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Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems, © 2010, 2007 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12 11 10 09 08
Introduction to Physiology
and Homeostasis
CHAPTER
1
CONTENTS AT A GLANCE
Introduction to Physiology
Definition of physiology
Introduction to Physiology
Relationship between structure and function The activities described on the preceding page are a sampling of
Levels of Organization in the Body the processes that occur in our bodies all the time just to keep
Cells as the basic units of life us alive. We usually take these life-sustaining activities for
Organizational levels of tissues, organs, systems, and granted and do not really think about “what makes us tick,” but
organism that’s what physiology is about. Physiology is the study of the
Concept of Homeostasis functions of living things. Specifically, we will focus on how the
Significance of the internal environment
human body works.
Necessity of homeostasis
Factors that are homeostatically maintained
Physiology focuses on mechanisms of action.
Contributions of each body system to homeostasis There are two approaches to explaining events that occur in the
body: one emphasizing the purpose of a body process and the
Homeostatic Control Systems
other the underlying mechanism by which this process occurs. In
Components of a homeostatic control system
response to the question “Why do I shiver when I am cold?” one
Negative and positive feedback; feedforward
answer would be “to help warm up, because shivering generates
mechanisms
heat.” This approach, which explains body functions in terms of
meeting a bodily need, emphasizes “why” body processes occur.
Physiologists, however, explain “how” processes occur in the
body. They view the body as a machine whose mechanisms of
action can be explained in terms of cause-and-effect sequences of
physical and chemical processes—the same types of processes
that occur throughout the universe. A physiologist’s explanation
of shivering is that when temperature-sensitive nerve cells detect
a fall in body temperature, they signal the area in the brain re-
sponsible for temperature regulation. In response, this brain area
activates nerve pathways that ultimately bring about involuntary,
oscillating muscle contractions (that is, shivering).
1
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permit bending of the arm. In other situations, the interdepen- An extremely thin, oily barrier, the plasma membrane, en-
dence of form and function is more subtle but equally impor- closes the contents of each cell and controls the movement of
tant. Consider the interface between air and blood in the lungs materials into and out of the cell. Thus, the cell’s interior con-
as an example: The respiratory airways, which carry air from tains a combination of atoms and molecules that differs from
the outside into the lungs, branch extensively when they reach the mixture of chemicals in the environment surrounding the
the lungs. Tiny air sacs cluster at the ends of the huge number cell. Given the importance of the plasma membrane and its as-
of airway branches. The branching is so extensive that the lungs sociated functions for carrying out life processes, Chapter 3 is
contain about 300 million air sacs. Similarly, the vessels carry- devoted entirely to this structure.
ing blood into the lungs branch extensively and form dense Organisms are independent living entities. The simplest
networks of small vessels that encircle each air sac (see ● Figure forms of independent life are single-celled organisms such as
13-2, p. 463). Because of this structural relationship, the total bacteria and amoebas. Complex multicellular organisms, such
surface area forming an interface between the air in the air sacs as trees and humans, are structural and functional aggregates of
and the blood in the small vessels is about the size of a tennis trillions of cells (multi means “many”). In the simpler multicel-
court. This tremendous interface is crucial for the lungs’ ability lular forms of life—for example, a sponge—the cells of the or-
to efficiently carry out their function: the transfer of needed ganism are all similar. However, more complex organisms, such
oxygen from the air into the blood and the unloading of the as humans, have many different kinds of cells, such as muscle
waste product carbon dioxide from the blood into the air. The cells, nerve cells, and gland cells.
greater the surface area available for these exchanges, the faster Each human organism begins when an egg and sperm unite
oxygen and carbon dioxide can move between the air and the to form a single new cell, which multiplies and forms a growing
blood. This large functional interface packaged within the con- mass through myriad cell divisions. If cell multiplication were
fines of your lungs is possible only because both the air- the only process involved in development, all the body cells
containing and blood-containing components of the lungs would be essentially identical, as in the simplest multicellular
branch extensively. life-forms. However, during development of complex multicel-
lular organisms such as humans, each cell also differentiates, or
becomes specialized to carry out a particular function. As a
Levels of Organization result of cell differentiation, your body is made up of about 200
different specialized types of cells.
in the Body
We now turn our attention to how the body is structurally or- BASIC CELL FUNCTIONS All cells, whether they exist as solitary
ganized into a total functional unit, from the chemical level to cells or as part of a multicellular organism, perform certain
the whole body (● Figure 1-1). These levels of organization basic functions essential for their own survival. These basic cell
make possible life as we know it. functions include the following:
1. Obtaining food (nutrients) and oxygen (O2) from the envi-
The chemical level: Various atoms ronment surrounding the cell.
