish of the components by means
of stylus type devices.
4.34 What is Roundness?

Roundness is the measure of how closely the shape
of an object approaches that of a circle.
4.35 What are the types of circularity error?

The different types of circularity errors are as
follows:
(a) Ovality
(b) Lobing
(c) Irregularities of No specific form
4.36 What are the reasons for out of roundness?

The reasons for out of roundness are
 Poor bearings in the spindle

 Poor alignment of shafts between centers.
 Stress caused due to compression of the part at
the points of contact when held in a chuck.
4.37 What are the methods used for roundness
measurement?
Roundness can be measured by the following
methods
(a) Diametral method
(b) Circumferential confining gauge
(c) Rotating on centers
(d) V-Block Method
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(e) Three point Probe

(f) Roundness measuring spindle
(g) Reference circles
(h) Roundness measuring machines
4.38 Define error of circularity?

The error of circularity is defined as the radial
distance between the minimum circumscribing circle and
the maximum inscribing circle which contain the profile
of the surface at a section perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.
4.39 What is Modern Roundness Measuring instrument?

Why it is used?
These machines are designed to make the numerical
assessment of departure from ideal roundness from one
of the following two centers.
(i) determination from minimum zone centers i.e

(centre for which the radial difference has a
minimum value).
(ii) determination from least square centre (maximum
inscribed circle and minimum circumscribed circle)
These machines are based on the use of
microprocessor to provide measurements of roundness
quickly and in a simple way.
4.40 Define Parallelism.

Two entities (Define (or) parallelism (or) surface) are
parallel to each other when the perpendicular distance
between the surfaces under test does not exceed an
agreed value over a specified time.
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Chapter - 5
MEASUREMENT OF POWER,
FLOW AND TEMPERATURE
5.1 What is force? How it is Measured?

Force is nothing but product of mass and
acceleration.
F  ma
The force is a vector quantity. Unit of Force is

Newton (N) Generally force can be measured by two
methods
1. Direct force measurement
2. Indirect force measurement
5.2 What is indirect force Measurement?

In this measurement system, indirect comparison is
made by an calibrated transducer that senses by means
of a gravitational attraction or weight.
5.3 What is accelerometers?

The Accelerometer is a device, which is used to
measure the acceleration. From that, we can find force
in the following manner.
F  ma
Let, F Force
m  Mass of the body
a Acceleration
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5.4 What is local cell?

A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert
a force into electrical signal. This conversion is indirect
and happens in 2 stages. Through a mechanical
arrangement, the force being sensed is used to deform a
strain gauge. The strain gauge converts deformation in
to electrical signals.
5.5 What are the types of load cell?

The load cells are classified in to six main types:
(i) Capacitive Load Cells
(ii) Magnetoelastic Load Cells
(iii) Strain Gauge Load Cells
(iv) Hydraulic Load Cells
(v) Pneumatic Load Cells
(vi) Shear Type Load Cells
5.6 What is fluid pressure sensor?

The fluid pressure sensors are used to measure the
pressure within the fluid due to various forces acting on
the fluid during flow. The fluid pressure sensors generate
a signal as a function of the pressure applied by the gases
or liquids.
5.7 What is Manometers?

Manometers are defined as the devices used for
measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing
the column of fluid by the same or another column of
fluid.
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5.8 What is mechanical gauge? What are the types?

Mechanical gauges are devices used for measuring
the pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring
or dead weight. The commonly used mechanical pressure
gauges are
(a) Diaphragm pressure gauge
(b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge
(c) Dead-weight pressure gauge
(d) Bellows pressure gauge
5.9 What are the methods used for Measuring Pressure?
Pressure can be measured by the following methods
1. Elastic pressure transducers: Bourdon tube

pressure gauge (C-type, Helical type, Spiral type),
Diaphragm pressure transducers, Bellows.
2. Manometer method
3. Electric pressure transducers: Strain gauge type,
potentiometer type (resistance type), capacitance
type etc.,
5.10 What are the features of Bellows?
 Made of Bronze, Stainless steel, Beryllium
Copper, Monel etc.,
 The movement is proportional to number of
convolutions.
 Sensitivity is proportional to size.
 In general, bellows can detect a slightly lower
pressure than a diaphragm
 The range is from 0-5 mmHg to 14 MPa
 Accuracy is in the range of 1% span.
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5.11 What is tactile sensors?