and molecules make up the body. 2. Performing chemical reactions that use nutrients and O2 to
provide energy for the cells, as follows:
Like all matter, both living and nonliving, the human body is a
combination of specific atoms, which are the smallest building Food O2 n CO2 H2O energy
blocks of matter. The most common atoms in the body—
3. Eliminating to the cell’s surrounding environment carbon
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen—make up approxi-
dioxide (CO2) and other by-products, or wastes, produced dur-
mately 96% of the total body chemistry. These common atoms
ing these chemical reactions.
and a few others combine to form the molecules of life, such as
proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic acids (genetic mate- 4. Synthesizing proteins and other components needed for
rial, such as deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA). These important cell structure, for growth, and for carrying out particular cell
atoms and molecules are the inanimate raw ingredients from functions.
which all living things arise. (See Appendix B for a review of 5. Controlling to a large extent the exchange of materials be-
this chemical level.) tween the cell and its surrounding environment.
6. Moving materials internally from one part of the cell to
The cellular level: Cells are another, with some cells also being able to move themselves
the basic units of life. through their surrounding environment.
The mere presence of a particular collection of atoms and mol- 7. Being sensitive and responsive to changes in the surround-
ecules does not confer the unique characteristics of life. Instead, ing environment.
these nonliving chemical components must be arranged and 8. In the case of most cells, reproducing. Some body cells, most
packaged in very precise ways to form a living entity. The cell, notably nerve cells and muscle cells, lose the ability to reproduce
the fundamental unit of both structure and function in a living soon after they are formed. This is the reason why strokes, which
being, is the smallest unit capable of carrying out the processes result in lost nerve cells in the brain, and heart attacks, which
associated with life. Cell physiology is the focus of Chapter 2. bring about death of heart muscle cells, can be so devastating.
2 Chapter 1
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● FIGURE 1-1 Levels of organization in the body, showing an example for each level.
Cells are remarkably similar in the ways they carry out these ba- stances in the urine because of their highly specialized ability
sic functions. Thus, all cells share many common characteristics. to control exchange of materials between the cell and its
environment.
SPECIALIZED CELL FUNCTIONS In multicellular organisms, each ■ Muscle contraction, which involves selective movement of
cell also performs a specialized function, which is usually a internal structures to generate tension in the muscle cells, is an
modification or elaboration of a basic cell function. Here are a elaboration of the inherent ability of these cells to produce in-
few examples: tracellular movement (intra means “within”).
■ By taking special advantage of their protein-synthesizing ■ Capitalizing on the basic ability of cells to respond to
ability, the gland cells of the digestive system secrete digestive changes in their surrounding environment, nerve cells generate
enzymes that break down ingested food; enzymes are specialized and transmit to other regions of the body electrical impulses that
proteins that speed up particular chemical reactions in the body. relay information about changes to which the nerve cells are
■ Certain kidney cells are able to selectively retain the sub- responsive. For example, nerve cells in the ear can relay informa-
stances needed by the body while eliminating unwanted sub- tion to the brain about sounds in the body’s surroundings.
4 Chapter 1
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example, the pancreas secretes insulin into the blood, which Surface epithelium
transports this hormone to its sites of action throughout the
body. Most cell types depend on insulin for taking up glucose
(sugar).
■ Connective tissue is distinguished by having relatively few
cells dispersed within an abundance of extracellular material. Pocket of epithelial
As its name implies, connective tissue connects, supports, and cells
anchors various body parts. It includes such diverse structures
as the loose connective tissue that attaches epithelial tissue to
underlying structures; tendons, which attach skeletal muscles
to bones; bone, which gives the body shape, support, and pro-
tection; and blood, which transports materials from one part of (a) Invagination of surface epithelium during
gland formation
the body to another. Except for blood, the cells within connec-
tive tissue produce specific structural molecules that they re-
lease into the extracellular spaces between the cells. One such Surface epithelium
molecule is the rubber band–like protein fiber elastin; its pres-
ence facilitates the stretching and recoiling of structures such Duct cell
as the lungs, which alternately inflate and deflate during
breathing.
Muscle, nervous, epithelial, and connective tissue are the pri-
mary tissues in a classical sense; that is, each is an integrated
collection of cells with the same specialized structure and func- Secretory exocrine
gland cell
tion. The term tissue is also often used, as in clinical medicine,
to mean the aggregate of various cellular and extracellular com-
ponents that make up a particular organ (for example, lung
(b) Exocrine gland
tissue or liver tissue).
Surface epithelium
The organ level: An organ is a unit Connecting cells
made up of several tissue types. lost during development
Secretory endocrine
Organs consist of two or more types of primary tissue orga- gland cell
nized together to perform a particular function or functions.
The stomach is an example of an organ made up of all four pri-
Blood vessel
mary tissue types (see ● Figure 1-2). The tissues of the stomach
function collectively to store ingested food, move it forward
into the rest of the digestive tract, and begin the digestion of (c) Endocrine gland
protein. The stomach is lined with epithelial tissue that restricts ● FIGURE 1-3 Exocrine and endocrine gland formation dur-
the transfer of harsh digestive chemicals and undigested food ing development. (a) Glands arise from the formation of pocket-
from the stomach lumen into the blood. Epithelial gland cells in like invaginations of surface epithelial cells. (b) If the cells at the
the stomach include exocrine cells, which secrete protein- deepest part of the invagination become secretory and release their
digesting juices into the lumen, and endocrine cells, which se- product through the connecting duct to the surface, an exocrine
crete a hormone that helps regulate the stomach’s exocrine se- gland is formed. (c) If the connecting cells are lost and the deepest
cretion and muscle contraction. The wall of the stomach secretory cells release their product into the blood, an endocrine
contains smooth muscle tissue, whose contractions mix in- gland is formed.
gested food with the digestive juices and push the mixture out
of the stomach and into the intestine. The stomach wall also
contains nervous tissue, which, along with hormones, controls
muscle contraction and gland secretion. Connective tissue digestive system consists of the mouth, salivary glands, phar-
binds together all these various tissues. ynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, gallbladder,
small intestine, and large intestine. These digestive organs
cooperate to break food down into small nutrient molecules
The body system level: A body system that can be absorbed into the blood for distribution to all
is a collection of related organs. cells.
Groups of organs are further organized into body systems. The human body has 11 systems: circulatory, digestive, res-
Each system is a collection of organs that perform related piratory, urinary, skeletal, muscular, integumentary, immune,
functions and interact to accomplish a common activity that nervous, endocrine, and reproductive (● Figure 1-4). Chapters
is essential for survival of the whole body. For example, the 4 through 20 cover the details of these systems.
Circulatory system Digestive system Respiratory system Urinary system Skeletal system Muscular system
heart, blood vessels, mouth, pharynx, nose, pharynx, larynx, kidneys, ureters, bones, cartilage, skeletal muscles
blood esophagus, stomach, trachea, bronchi, lungs urinary bladder, joints
small intestine, large urethra
intestine, salivary
glands, exocrine
pancreas, liver,
gallbladder
The organism level: The body high-interest, tangential information on such diverse topics as
systems are packaged together environmental impact on the body, aging, ethical issues, new
discoveries regarding common diseases, historical perspec-
into a functional whole body.
tives, and so on.)
Each body system depends on the proper functioning of other We next focus on how the different body systems normally
systems to carry out its specific responsibilities. The whole body work together to maintain the internal conditions necessary
of a multicellular organism—a single, independently living for life.
individual—consists of the various body systems structurally
and functionally linked as an entity that is separate from its sur-
rounding environment. Thus, the body is made up of living cells Concept of Homeostasis
organized into life-sustaining systems.
The different body systems do not act in isolation from one If each cell has basic survival skills, why can’t the body’s cells
another. Many complex body processes depend on the interplay live without performing specialized tasks and being organized
among multiple systems. For example, regulation of blood pres- according to specialization into systems that accomplish func-
sure depends on coordinated responses among the circulatory, tions essential for the whole organism’s survival? The cells in a
urinary, nervous, and endocrine systems. Even though physi- multicellular organism cannot live and function without contri-
ologists may examine body functions at any level from cells to butions from the other body cells because the vast majority of
systems (as indicated in the title of this book), their ultimate cells are not in direct contact with the external environment.
goal is to integrate these mechanisms into the big picture of The external environment is the surrounding environment in
how the entire organism works as a cohesive whole. which an organism lives. A single-celled organism such as an
Currently, researchers are hotly pursuing several ap- amoeba obtains nutrients and O2 directly from its immediate
proaches to repairing or replacing tissues or organs that can no external surroundings and eliminates wastes back into those
longer adequately perform vital functions because of disease, surroundings. A muscle cell or any other cell in a multicellular
trauma, or age-related changes. (See the boxed feature on pp. 8 organism has the same need for life-supporting nutrient and O2
and 9, ■ Concepts, Challenges, and Controversies. Each chap- uptake and waste elimination, yet the muscle cell is isolated
ter has similar boxed features that explore in greater depth from the external environment surrounding the body. How can
6 Chapter 1
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Integumentary system Immune system Nervous system Endocrine system Reproductive system
skin, hair, nails lymph nodes, thymus, brain, spinal cord, all hormone-secreting Male: testes, penis, prostate
bone marrow, tonsils, peripheral nerves, tissues, including gland, seminal vesicles,
adenoids, spleen, and, not shown, hypothalamus, pituitary, bulbourethral glands, and
appendix, and, special sense organs thyroid, adrenals, endocrine associated ducts
not shown, white pancreas, gonads, kidneys,
blood cells, pineal, thymus, and, Female: ovaries, oviducts,
gut-associated not shown, parathyroids, uterus, vagina, breasts
lymphoid tissue, and intestine, heart, skin, and
skin-associated adipose tissue
lymphoid tissue
Extracellular fluid
it make vital exchanges with the external environment with Cell Interstitial fluid Plasma
which it has no contact? The key is the presence of a watery
internal environment. The internal environment is the fluid
that surrounds the cells and through which they make life-
sustaining exchanges.