The tactile (touching) sensors are devices which are
used to measure the pressure distribution between a
sensor and a target. These types of sensors are used in
laptops, mobiles and ATM machines etc.
5.12 What is Single column manometer? What are the
types?
Single column manometer is modified form of U
tube Manometer having a very large reservoir. There are
two types of single column manometer.
(b) Inclined single column Manometer.
5.13 Define Torque.
Torque is nothing but twisting moment. Torque may
be defined as the force applied on the body on which it
acts about an axis, causing the tendency of body to rotate.
The torque can be calculated by,
2  NT
Power, P 
60
Let, T Torque in (N-m)

N Speed in rpm
5.14 What is strain gauge?

The torque can also be measured by the help of a
strain gauge. Strain gauge is a devices which identifies
and senses the change in dimension (or) deformation.
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5.15 What are the types of torque measurement using

Torsion bar?
It is classified into following types.
(i) Torsion bar [Optical method]
(ii) Magnetostrictive [Capacitive method]
(iii) Laser Optic method
(iv) Proximity sensor method
(v) Stroboscope method
(vi) SAW method
5.16 What is stroboscope? How it is used?

The stroboscope is used to read the deflection of
shaft under rotation. The light passes to the scale from
stroboscope and the flashing frequency is adjusted till a
stationary image is obtained.
5.17 What are the types of flow meters?

The flow meters (or) obstruction meters are
generally mechanical type, which is classified into
following methods.
(a) Orificemeter
(b) Venturimeter
(c) Variable area meter (or) Rotameter and
(d) Flow Nozzle
5.18 What is orificemeter?

An orifice meter is a simple device used for measuring
discharge of fluid through a pipe. It works on the basis of
Bernoullis equation like venturi meter.
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5.19 What is current meter?

A current meter is a device, which is used to
measure the flow velocity. The current meters are
(a) CUP type current meter
(b) Propeller (or) screw type current meter
5.20 What is venturimeter? How will you measure flow
rate using Venturimeter?
When a venturimeter is placed in a pipe carrying
the fluid whose flow rate is to be measured, a pressure
drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the
venturimeter. This pressure drop is measured using a
differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this
pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate.
5.21 What are the applications of venturimeter?

 It is used where high pressure recovery is
required.
 Can be used for measuring flow rates of water,
wastes, gases, suspended solids, slurries and
dirty liquids.
 Can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes
having diameters in a few meters.
5.22 What are the main parts of Rotameter?
The main parts of a rotameter are as follows:
 A tapered transparent glass tube graduated to

read flow rate directly.
 A float whose density is greater than that of the
flowing fluid. The float diameter is such that it
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completely blocks the inlet of the tapered

transparent glass tube.
5.23 What is pitot tube?
Pitot-tube is a device used for measuring the
velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel. It is
based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a
point becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due
to the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure
energy.
5.24 What are the types of Dynamometer?
The dynamometers are classified into following
methods.
5.25 What is comparators?

The comparator is a device, which is generally used
to measure the dimensional differences, that means it
doesn’t show the exact dimension but only shows the
deviation of the dimension from the standard dimension.
5.26 What are the types of comparators?

The comparators can be broadly classified as
follows:
(a) Mechanical Comparators

(b) Pneumatic Comparators and
(c) Electrical Comparators
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5.27 What are the advantages of Mechanical

comparator?
The advantages of mechanical comparator are
 Cheaper than any other comparator

 It does not require other device (or) external
power supply
 Usually has linear scale
 It is robust, compact and easy to handle
 It is portable
5.28 What are the important parts of Pneumatic
Comparator?
The important parts of a pneumatic comparator are
listed as below:
1. Restriction chamber
2. Control orifice
3. Flexible pipe
4. Manometer integrated with container
5.29 What are the advantages of pneumatic

comparator?
The advantages of Pneumatic Comparator are
 Friction is less
 High magnification can be obtained.
 Wear of measuring head is less due to absence
of direct contact.
 Pneumatic comparator is very accurate and fast.
 It has very high magnification capacity.
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 There is no wear and tear for measuring head.