Blood
vessel
8 Chapter 1
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■ Lab-grown bladders are the first organs guidelines in August 2001 permitting the new cell lines without destroying embryos.
successfully implanted in humans. use of government funds for studies using Following are among the recent break-
■ Replacement blood vessels are almost a dwindling pool of established lines of hu- throughs:
ready for clinical trials. man ESCs but not for deriving new cell
■ Heart-muscle patches are being devel- lines. Increasingly, where a candidate ■ Turning back the clock on adult mouse
oped for repairing damaged hearts. stands on ESC science is becoming a hot skin cells, converting them to their em-
■ Progress has been made on building ar- campaign issue. Federal support for ESC re- bryonic state, by inserting four key regu-
tificial heart valves and teeth. search will be forthcoming under the lead- latory genes active only in early em-
■ Tissue-engineered scaffolding to pro- ership of President Barack Obama. bryos. These reprogrammed cells, called
mote nerve regeneration is being tested In the meantime, some states, with induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs),
in animals. California leading the way, have passed leg- have the potential to differentiate into
■ Progress has been made on growing islation to provide taxpayer funds to sup- any cell type in the body. By using iPSCs
two complicated organs, the liver and port ESC research, with the hope of bring- from a person’s own body, scientists
the pancreas. ing sizable profits into these states as could manipulate these patient-specific,
■ Engineered joints will be used as a liv- scientists discover new ways of treating a genetically matched cells for treating
ing, more satisfactory alternative to the variety of diseases. the individual, thus avoiding the issue of
plastic and metal devices used as re- transplant rejection. Currently one big
placements today. The Search for Noncontroversial Stem Cells problem precluding the use of iPSCs is
■ Ultimately, complex body parts such as In a different approach, some researchers that the viruses used to insert the genes
arms and hands will be produced in the have been searching for alternative ways to can cause cancer. Researchers are now
laboratory for attachment as needed. obtain stem cells. Some are exploring the looking for safer ways to shunt adult
possibility of using tissue-specific stem cells cells back to their embryonic state.
Tissue engineering thus holds the promise
from adult tissues as a substitute for plurip- ■ Harvesting ESCs from “virgin” embryos.
that damaged body parts can be replaced
otent ESCs. Until recently, most investiga- These are embryo-like structures formed
with the best alternative, a laboratory-
tors believed these adult stem cells could when an egg is prodded to divide on its
grown version of “the real thing.”
give rise only to the specialized cells of a own without having been fertilized by
Ethical Concerns and Political Issues particular tissue. However, although these sperm. These virgin embryos are not
partially differentiated adult stem cells do considered potential human lives be-
Despite this potential, ESC research is
not have the complete developmental po- cause they never develop beyond a few
fraught with controversy because of the
tential of ESCs, they have been coaxed into days, but they can yield ESCs.
source of these cells: They are isolated from
producing a wider variety of cells than origi- ■ Obtaining ESCs from “dead” embryos,
discarded embryos from abortion clinics and
nally thought possible. To name a few ex- embryos that have stopped dividing on
in-vitro fertility (“test-tube baby”) clinics.
amples, provided the right supportive envi- their own in fertility labs. These embryos
Opponents of using ESCs are morally and
ronment, stem cells from the brain have are normally discarded because their
ethically concerned because embryos are
given rise to blood cells, bone-marrow stem further development is arrested.
destroyed in the process of harvesting these
cells to liver and nerve cells, and fat-tissue ■ Taking one cell from an eight-cell hu-
cells. Proponents argue that these embryos
stem cells to bone, cartilage, and muscle man embryo, a procedure that does not
were destined to be destroyed anyway—a
cells. Thus, researchers may be able to tap harm the embryo and is routinely done
decision already made by the parents of the
into the more limited but still versatile de- in fertility labs to check for genetic ab-
embryos—and that these stem cells have
velopmental potential of adult tissue-specific normalities. Now scientists are using the
great potential for alleviating human suffer-
stem cells. Although ESCs hold greater po- plucked cells to generate more ESCs.
ing. Thus, ESC science has become inextri-
tential for developing treatments for a ■ Nuclear transfer, in which DNA is re-
cably linked with stem-cell politics.
broader range of diseases, adult stem cells moved from the nucleus of a collected
Federal policy currently prohibits use of
are more accessible than ESCs, and their egg and replaced with the DNA from a
public funding to support research involv-
use is not controversial. For example, re- patient’s body cell. By coaxing the egg
ing human embryos, so the scientists who
searchers dream of being able to take fat into dividing, researchers can produce
isolated existing cultured ESCs relied on
stem cells from a person and transform ESCs that genetically match the patient.
private money. Public policy makers, scien-
tists, and bioethicists now face balancing a them into a needed replacement knee joint. Whatever the source of the cells, stem-cell
host of ethical issues against the tremen- However, interest in these cells is dwindling research promises to revolutionize medi-
dous potential clinical application of ESC because they have failed to live up to ex- cine. According to the Center for Disease
research. Such research will proceed at a pectations in recent scientific studies. Control’s National Center for Health Statis-
much faster pace if federal money is avail- Political setbacks have inspired still tics, an estimated 3000 Americans die ev-
able to support it. In a controversial deci- other scientists to search for new ways to ery day from conditions that may in the fu-
sion, President George W. Bush issued obtain the more versatile ESCs for culturing ture be treatable with stem cell derivatives.
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term compensatory responses and long-term adaptations 6. Volume and pressure. The circulating component of the in-
among the different body systems. (See the accompanying ternal environment, the plasma, must be maintained at ade-
boxed feature ■ A Closer Look at Exercise Physiology. Most quate volume and blood pressure to ensure bodywide distribu-
chapters have a boxed feature focusing on exercise physiology. tion of this important link between the external environment
Also, we will be mentioning issues related to exercise physiol- and the cells.
ogy throughout the text. Appendix E will help you locate all the 7. Temperature. Body cells function best within a narrow tem-
references to this important topic.) perature range. If cells are too cold, their functions slow down
too much; if they get too hot, their structural and enzymatic
FACTORS HOMEOSTATICALLY REGULATED Many factors of the proteins are impaired or destroyed.
internal environment must be homeostatically maintained.
They include the following: CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE BODY SYSTEMS TO HOMEOSTASIS The
1. Concentration of nutrients. Cells need a constant supply of 11 body systems contribute to homeostasis in the following
nutrient molecules for energy production. Energy, in turn, is important ways (● Figure 1-7):
needed to support life-sustaining and specialized cell activities. 1. The circulatory system (heart, blood vessels, and blood)
2. Concentration of O2 and CO2. Cells need O2 to carry out transports materials such as nutrients, O2, CO2, wastes, electro-
energy-yielding chemical reactions. The CO2 produced during lytes, and hormones from one part of the body to another.
these reactions must be removed so that acid-forming CO2 does 2. The digestive system (mouth, esophagus, stomach, intes-
not increase the acidity of the internal environment. tines, and related organs) breaks down dietary food into small
3. Concentration of waste products. Some chemical reactions nutrient molecules that can be absorbed into the plasma for
produce end products that have a toxic effect on the body’s cells distribution to the body cells. It also transfers water and electro-
if these wastes are allowed to accumulate. lytes from the external environment into the internal environ-
ment. It eliminates undigested food residues to the external
4. pH. Changes in the pH (relative amount of acid; see p. A-10
environment in the feces.
and p. 570) of the ECF adversely affect nerve cell function and
wreak havoc with the enzyme activity of all cells. 3. The respiratory system (lungs and major airways) gets O2
from and eliminates CO2 to the external environment. By ad-
5. Concentration of water, salt, and other electrolytes. Because
justing the rate of removal of acid-forming CO2, the respiratory
the relative concentrations of salt (NaCl) and water in the ECF
system is also important in maintaining the proper pH of the
influence how much water enters or leaves the cells, these con-
internal environment.
centrations are carefully regulated to maintain the proper vol-
ume of the cells. Cells do not function normally when they are 4. The urinary system (kidneys and associated “plumbing”)
swollen or shrunken. Other electrolytes (chemicals that form removes excess water, salt, acid, and other electrolytes from the
ions in solution and conduct electricity; see p. A-5 and A-9) plasma and eliminates them in the urine, along with waste
perform a variety of vital functions. For example, the rhythmic products other than CO2.
beating of the heart depends on a relatively constant concentra- 5. The skeletal system (bones, joints) provides support and
tion of potassium (K) in the ECF. protection for the soft tissues and organs. It also serves as a stor-
BODY SYSTEMS
Made up of cells organized according to specialization to maintain homeostasis
See Chapter 1.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Acts through electrical signals to control rapid
responses of the body; also responsible for
higher functions__e.g., consciousness, memory, Regulate
Information from the
and creativity
external environment
See Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7.
relayed through the
nervous system
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
O2 Obtains O2 from and eliminates CO2 to the external
environment; helps regulate pH by adjusting the
CO2 rate of removal of acid-forming CO2
See Chapters 13 and 15.