 Deep bores can be checked easily using
pneumatic comparators.
5.30 What is temperature?
It is a numerical measure of hot and cold bodies.
Its measurement is done by detection of heat transfer.
Temperature is one of the most frequently used
parameters for measurement and controlling of industrial
processes.
5.31 What are the types of Temperature Measuring

Instruments?
The types of temperature measuring instruments
are
1. Bimetallic strip thermometer
2. Thermocouples
3. Thermometer
4. Thermistors
5. Pyrometers
6. Resistance Temperature Detectors
5.32 What is thermocouple?

A thermocouple is a device made of two different
wires joined at one end, called junction end. The two
wires are called thermoelements.
5.33 What are the advantages of thermocouple?

The Advantages of Thermocouple are
 Rugged and inexpensive
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 Simple construction
 Reasonably short response time
 High Accuracy
 Used to measure the temperature ranges of
1000 C
5.34 What are the factors used for Selecting

Thermocouple?
The following criteria are used in selecting a
thermocouple:
 Temperature range
 Abrasion and Vibration Resistance
 Chemical Resistance of the thermocouple
5.35 Why Platinum sensing resistors are preferred?
Platinum is the most popular and internationally
preferred material due to following factors:
 Chemical Inertness
 Almost linear relationship between temperature
& Resistance
 Greater stability because the temperature
resistance remains constant over a long period
of time.
 Large temperature co-efficient of resistance,
resulting in readily measurable values of
resistance changes due to variations in
temperature.
 The Platinum is ductile so that it can be formed
into small wires.
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5.36 What are the advantages of RTD?

The Advantages of RTD are
 Good stability at high temperature

 Speed response
 No drift over long period
 High accuracy and good reproducibility
 Interechangable sensors
5.37 What are the types of Thermistors?
Thermistors are classified as follows:

1. According to the temperature co-efficient
(a) Positive Temperature Co-efficient (PTC)

Thermistor

Thermistor
2. According to the Construction
(a) Bead thermistor
(b) Washer thermistor
(c) Disc thermistor
(d) Rod thermistor
(e) Probe thermistor
5.38 What are the advantages of thermistors?

The Advantages of thermistors are
 High sensitivity and fast response than RTD.
 Low cost and increased stability with age.
 They are very reliable and convenient to use.
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 They are smaller in size as compared to

thermocouples.
 Unlike thermocouples which provide milli volt
outputs, use of thermistor results in reasonable
output voltages.
5.39 What are the types of Pyrometer?
The Types of Pyrometer are
1. Optical Pyrometers
3. Infrared Pyrometer
5.40 What are the advantages of fibre optic are
pyrometer?
The Advantages of Fibre Optic Pyrometers are
1. These are used where the path of sight to the
target is not clear.
2. These are used when accuracy is a critical
parameter.
3. These can be used when the target subjected to a
physical or chemical change.
4. Even temperature as low as 100C can be
measured.
5. Fibre-optic pyrometers can be safely used in
explosive and hazardous locations since they do
not carry any electrical current.
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Index I.1
INDEX
A B
A Mercury-In-Glass Back lash , 4.49
Thermometer, 5.113 Backlash checking, 4.68
Absorption dynamometers, 5.87 Band Brake Arrangements, 5.90
AC Laser Interferometry, 3.34 Bare wire thermocouple, 5.111
AC Laser Interferometer Base tangent method, 4.61
(ACLI), 3.37
Basic Size, 1.48
Accelerometers, 5.8
Bead thermistor, 5.123
Accuracy, 1.26
Bellows, 5.25
Acoustical probe, 3.67
Bench Micrometer, 2.50, 4.24
Addendum, 4.21, 4.47
Benchtop CMMs, 3.58
Addendum circle , 4.48
Bevel Protractor, 2.69
Adjustable Type Gap Gauges,
2.117 Bias or Systematic or
Controllable errors, 1.38
Alignment checking, 4.70
Bimetallic Strip Thermometer,
Ambient Errors, 1.40 5.107
Amplifying device and Blade Type Micrometer, 2.48
Indicator, 4.89
Bourdon gauge (C-Type), 5.20
Analysis of Surface Finish, 4.79
Bridge Type CMMs, 3.52
Analytical Balance Method, 5.1
British association thread, 4.22
Angle Alignment Telescope,
2.104 C
Angle Dekkor, 2.99 C.L.A. Method, 4.81
Angle Gauges, 2.80 Calibration, 1.44
Angle of thread, 4.19 Calibration Errors, 1.39
Angular Measuring Calipers, 2.6

Instruments, 2.68 Cantilever type CMM, 3.53
Applications of Angle Dekkor, Capacitive method., 5.54
2.102 Capacitive Load Cell, 5.10
Applications of Bevel Capacitive Pressure
Protractor, 2.76 Transducer, 5.28
Assembly Errors , 4.53 Capsule Pressure Sensor, 5.24
Autocollimator, 2.94, 4.11 Causes of out-of roundness:,
Avoidable Errors, 1.41 4.96
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I.2 Engineering Metrology and Measurements
Circular pitch (pc), 4.48 D

Circumferential Confining Dead Weight Pressure Gauge,
Gauge, 4.97 5.26
Classification of Slip Gauges, Dead-zone, 1.34
2.55 Deddendum, 4.21, 4.47
Classification of Gears, 4.41 Dedendum circle, 4.48
Clearance circle, 4.48 Delivery system, 3.82
Clinometers, 2.78 Depth micrometers, 2.43
CMM Styli and Accessories, Depth of thread, 4.19
3.68 Deterministic Metrology, 2.3
CNC or DCC CMMs, 3.52 Deterministic Metrology, 1.2
Coil Springs, 5.15 Diametral pitch (pd), 4.48
Column Type CMMs, 3.54 Diametral Method, 4.97
Combined Limit Gauge, 2.117 Diaphragm-type Pressure
Gauge , 5.22
Communication Links, 3.90
Difference between Roughness
Comparators, 5.92
and Waviness, 4.73
Composite Error, 4.53 Differential manometers, 5.19,
Computer-controlled probe 5.36
scanning method 4.59 Digital Micrometers, 2.51
Concentricity measurement, Direct Instrument method, 4.87
4.69
Direct calibration, 1.46
Constant chord method, 4.60
Direct Force Measurement, 5.1
Contact Probes, 3.61 Disc Thermistor, 5.123
Contact profilometer, 4.90 Dividers, 2.8
Contour Gauges, 2.119 Drift, 1.35
Conversion stage, 1.8 Drunken error, 4.38
Coordinate Measuring Machine Dynamic Error, 1.34
(CMM), 3.44 Dynamometers, 5.48
Correction, 1.34, 1.44 E
Counting of fringes, 3.25 Eddy Current Dynamometer,
Cradled Shaft Bearing Type, 5.50
5.48 Effective diameter error, 4.39
Crest, 4.19 Elastic Loaded Members, 5.15
CUP Type Current Meter, 5.73 Electrical Comparator, 5.104
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Index I.3
Electromagnetic Balance Flatness Measurement