URINARY SYSTEM
Urine containing Important in regulating the volume, electrolyte
wastes and excess composition, and pH of the internal environment;
water and removes wastes and excess water, salt, acid,
electrolytes and other electrolytes from the plasma and
eliminates them in the urine
See Chapters 14 and 15.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Nutrients, water, Obtains nutrients, water, and electrolytes from
electrolytes the external environment and transfers them into
Feces containing the plasma; eliminates undigested food residues
undigested food to the external environment
residue See Chapter 16.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Sperm leave male Not essential for homeostasis, but essential for
Sperm enter female perpetuation of the species
See Chapter 20.
Exchanges with
all other systems
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Transports nutrients, O2, CO2, wastes, electrolytes, and hormones throughout the body
EXTERNAL
See Chapters 9, 10, and 11.
ENVIRONMENT
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Cells make up
body systems
age reservoir for calcium (Ca2), an electrolyte whose plasma each chapter ends with a brief review of the homeostatic contri-
concentration must be maintained within very narrow limits. butions of the body system. As a further tool to help you keep
Together with the muscular system, the skeletal system also track of how all the pieces fit together, ● Figure 1-7 is duplicated
enables movement of the body and its parts. Furthermore, the on the inside front cover as a handy reference.
bone marrow—the soft interior portion of some types of bone— Also be aware that the functioning whole is greater than the
is the ultimate source of all blood cells. sum of its separate parts. Through specialization, cooperation,
6. The muscular system (skeletal muscles) moves the bones to and interdependence, cells combine to form an integrated,
which the skeletal muscles are attached. From a purely homeo- unique, single living organism with more diverse and complex
static view, this system enables an individual to move toward capabilities than are possessed by any of the cells that make it
food or away from harm. Furthermore, the heat generated by up. For humans, these capabilities go far beyond the processes
muscle contraction is important in temperature regulation. In needed to maintain life. A cell, or even a random combination
addition, because skeletal muscles are under voluntary control, of cells, obviously cannot create an artistic masterpiece or de-
a person can use them to accomplish myriad other movements sign a spacecraft, but body cells working together permit those
of his or her own choice. These movements, which range from capabilities in an individual.
the fine motor skills required for delicate needlework to the Now that you have learned what homeostasis is and how the
powerful movements involved in weight lifting, are not neces- functions of different body systems maintain it, let’s look at the
sarily directed toward maintaining homeostasis. regulatory mechanisms by which the body reacts to changes
and controls the internal environment.
7. The integumentary system (skin and related structures)
serves as an outer protective barrier that prevents internal fluid
from being lost from the body and foreign microorganisms Homeostatic Control Systems
from entering. This system is also important in regulating body
temperature. The amount of heat lost from the body surface to A homeostatic control system is a functionally interconnected
the external environment can be adjusted by controlling sweat network of body components that operate to maintain a given
production and by regulating the flow of warm blood through factor in the internal environment relatively constant around an
the skin. optimal level. To maintain homeostasis, the control system
8. The immune system (white blood cells, lymphoid organs) must be able to (1) detect deviations from normal in the inter-
defends against foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses nal environmental factor that needs to be held within narrow
and against body cells that have become cancerous. It also paves limits; (2) integrate this information with any other relevant
the way for repairing or replacing injured or worn-out cells. information; and (3) make appropriate adjustments in the ac-
tivity of the body parts responsible for restoring this factor to its
9. The nervous system (brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense desired value.
organs) is one of the body’s two major regulatory systems. In
general, it controls and coordinates bodily activities that require
swift responses. It is especially important in detecting changes
Homeostatic control systems may operate
in the external environment and initiating reactions to them. locally or bodywide.
Furthermore, it is responsible for higher functions that are not Homeostatic control systems can be grouped into two classes—
entirely directed toward maintaining homeostasis, such as con- intrinsic and extrinsic controls. Intrinsic, or local, controls are
sciousness, memory, and creativity. built into or are inherent in an organ (intrinsic means “within”).
10. The endocrine system (all hormone-secreting glands) is the For example, as an exercising skeletal muscle rapidly uses up O2
other major regulatory system. In contrast to the nervous sys- to generate energy to support its contractile activity, the O2
tem, the endocrine system in general regulates activities that concentration within the muscle falls. This local chemical
require duration rather than speed, such as growth. It is espe- change acts directly on the smooth muscle in the walls of the
cially important in controlling the concentration of nutrients blood vessels that supply the exercising muscle, causing the
and, by adjusting kidney function, controlling the volume and smooth muscle to relax so that the vessels dilate, or open widely.
electrolyte composition of the ECF. As a result, increased blood flows through the dilated vessels
into the exercising muscle, bringing in more O2. This local
11. The reproductive system (male and female gonads and re-
mechanism helps maintain an optimal level of O2 in the fluid
lated organs) is not essential for homeostasis and therefore is
immediately around the exercising muscle’s cells.
not essential for survival of the individual. It is essential, how-
Most factors in the internal environment are maintained,
ever, for perpetuating the species.