Method, 5.8 Electro-mechanical Gauges,
Electromagnetic Flow Meters, 4.6
5.69 Flexibility, 3.60
End Standard, 1.17 Flow Nozzle, 5.68
Errors in Measurement, 1.38 Flow Measurement, 5.60
Errors In Micrometers, 2.37 Fluid Pressure Sensors, 5.18
Errors caused by defective Focal Length, 2.98
equipment, 1.40 Force Measurement, 5.1
Errors in screw thread, 4.37 Form factor, 4.83
Errors in Vernier Depth Form Tolerances, 1.57
Gauge., 2.27 Forms of Gears, 4.49
Exposed thermocouple, 5.111 Four Wire Configuration, 5.118
F Free Standing CMMs, 3.58
Face of tooth, 4.49 G
Face width, 4.49 Gantry Type CMMs, 3.55
Factors Affecting the surface Gauge Design, 2.123
finish, 4.76
Gauges, 2.107
Faltness Measurement by
Gear Blank Run-out Errors,
Interferometry, 4.6
4.51
Feature Control Symbol, 1.56
Gear (or) wheel, 4.46
Features of Bellows, 5.25 Gear tooth vernier caliper
Feeler Gauges, 2.123 method, 4.59
Fibre-optic Pyrometers, 5.132 Gear Tooth Errors, 4.51
Fidelity, 1.36 Gear tooth profile errors, 4.51
Fillet radius , 4.49 Gears Measurement, 4.40
Film Style Element , 5.115 Geometric Characteristics and
Flank angle error, 4.39 Symbols, 1.54
Geometric Tolerancing, 1.53
Flank, 4.19
Groove Micrometer, 2.48
Flank angle , 4.20
Grounded Thermocouples, 5.110
Flank of tooth, 4.49
H
Flatness Measurement, 4.4
Hard (or) Fixed Probes, 3.62
Flatness Measurement Using
Laser Measurement System, Helix angle, 4.20
4.6 Heterodyne Interferometry, 3.40
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Hole basis system, 1.52 Laser, 3.2

Horizontal Arm CMM, 3.56 Lay, 4.73
Hot Wire Anemometer, 5.70 Lead, 4.18
Hydraulic Dynamometer, 5.48 Lead checking, 4.67
Hydraulic Load Cell, 5.13 Lead Error, 4.53
Hysteresis, 1.34 Least Squares Reference Circle
I (LSCI), 4.103
Illegitimate errors, 1.39 Legal Metrology, 1.2, 2.3
Image sensor and digitizer, 3.88 Lenses (optics), 3.87

Inclined Single Column Light source (Illumination), 3.84
Manometer, 5.35 Limit Gauges, 2.108
Indirect Force Measurement, Limits and fits, 1.48
5.8 Line Standard, 1.16
Indirect calibration, 1.46 Linear Measurements, 2.4
Industrial Metrology, 2.2 Linearity, 1.36
Infrared Pyrometers, 5.133 Load Cells, 5.9
Inside Micrometer (Caliper), Loading Errors, 1.40
2.39
Lobing, 4.95
Inside Micrometer, 2.38
Location Tolerances, 1.58
Inside micrometer (Tubular),
2.39 M
Interchangeability, 2.129 Machine Vision System - Basic
Concept, 3.79
Interference, 3.15
Machine Vision, 3.78
Interferometry, 3.17
Magnetoelastic Load Cell, 5.10
Irregular error, 4.38
Magnetostrictive Type, 5.55
Irregularities of No specific
form , 4.96 Major diameter error, 4.39
Major diameter or Nominal
L
diameter d, 4.17
Lag, 1.36
Manipulation Stage, 1.9
Laser Inspection, 3.9
Manometers, 5.18
Laser equipment, 3.42
Manual CMMs, 3.51
Laser Interefometry, 3.19
Maximum Inscribed
Laser-Optic Method, 5.56 Circle (MICI), 4.104
Laser probes, 3.67 Measurement of thread form
Laser Alignment, 3.42 Angle, 4.36
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Index I.5
Measurement of Pressure, 5.18 Non-contact Probes, 3.66

Measurement of Surface Non-contact profilometer, 4.91
Finish, 4.84 NPL Flatness Interferometer,
Measurement display, 3.37 3.30
Measurement Over Pins Or O
Balls, 4.67 One wire method, 4.28
Measuring Type (or) Optical Method, 5.53
Displacement Probes, 3.64
Optical projection method, 4.56
Measuring flatness, 4.16
Optical Elements, 3.36
Mechanical Gauges, 5.19
Optical Pyrometer, 5.127
Mechanical Comparators, 5.92
Optical Bevel Protractor, 2.73
Mechanical bevel protractors,
Optical Probes, 3.66
2.71
Orientation Tolerances, 1.58
Mechanism of dial Indicator,
5.94 Orifice Meter, 5.61
Methods of Roundness Other types of Bourdon
Measurement, 4.96 gauges, 5.21
Metric threads, 4.23 Other Flow Measurements, 5.73
Micro Interferometer, 4.86 Output devices, 3.91
Micrometer (Screw Gauge), 2.28 Outside micrometer, 2.38

Microscopic Inspection, 4.86 Ovality, 4.95
Minimum Circumscribed Circle P

(MCCI), 4.103 Parallelism, 4.8
Minimum Zone Parameters of
Reference Circles (MZCI), Interchangeability, 2.129
4.104 Parkinson Gear Roller Tester,
Minor diameter error, 4.39 4.65
Minor diameter or core Peak to valley height method,
diameter or 4.80
root diameter dc, 4.18 Peak to valley height 4.80
Miscellaneous Gauges, 2.117 Pendulum Scale, 5.7
Module (m), 4.48 Percentage Error, 1.34
N Periodic error , 4.38
Need for CMMs, 3.44 Photo Diode Array Imaging,
Nomenclature of screw 3.12
threads, 4.17 Piezoelectric Sensors, 5.30
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Piezometer:, 5.32 Probes, 3.61

Pinion, 4.46 Profile Tolerances, 1.57
Pitch point, 4.47 Profile measurement, 4.56
Pitch diameter or Effective Profile, 4.49
diameter, 4.18 Profilometer, 4.89
Pitch measurement, 4.54 Progressive error , 4.38
Pitch Errors, 4.37, 4.52 Prony Brake Arrangement, 5.89
Pitch circle diameter, 4.46 Propeller (or) Screw type
Pitch p, 4.18 Current Meter, 5.73
Pitot Tube, 5.81 Proving Rings, 5.16
Plate Snap Gauges, 2.115 Proximity Sensor Method, 5.57
Platform Balance, 5.3 Pyrometers, 5.126
Platinum Sensing Resistors, R
5.115 R.M.S. Method (Rq), 4.82
Plug Gauge, 2.110 Random Errors, 1.41
Pneumatic Load Cell, 5.13 Random or Precision errors,
Pneumatic Comparator, 5.97 1.39
Portable CMMs, 3.58 Range, 1.25
Position Gauge, 2.118 Rating of temperature Sensors,
Power Measurement, 5.86 5.116
Precautions, 2.37 Readability, 1.25
Precision, 1.27 Receiver gauges, 2.120
Preprocessor, 3.89 Recent development in gear
metrology, 4.70
Pressductor, 5.10
Recording device, 4.89
Pressure angle (or) Angle of
obliquity, 4.47 Reference Spheres, 3.75
Pressure Measurement Reflected Light Intensity, 4.86
Methods, 5.19 Repeatability, 1.37
Primary texture (Roughness), Resistance Temperature
4.72 Detectors (RTD), 5.113
Primary Stage, 1.8 Resolution, 1.35
Primary calibration, 1.45 Response Time , 5.119
Primary Standard, 1.18 Response Time 5.119
Primary Element, 1.8 Rib type snap gauge, 2.114
Probe Thermistor, 5.124 Ring Gauge, 2.113
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Index I.7
Rod Thermistor, 5.124 SI System, 1.11