however, by extrinsic, or systemic, controls, which are regula-
As we examine each of these systems in greater detail, always tory mechanisms initiated outside an organ to alter the organ’s
keep in mind that the body is a coordinated whole even though activity (extrinsic means “outside of ”). Extrinsic control of the
each system provides its own special contributions. It is easy to organs and body systems is accomplished by the nervous and
forget that all the body parts actually fit together into a func- endocrine systems, the two major regulatory systems. Extrinsic
tioning, interdependent whole body. Accordingly, each chapter control permits coordinated regulation of several organs to-
begins with a figure and discussion that focus on how the body ward a common goal; in contrast, intrinsic controls serve only
system to be described fits into the body as a whole. In addition, the organ in which they occur. Coordinated, overall regulatory
14 Chapter 1
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mechanisms are crucial for maintaining the dynamic steady reaches the set point, the thermometer no longer detects a de-
state in the internal environment as a whole. To restore blood viation from that point. As a result, the activating mechanism in
pressure to the proper level when it falls too low, for example, the thermostat and the furnace are switched off. Thus, the heat
the nervous system acts simultaneously on the heart and blood from the furnace counteracts, or is “negative” to, the original
vessels throughout the body to increase the blood pressure to fall in temperature. If the heat-generating pathway were not
normal. shut off once the target temperature was reached, heat produc-
To stabilize the physiological factor being regulated, ho- tion would continue and the room would get hotter and hotter.
meostatic control systems must be able to detect and resist Overshooting the set point does not occur, because the heat
change. The term feedback refers to responses made after a “feeds back” to shut off the thermostat that triggered its output.
change has been detected; the term feedforward is used for Thus, a negative-feedback control system detects a change away
responses made in anticipation of a change. Let us look at these from the ideal value in a controlled variable, initiates mecha-
mechanisms in more detail. nisms to correct the situation, then shuts itself off. In this way,
the controlled variable does not drift too far above or below the
set point.
Negative feedback opposes an initial change What if the original deviation is a rise in room temperature
and is widely used to maintain homeostasis. above the set point because it is hot outside? A heat-producing
Homeostatic control mechanisms operate primarily on the furnace is of no use in returning the room temperature to the
principle of negative feedback. In negative feedback, a change desired level. An opposing control system involving a cooling air
in a homeostatically controlled factor triggers a response that conditioner is needed to reduce the room temperature. In this
seeks to restore the factor to normal by moving the factor in the case, the thermostat, through connecting circuitry, activates the
opposite direction of its initial change. That is, a corrective ad- air conditioner, which cools the room air, the opposite effect
justment opposes the original deviation from the normal de- from that of the furnace. In negative-feedback fashion, once the
sired level. set point is reached, the air conditioner is turned off to prevent
A common example of negative feedback is control of room the room from becoming too cold. Note that if the controlled
temperature. Room temperature is a controlled variable, a fac- variable can be deliberately adjusted to oppose a change in one
tor that can vary but is held within a narrow range by a control direction only, the variable can move in uncontrolled fashion in
system. In our example, the control system includes a thermo- the opposite direction. For example, if the house is equipped
stat, a furnace, and all their electrical connections. The room only with a furnace that produces heat to oppose a fall in room
temperature is determined by the activity of the furnace, a heat temperature, no mechanism is available to prevent the house
source that can be turned on or off. To switch on or off appro- from getting too hot in warm weather. However, the room tem-
priately, the control system as a whole must “know” what the perature can be kept relatively constant through two opposing
actual room temperature is, “compare” it with the desired room mechanisms, one that heats and one that cools the room, despite
temperature, and “adjust” the output of the furnace to bring the wide variations in the temperature of the external environment.
actual temperature to the desired level. A thermometer in the Homeostatic negative-feedback systems in the human body
thermostat provides information about the actual room tem- operate in the same way. For example, when temperature-
perature. The thermometer is the sensor, which monitors the monitoring nerve cells detect a decrease in body temperature
magnitude of the controlled variable. The sensor typically con- below the desired level, these sensors signal the temperature
verts the original information regarding a change into a “lan- control center in the brain, which begins a sequence of events
guage” the control system can “understand.” For example, the that ends in responses, such as shivering, that generate heat and
thermometer converts the magnitude of the air temperature raise the temperature to the proper level (● Figure 1-8c). When
into electrical impulses. This message serves as the input into the body temperature reaches the set point, the temperature-
the control system. The thermostat setting provides the desired monitoring nerve cells turn off the stimulatory signal to the
temperature level, or set point. The thermostat acts as an inte- skeletal muscles. As a result, the body temperature does not
grator, or control center: It compares the sensor’s input with continue to increase above the set point. Conversely, when the
the set point and adjusts the heat output of the furnace to bring temperature-monitoring nerve cells detect a rise in body tem-
about the appropriate response to oppose a deviation from the perature above normal, cooling mechanisms such as sweating
set point. The furnace is the effector, the component of the are called into play to lower the temperature to normal. When
control system commanded to bring about the desired effect. the temperature reaches the set point, the cooling mechanisms
These general components of a negative-feedback control sys- are shut off. As with body temperature, opposing mechanisms
tem are summarized in ● Figure 1-8a. Carefully examine this can move most homeostatically controlled variables in either
figure and its key; the symbols and conventions introduced here direction as needed.
are used in comparable flow diagrams throughout the text.