Rolling Gear Test, 4.63 Simple Manometers, 5.31
Root, 4.19 Simple U tube manometer, 5.32
Rope Brake Arrangement, 5.87 Simple manometers, 5.19
Rotameter (Variable-area Sine Table, 2.92
Meter), 5.78 Sine Bar, 2.84
Rotating on Centers, 4.98 Sine Centre, 2.93
Roughness Height (or) Height Single frequency DC
of unevenness, 4.73 Interferometer, 3.27
Roundness Measuring Single column Manometer, 5.34
Machines, 4.104 Skid (or) Shoe, 4.88
RTD Accuracy, 5.119 Slip Ring Type, 5.51
RTD Design Characteristics, Slip Gauges, 2.53
5.118
Slope of the thread, 4.19
Runout, 4.54
Snap Gauge, 2.114
Runout Error of Gear Teeth
Solex Air Gauge, 5.101
4.52
specific form 4.96
Runout error or gear teeth,
4.52 Specifications for External
Micrometers, 2.35
Runout Tolerances, 1.59
Speed of response, 1.36
S
Spirit Level, 2.77
Saw Method, 5.59
Spur Gear Measurement and
Scanning Laser Gauge, 3.10 checking, 4.54
Scientific Metrology, 2.2 Stability, 1.24, 5.119
Scratch Inspection, 4.85 Static Error, 1.33
Screw thread, 4.19 Steel Rule, 2.4
Secondary calibration, 1.46 Stick Micrometer, 2.42
Secondary stage, 1.8 Straightness Measurement, 4.1
Secondary Standard, 1.18 Straightness, 3.43
Secondary texture (Waviness), Strain Gauge Load Cell, 5.11
4.72
Strain Gauge Pressure
Self Heating, 5.119 Transducer, 5.29
Sensor Designs, 5.118 Strain Gauge Type, 5.51
Shaft basis system, 1.52 Strobescope Method, 5.58
Shear Type Load Cell, 5.14 Styli, 3.68
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Stylus (or) Probe, 4.89 Thermocouple

Stylus probe Instrument, 4.87 Specifications, 5.112
Stylus tools, 3.74 Thermocouple Junction, 5.110
Stylus Extension, 3.73 thermocouple 5.111
Stylus Adapters, 3.74 Thermometer, 5.112
Surface Finish Thickness Micrometer, 2.47
Measurement, 4.71 Thread Angle error, 4.39
Surface Texture, 4.71 Thread Measurement, 4.17
Surface photographs, 4.86 Thread per inch, 4.20
Surface Plate, 4.7 Thread micrometer, 4.32
Surface Inspection by Thread Micrometer
comparison method, 4.84 Caliper, 2.45
System of fit, 1.52 Thread angle, 4.21
Systematic Errors, 1.39 Three-wire Configuration, 5.117
T Three Point Probe
Tactile Sensors, 5.30 Method, 4.100
Taper Gauges, 2.121 Three wire method, 4.30
Taylor - Hobson Talysurf, 4.93 Three-wire Configuration, 5.117
Taylor’s Principle, 2.124 Threshold, 1.34
Temperature measuring Tolerance, 4.21
devices, 5.106 Tomlinson surface meter, 4.91
Temperature Scales, 5.106 Tool Makers Microscope, 2.63
Temperature Tooth displacement method 4.58
Measurement, 5.106
Tooth space 4.49
Temperature, 5.106
Tooth thickness
Temperature Measuring measurement, 4.59
Instruments, 5.107
Tooth to Tooth pitch
Ten point height method, 4.83 measurement, 4.54
Tertiary Standards, 1.18 Tooth space, 4.49
The Average roughness, 4.80 Tooth thickness, 4.49
The pitch circle, 4.46 Top land, 4.49
The Average Roughness 4.80 Torque Measurement, 5.47
Thermal Imaging, 5.135 Torque Reaction Methods, 5.48
Thermistor, 5.120 Torque Measurement Using
Thermocouple, 5.108 Torsion Bar, 5.52
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Index I.9
Total Radiation Venturimeter, 5.75