Let us look at a typical negative-feedback loop. For example,
if the room temperature falls below the set point because it is Positive feedback amplifies an initial change.
cold outside, the thermostat, through connecting circuitry, ac- In negative feedback, a control system’s output is regulated to
tivates the furnace, which produces heat to raise the room resist change so that the controlled variable is kept at a rela-
temperature (● Figure 1-8b). Once the room temperature tively steady set point. With positive feedback, by contrast, the
Temperature
Integrator Thermostat control center
(negative
(sends instructions to) feedback
(negative (negative
shuts off
feedback) feedback)
system Skeletal muscles
Effector(s) responsible Furnace (and other effectors)
for response)
(brings about)
Heat production
Compensatory response Heat output through shivering and
other means
(results in)
KEY
Flow diagrams throughout the text
= Stimulates or activates
= Inhibits or shuts off
= Physical entity, such as body structure or a chemical
= Actions
= Compensatory pathway
= Turning off of compensatory pathway (negative feedback)
* Note that lighter and darker shades of the same color are
used to denote, respectively, a decrease or an increase in a
controlled variable.
output enhances or amplifies a change so that the controlled even more oxytocin, which causes even stronger uterine con-
variable continues to move in the direction of the initial tractions, triggering the release of more oxytocin, and so on.
change. Such action is comparable to the heat generated by a This positive-feedback cycle does not stop until the baby is fi-
furnace triggering the thermostat to call for even more heat nally born. Likewise, all other normal instances of positive-
output from the furnace so that the room temperature would feedback cycles in the body include some mechanism for stop-
continuously rise. ping the cycle.
Because the major goal in the body is to maintain stable,
homeostatic conditions, positive feedback does not occur nearly
as often as negative feedback. Positive feedback does play an Feedforward mechanisms initiate
important role in certain instances, however, as in birth of a responses in anticipation of a change.
baby. The hormone oxytocin causes powerful contractions of In addition to feedback mechanisms, which bring about a reac-
the uterus. As the contractions push the baby against the cervix tion to a change in a regulated variable, the body less frequently
(the exit from the uterus), the resultant stretching of the cervix employs feedforward mechanisms, which respond in anticipa-
triggers a sequence of events that brings about the release of tion of a change in a regulated variable. For example, when a
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REVIEW EXERCISES
P O I N T S TO P O N D E R
18 Chapter 1
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C L I N I C A L CO N S I D E R AT I O N
(Explanation on p. A-39) down the digestive tract. In what ways might this condition
threaten to disrupt homeostasis in Jennifer’s internal environ-
Jennifer R. has the “stomach flu” that is going around campus
ment? That is, what homeostatically maintained factors are
and has been vomiting profusely for the past 24 hours. Not
moved away from normal by her profuse vomiting? What
only has she been unable to keep down fluids or food but she
body systems respond to resist these changes?
has also lost the acidic digestive juices secreted by the stom-
ach that are normally reabsorbed back into the blood farther
Body Systems
Homeostasis
The specialized activities of the cells that
Body systems make up the body systems are aimed
at maintaining homeostasis, a dynamic
maintain homeostasis
steady state of the constituents in the
internal fluid environment.
Homeostasis is
essential for
survival of cells
Cells
Nucleus
Organelles
Cells make up
body systems
Plasma
membrane
Cytosol
Cells are the highly organized, living building blocks of the Through the coordinated action of these components, ev-
body. A cell has three major parts: the plasma membrane, ery cell performs certain basic functions essential to its own
which encloses the cell; the nucleus, which houses the cell’s survival and a specialized task that helps maintain homeosta-
genetic material; and the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm consists sis. Cells are organized according to their specialization into
of the cytosol, organelles, and cytoskeleton. The cytosol is a body systems that maintain the stable internal environment
gel-like liquid within which the organelles and cytoskeleton essential for the whole body’s survival. All body functions ulti-
are suspended. Organelles are discrete, well-organized struc- mately depend on the activities of the individual cells that
tures that carry out specialized functions. The cytoskeleton is a make up the body.
protein scaffolding that extends throughout the cell and
serves as the cell’s “bone and muscle.”
F
Quantitative Exercises,
Points to Ponder,
and Clinical Considerations
A-39
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May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.