Pyrometer, 5.131 Vernier Caliper, 2.9
Touch trigger type Probes, 3.62 Vernier Depth Gauge, 2.25
Touch Inspection, 4.85 Vernier Micrometer, 2.49
Traceability, 1.19 Vernier Height Gauge, 2.19
Transmission Vertical single column
dynamometers, 5.87 Manometer, 5.34
Trueness, 1.36 Vision probes, 3.67
Two wire method, 4.29 Vision Processor/Controller, 3.90
Two-Dial Gauge Method (or) Visual Inspection, 4.85
Direct angular
measurement, 4.55
W
Wallace surface
Two-Wire Configuration , 5.117
Dynamometer, 4.87
Twyman-Green
Washer Thermistor, 5.123
Interferometer, 3.23
Wavelength standard, 1.17
Types of Thermistors, 5.121
Waviness Height, 4.73
Types of Micrometer, 2.38
Whitworth (BSW) threads, 4.22
Types of Dynamometers, 5.86
Whole depth (or) Total
Types Of CMM, 3.51
depth, 4.47
Types of Pyrometer, 5.127
Wiring Configuration
Types of (RTD), 5.117
Interchangeability, 2.130
Working Standards, 1.18
Types of Metrology, 1.2
U
Ultrasonic Flow Meter, 5.72
Uncertainty, 1.36
Unequal Arm Balance
Method, 5.5
Ungrounded
Thermocouple, 5.111
Units and Standards, 1.10
Universal Bevel Protractor, 2.74
V
V-block Method, 4.98
V-Anvil Micrometer, 2.46
Vee block, 2.76
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Engineering

(As per Anna University New Syllabus)

Dr. A.Anderson, YVS. Karthik,

AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

© All Rights Reserved by the Publisher

This book or part thereof should not be reproduced in

Books will be door delivered after payment into AIR WALK

S.Ramachandran, A/c.No.482894441 (IFSC:IDIB000S201), Indian Bank,

1.1 Introduction ................................................................ 1.1

1.7.10 Classification of Standards ........................ 1.17

Threshold ............................................................. 1.34

(ii) Indirect calibration ...................................... 1.46

LINEAR AND ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

2.2 Elements of Measurement .......................................... 2.3

2.3.5.5 Master dial indicator vernier caliper. 2.25

(v) Groove Micrometer....................................... 2.48

(ii) Optical Bevel Protractor............................. 2.73

(ii) Objective aperture size ............................... 2.98

2.6.5.2 Points to be remembered for

3.4 Interferometry ............................................................. 3.17

(c) Machine Controller and Computer............ 3.48

3.10.8 Laser probes................................................. 3.67

(b) Light source (Illumination)......................... 3.84

(c) Lenses (optics) .............................................. 3.87

(d) Image sensor and digitizer ........................ 3.88

(e) Preprocessor .................................................. 3.89

(f) Vision Processor/Controller.......................... 3.90

(g) Communication Links.................................. 3.90

(h) Output devices ............................................. 3.91

3.13.5 Specifications of a vision system:

1. Major diameter or Nominal diameter (d) . 4.17

(ii) Two wire method......................................... 4.29

(ii) Bevel gears for Intersecting shaft .......... 4.43

Diametral pitch (pd): ......................................... 4.48

4.5.5 Forms of Gears.............................................. 4.49

(a) Single contact method (single flank

1. Touch Inspection............................................ 4.85

4.7.3 Methods of Roundness Measurement......... 4.96

MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND

5.3 Indirect Force Measurement ....................................... 5.8

Working .............................................................. 5.23

5.10.2 Dynamometers ............................................. 5.48

(a) Flow (or) velocity type pneumatic

5.16.4.2 Film Style Element .............................. 5.115

2. Total Radiation Pyrometer ........................ 5.131

ISO – The International organization for

(iii) Result - The quantitative comparisons made

M easurand C om parator R esult

1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENT

various products, devices or processes and also for

For any control process, the basic element is

The proper performance of any system is ensured

Hence measurement is the basis for all engineering

1.3 NEED FOR MEASUREMENT (INSPECTION)

So, whenever there was a unfit during assembly,

So when a large number of the same parts are

 To ensure the interchangeability of parts, i.e any

Due to inspection, the quality of the products get

1.4 MEANS OF MEASUREMENT

(iii) Measuring Instruments: The values of a

1.5 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

(a) Direct method: Here the value of the quantity

Example: measurement of length by means of